This housing affordability primer addresses the critical decline in housing affordability in Sydney, particularly affecting lower-income households. It highlights three key levers for improvement: reducing land costs, exploring alternative funding and ownership models, and implementing innovative building approaches. The document emphasizes the necessity for a comprehensive strategy to mitigate housing stress and improve access to affordable housing options as the city's population continues to grow.

1. Housing Affordability Primer
Prepared by: Kimberley Crofts z3199999
PLAN7148 – STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING – 2019

2. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Housing Affordability Primer
This Primer has been prepared for the
incoming Housing Affordability Tsar for
NSW. We welcome this appointment to
address much needed reform.
Housing is a critical component of a
healthy and equal society (Emsley, et
al., 2008). Yet, the affordability of
housing in Sydney has declined sharply
in the past forty to fifty years, hitting
lower income households in middle to
outer-suburbs most acutely (Gleeson,
Low, 2000; Yates and Milligan et al.,
2007).
CONTENTS
Background & context ……………………………………….. 3
Levers for change ………………………………………………… 4
Reduce the upfront cost of land ………………….. 5
Alternative funding & ownership models …... 8
Innovative approaches to building ……………….11
Conclusion ……………………………………………………….... 14
References ………………………...………………………………. 15
2
We recognise the complexity of the situation,
due in part to the involvement of multiple
stakeholders across levels of government, the
private sector, and not-for-profit entities. This
primer seeks to address some of this complexity
and offer suggestions for ways forward. In
particular we focus on three levers:
1. Reducing the upfront cost of land
2. Alternative funding & ownership models
3. Innovative approaches to building.
The three sections of this primer address these
levers, and also give an overview of associated
key issues, best practices, and opportunities.
Whilst we have provided examples from
different Australian and international cities, it is
important to recognise the importance of local
context in the development of affordable
housing, primarily because of the highly variable
nature of policy and housing market
characteristics (Randolph, et al., 2018).

3. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Background & context
Sydney’s population is estimated to
grow by 1.74 million by 2036, resulting
in a need for an additional 725,000
homes across Sydney (NSW
Department of Planning, 2019).
Without a comprehensive affordable
housing strategy, the pressures of
increasing housing costs currently
experienced by lower income
households across Sydney are unlikely
to ease.
With lack of access to affordable housing
comes housing stress, which is particularly high
in Sydney, with an estimated 57.7 per cent of
lower income renter households in metropolitan
Sydney paying more than 30 per cent of total
household income on housing costs in the
period 2017 to 2018 (ABS, 2019).
Health implications related to housing stress
include a lack of nutrition as low income earners
cut back on essentials such as food, along with
more long-term mental health implications from
continued stress caused by instability in housing
(Singh et al., 2019; Yates, Milligan, 2007).
The location of housing can further embed
disadvantage because of reduced access to
transport and employment (Commonwealth of
Australia, 2014; Dodson, Sipe, 2008; Winter,
2013).
3
There have been multiple and high-profile claims
that housing supply is failing to keep up with
demand, and that this affects affordability
(Daley, et al., 2018; RBA, 2014). In response, the
NSW Premier has identified housing affordability
as one of 12 Premier’s Priorities, primarily
looking at increasing supply through fast
tracking of housing approvals and rezoning,
with aims to complete 61,000 houses by 2021
(NSW Government, 2019).
Research demonstrates, however, that blanket
increases in supply will have only modest
results, suggesting that there are more complex
and nuanced factors at play in the supply of
affordable housing (Ong et al., 2017; Pinnegar,
Randolph, 2012).

4. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Levers for change
This primer introduces three levers
aimed at reducing the gap between
what people can pay and what the
market or government can build. The
coordinated application of measures in
three related areas should see some
improvements in affordability.
LEVER 1: Reduce the upfront cost of land so
that affordable housing providers do not have to
compete with private developers.
LEVER 2: Provide a spectrum of funding
mechanisms to expand the capacity of a greater
range of low-income households to secure
affordable housing.
LEVER 3:Explore innovative models of building
that reduce upfront costs and help low-income
households enter the housing market.
4
LEVER 2
FUNDING
LEVER 1
LAND
LEVER 3
BUILDING

5. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Access to cheap land is a major barrier
to the development of affordable
housing (Randolph et al., 2018). In
Sydney, the trend has been for new
affordable housing to be built at a
distance from the city centre and areas
of highest employment as land toward
the centre has become more expensive
(Dodson, Sipe, 2008).
Since 2011, approximately $10 billion of
government-owned property assets
have been sold (Robertson, 2017). This
privatisation of previously public space
is a trend which appears likely to
continue.
KEY ISSUES
Land costs significantly add to long term
project costs for affordable housing
developers. The cost of land is approximately
15% of total housing costs for infill
developments and up to 23 per cent for
greenfield developments (URBIS, 2011). Whilst
this does not represent the most significant cost
for new buildings—construction can be up to 60
per cent—in markets such as Sydney this can be
a significant cost that affordable housing
developers must carry over the term of the
investment.
Attractiveness of short-term commercial
returns. The Coalition Government’s
privatisation agenda means that there is little
exploration of more long-term finance
arrangements that could be as, if not more,
financially beneficial than the cost of land
(Randolph, et al, 2018).
5
Reducing the upfront cost of land
LEVER 1
Whilst we do not begrudge a desire to
finance government services through
these sales, we believe there might be
an opportunity to think more creatively
around the provision, use and valuation
of public land in order to attract the
building of affordable homes where
they are most needed.

6. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Best practice
Community land Trusts (CLTs)
CLTs have been credited as providing
similar benefits to outright ownership such
as security of tenure (Crabtree et al., 2012;
Pinnegar, et al., 2008). Dedication of public
land to affordable housing has been used
by the cities of Port Phillip and Brisbane to
deliver significant results (Emsley et al.,
2008).
6
Land rent schemes for individuals
As part of the ACT Affordable Housing
Action Plan, households earning less than
$85,000 per annum were offered a
residential block of land to rent from the
government at two per cent of the land
value. This scheme enabled low income
households to reduce the deposit gap and
the overall cost of building a new home
The program aimed at providing for 1,000
households, and has subsequently been
opened up to the community housing
sector (Rowley et al., 2017).
LEVER 1: REDUCING THE UPFRONT COST OF LAND
Moncrieff West in Canberra has properties built as part of
the Land Rent Scheme (Photo: Spacelab)

7. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Opportunities
Reduce long-term project costs
through land contributions
Lessening the upfront cost of land will
reduce the overall cost of developing
affordable housing. This is because, unlike
for-profit developers who get immediate
return on or before completion, community
housing and affordable housing developers
are often required to spread their debt over
a longer period, meaning they often pay
more interest (Randolph, et al, 2018).
7
Government retains equity
Rather than outright sales of public land,
the government should consider retaining
equity in some developments in exchange
for the contribution of land. This is a more
long-term approach that could see
governments receive greater financial
rewards than one-off, short-term sales.
Treat land as a platform
for social good
This change of framing helps to place
greater importance on the long-term value
of land retention for public good (Parvin,
Reeve, 2019). With this in mind, it is
recommended that in locations where
affordable housing will have the most
impact, the government should reconsider
the need to achieve the ‘highest and best
use’ price for that land.
LEVER 1: REDUCING THE UPFRONT COST OF LAND

8. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Alternative funding & ownership models
8
LEVER 2
The great Australian dream of home
ownership may not benefit all
households equally, because too often,
low income households are forced to
buy properties of poor quality in
substandard locations (Dodson, Sipe,
2008).
Rather than assuming that people on
low incomes can or will want to own a
property outright, it is worth exploring
spectrums of ownership and equity
across the ‘housing continuum’ that
might provide similar benefits.
The discontinuation of the National Rental
Affordability Scheme (NRAS) has raised fears
of negative outcomes for low-income renters
(Aliento, 2018; Burke, 2018), especially when
compared to recent ABS figures which show
that housing costs as a proportion of income
are rising for renters (ABS, 2019).
Inclusionary planning and planning bonuses
provide insufficient affordable housing. In the
UK, inclusionary planning requirements delivered
43 per cent of total affordable housing output
compared to just 1 per cent in Sydney (Emsley
et al., 2008; Gurran et al., 2018; Rowley, 2015).
Shared equity arrangements are highly
dependent on market stability. When markets
slowed in the late 1980s, NSW households with
HomeFund loans found that they owed more
money than their home was worth (Public
Interest Advocacy Centre, 2017). Greater caution
in this state toward shared equity schemes has
been attributed to this (Pinnegar, et al., 2008).
KEY ISSUES
Home ownership has become out of reach for
many. The borrowing capacity of households
has not grown at the same rate as the cost of
housing (Pinnegar et al., 2008; Yates and
Milligan et al., 2007). Structural factors, in
particular, have been linked to the lack of
pathways for lower-income households to home
ownership (Yates and Milligan et al., 2007).
Demand-side incentives affect affordability.
Mechanisms which increase the purchasing
power of first home buyers can drive up the
price of houses unless there is a corresponding
increase in supply (Karp, 2019; Pascoe, 2013;
Pinnegar et al., 2008; Yates, 2017). Moreover,
international research has shown that there has
been little increase in the supply of affordable
housing in countries where individual household
subsidies were the only mechanism applied
(Rowley et al., 2016).

9. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Best practice
Government retained equity
In Western Australia, the state government
has taken an equity share from a private
developer in return for the contribution of
the land (Randolph, et al, 2018). As the
government is able to draw on the value of
the housing along with onsite asset sales,
the return on this arrangement has far
exceed what they would have received from
the outright sale of the land.
Cooperative housing
This is a popular model in countries which
value collectivisation (Crabtree et al., 2019).
Co-ops account for 10 to 15 per cent of
housing in Sweden, Norway and Germany,
but just 0.05 per cent of the total housing
sector in Australia (SBS, 2013).
9
Nightingale Housing model
The ‘Nightingale Covenant’ caps profits at
15 per cent and is based around the offer of
perpetual affordability. Development costs
are reduced where possible, and ongoing
costs for residents are reduced through
sustainable building design. Nightingale
chooses owners by ballot and gives
preference to key workers and Indigenous
people (Cumming, 2018; Nightingale
Housing, 2018).
LEVER 2: ALTERNATIVE FUNDING AND OWNERSHIP MODELS
Nightingale 1 in Brunswick, Melbourne
(Photo: Nightingale Housing)

10. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Opportunities
Encourage the Federal Government
to resume the National Rental
Affordability Scheme
Community Housing advocates have called
for its reinstatement as part of a cohesive
affordable housing strategy (Aliento, 2018;
Burke, 2018). If reinstated, it is suggested
that the flat-rate of the subsidy should be
altered to take into account spatial aspects
to affordability, as the funding gap in high
cost locations cannot always be met
through the subsidy (Randolph et al., 2018).
10
Combine shared equity with
reductions in land costs
To reduce the impact of market changes to
the value of homes within shared equity
schemes (such as with HomeFund), the
overall cost of the property should be
lessened, potentially through land rent
schemes as proposed in the previous
section.
Increase levels of cooperative
housing
There is scope for NSW to further promote
the use of cooperative models to provide
affordable housing (Emsley, et al., 2008).
The sector in NSW could be assisted
through scaling back recent changes to the
income and asset tests for residents.
Previously there was an allocation of 35 per
cent of residents who did not have to meet
any eligibility requirements, meaning a
greater diversity of residents and higher
revenues for the co-ops (Crabtree et al.,
2019).
LEVER 2: ALTERNATIVE FUNDING AND OWNERSHIP MODELS

11. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Innovative approaches to building
11
LEVER 3
There are multiple barriers to people
with low incomes entering the formal
housing market (Gurran et al., 2019).
Although the high cost of purchasing a
home is a major factor, it is also worth
noting that there have been few
changes to the models of affordable
housing supply—including how the
homes themselves are built—especially
in light of dramatic demographic shifts
in Australia’s population (Milligan et al.,
2014). This means that even if there are
sufficient affordable homes, they are
not necessarily meeting the needs of
our current population.
Ongoing costs of maintenance of low-cost
buildings. Residents of housing built at low cost
are often beset with significant costs for
heating, cooling, and maintenance because of
the poor quality of the build (Gibbs, 2017).
Lack of variety in housing types in areas of
most need. The provision of a diverse range of
housing creates affordability for a diverse range
of people (Rowley, Phibbs, 2012). Yet in Sydney,
detached dwellings dominate suburbs of
disadvantage, with apartments tending toward
areas of greater advantage such as the CBD or
along transport nodes (Hulse, et al., 2014).
KEY ISSUES
Informal dwelling construction is on the
increase but doesn’t always comply. According
to Gurran et al., higher levels of informal housing
are being built across Sydney to match the
undersupply of cheaper housing—and lack of
flexibility in building types—yet many of these do
not comply with the planning system and
building codes (Gurran et al., 2019). This raises
issues of safety, health, privacy and general
liveability for occupants.

12. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Best practice
Direct relationships between
council and home owner
People on low incomes in Almere in the
Netherlands can buy land from the local
council and then choose from a range of
ready-made homes to place on their plot, or
design their own based on some official
design principles. Over 3,000 homes are
planned for this region (Feary, 2015;
NACSBA, 2019).
Greater levels of self-build
The UK Government’s National Planning
Policy Framework stipulates that councils
must provide for the self-build market,
noting that it could be a key in the provision
of affordable housing (Ministry of Housing,
Communities and Local Government,
2019).
12
‘Half a House’ concept
This is a model where homeowners are
provided with the bare basics of a home for
an affordable price, allowing them the
space to expand through self-build as and
when they have the resources to do so
(Turner, 1972). This model was put into play
when affordable ‘half houses’ were sold to
earthquake survivors in Conception, Chile
(Zilliacus, 2016).
Building community capacity
The Lockhart River Aboriginal Shire Council
has used funding from the federal
government's National Partnership
Agreement on Remote Indigenous Housing
(NPARIH) to upskill local people to build
their own houses (Mounter, 2019).
LEVER 2: INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO BUILDING
Vila Verde in Conception Chile – A ‘Half a House’ model.
(Photo: Arch Daily)

13. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Opportunities
Allow for the building of more
flexible housing
Traditional models of family houses do not
allow the flexibility required of today’s
families. Principles of flexibility could be
engaged to allow for expansion and
contraction over time. We suggest that the
Tsar could assist councils to take a more
proactive stance on the revision of building
codes to allow for greater flexibility.
13
Consider ongoing costs when
measuring affordability
Gibbs suggests that affordability as a
concept needs reframing to include the
ongoing costs paid by households through
their tenure (Gibbs, 2017). This includes
payment for electricity, insurance and
maintenance, a significant cost for some
when buildings are of poor quality. This
would need to work in concert with
measures to alleviate the extra costs
associated with the use of quality materials
and building techniques.
Ensure affordable housing does
not further embed disadvantage
Climate resilience means building homes
which will protect occupants from rising
heat and other effects of climate change.
Sustainable buildings will reduce ongoing
costs to residents (Emsley, et al., 2008).
Reinvigorate self-build traditions
Australia has a long tradition of self-build,
and as late as 2003, NSW offered a
self-build subsidy (Crabtree, 2018). There
may be capacity for the government to
partner with an organisation such as
Habitat for Humanity Australia who offer
reduced rate home loans in return for
‘sweat equity’ during construction (Habitat
for Humanity, 2018).
LEVER 2: INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO BUILDING

14. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
Conclusion
14
A range of challenges and opportunities
have been introduced here while by no
means comprehensive, should offer a
source of inspiration to the incoming Tsar
as they tackle this crisis in housing
affordability. A lack of appetite of
successive governments to consider and
provide affordable housing has contributed
to this crisis, as has the complexity involved
in coordinating responses across levels of
government and with the non-profit and
private sectors on which the responsibility
of provision of most affordable housing has
been placed.
If there were to be one overarching
recommendation it would be for the
creation of a governance framework for
housing affordability—consisting of the the
levers mentioned in this paper— which can
encompass and guide the navigation of this
complex system. As, without sufficient
policy and responsibilities it will be difficult
to achieve the aims of providing affordable
housing to all.
It is worth stressing that societal goals of
greater housing affordability will not be
reached by simple solutions. Different
households experience housing affordability
problems in different ways, so what is
suitable for one household may not be so
for another. Policy responses will therefore
need to be varied, integrated, and
cross-governmental (Yates, Milligan, 2007).
This effort will be worth it, however, as
housing is such a critical component of a
healthy and equal society (Emsley, et al.,
2008). In addition, the government should
benefit from the financial savings from less
spend on other services—such as mental
health—which are related to the housing
stress experienced by many people on low
incomes.

15. KIMBERLEY CROFTS – Z3199999 – UNSW STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING ASSIGNMENT 2
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