This doctoral thesis examined the effectiveness of cognitive restructuring and rational emotive counselling techniques in remediating proneness to violent behaviors among secondary school students in Katsina, Nigeria. The study utilized a pre-test post-test control group design with a sample of 240 students from 8 secondary schools. Students were assigned to cognitive restructuring, rational emotive, and control groups. Both treatment groups received 8 sessions of their respective interventions while the control received no treatment. Results from assessments of proneness to violence pre-and post-intervention were statistically analyzed to determine the effectiveness of the treatments on reducing violent behaviors.

1. i
USMANU DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO
(POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL)
EFFECTIVENESS OF COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING AND
RATIONAL EMOTIVE COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES IN
REMEDIATING PRONENESS TO VIOLENT BEHAVIOURS AMONG
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN KATSINA METROPOLIS
A Thesis Submitted to the Postgraduate School
USMANU DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO, NIGERIA
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for Award of the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING)
By
YAHAYA, Shehu Tsagem
Adm. No. 10311407002
Department of Educational Foundations
OCTOBER, 2014

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DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to my entire family.
It is also dedicated to all my teachers who have ever taught me.

3. iii
CERTIFICATION
This Thesis by Shehu Yahaya Tsagem Adm. No. (10311407002) has met the
requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Guidance and
Counselling) of the Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, and is approved for its
contribution to knowledge.
Dr. Raliya Muh’d Bello Prof. M. U. Tambawal
External Supervisor Major Supervisor
Prof. A. M. Isah (MFR) Dr. M. L. Mayanchi
Co – Supervisor I Co – Supervisor II
Prof. A. M. Isah (MFR)
H. O. D. (Educational Foundations)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of Allah the Beneficent the Merciful. All praises be to Almighty Allah
(SWT) for making this work a reality. I thank Him for granting me the knowledge,
effort, health, will and the chance to see the completion of this work. And I continue to
pray for His guidance in my future aspirations and also to bless this accomplishment of
mine at this point in time.
My special thanks go to my major supervisor; Prof. M. U. Tambawal, co-
supervisor I; Prof. A. M. Isah (MFR) and co-supervisor II; Dr. M. L. Mayanchi, who
have each in their own efforts sacrifice their times to look at the work in their highly
tight schedules. Mention need not be made as to how their constructive contributions
had helped craft the direction of my research. I also recognize how they have patiently
listened to my incessant questions, went through my work with an eagle eye and
offered professional advice. Above all, I was deeply moved with how each of them had
attended to me with patience, understanding and supportive parental encouragements.
As a student I hope to model many of the attributes I have witnessed in you and
eulogizing the contributions you have made to my program will be for many years to
come. My special thanks also go to Dr. Raliya M. Bello (External Supervisor) whose
constructive contributions had helped craft the direction of the study.
My gratitude also goes to Prof. A. A. Salawu. I cannot help but think of you as the
consummate professional who is a real champion for the students you work with. My
appreciations also go to all lecturers of Faculty of Education and Extension Services
and particularly of the Educational Foundations Department of UDUS especially Prof.

5. v
F. A. Kalgo, Prof. M. G. Mahuta and Dr. M. A. Yusha’u of the Department of Science
and Vocational Education. You have provided a great deal of encouragement and
support to me, taken a real interest in my development as a scholar, provided me with
multiple opportunities for expanding my horizons. No matter what question I came to
you with, you always took the time to help me and never failed to offer sound
guidance.
My appreciation and thanks go to the former and the present Departmental PG
coordinators in person of Dr. S. D. Manga and Dr. H. S. Abubakar respectively; their
hard work, administrative planning and dedication is impressively contagious and
proved most helpful to all students who graduated during their tenures. As you have
helped others, I pray that may success continue to result in all your endeavors.
I would like to thank my family for their love, support, and understanding,
especially my Mother who though did not fully grasp the meaning of what I was doing
was always showering her blessings and prayers. My sisters and brothers (Abdullahi,
Nana A’isha and Nana Fiddausi to mention but a few) whose belief in me is a great
source of an external motivation for me to carry on with whatever I am doing. My
gratitude also goes to my entire in-laws family for their support and understanding
during this endeavour. My admirable recognition especially goes to my Wife (Badiyya)
who despite the trials of separation for the duration of my degree and the ensuing
difficulties, her support and understanding has never wavered. I could never have
undertaken something of this magnitude without her being there for me. My gratitude
cannot be fully expressed in words and so I simply say thank you. My

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acknowledgements also goes to my children; Muhammad, Safiyya, Abdurra’uf,
Khalifa and Yusuf; who were always disappointed whenever I am leaving for Sokoto,
which has been especially tough. But, I must say that I found respite from the rigors of
work by their insistent enthusiasm to help me with my computer work, whenever I got
a chance to work at home.
My profound gratitude and special thanks go to Mal. Abbas Mahmud, Mal. Isma’il
‘Liman’ J. Ishaq, Mal. Nuhu J. Ishaq, Eng. Zakariya’u Balarabe and their family at
Gidan Sule, UDU Sokoto. There is no doubt in my mind that they made the process a
lot less stressful for me than it would have been without their immeasurable support
and assistance. The jokes and camaraderie will be cherished forever. Words cannot
easily explain how I value all you have been doing for me.
Many appreciations also go to all the principals, counsellors and other staff in the
schools I administered my instruments, for the support they gave me in the general
processes involved in the study and for collecting data, against their tight work
schedules. My simple thank you means a lot.
Many thanks go to all my dear friends Aminu Rabe, Yusuf A. Kaita, Abubakar ‘JJ’
Mohd, Abba Mohd K/Soro, Abdullahi B. Umar, Abubakar ‘Yanshuni’ Ma’aruf,
Haruna ‘Mainasara’ Yakubu etc. who has shown me the meaning of friendship and for
their support and encouragements throughout not only this degree but my entire
education. A big thank to my fellow course mate, Haj. Fatima B. Musa (Mrs),
confidant and to all whose discussions and criticisms have proven invaluable to me. To
all who have ever helped me in whatever way or wish me well in life, I am greatly and

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truly thankful. Last but by no means the least, my appreciation go to my Computer for
helping me out by pointedly showing my mistakes or offering help when I dearly need
it.
Alhamdu Lillahi Rabbil Alamin.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page ……………………………………………………………………………i
Dedication …………………………………………………………………………..ii
Certification …………………………………………………………………………iii
Acknowledgements …..……………………………………………………………...iv
Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………...viii
List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………..xii
List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………….xv
Abstract ………….…………………………………………………………………..xvi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study……………………………………...………………….1
1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………...…………………7
1.3 Objectives of the Study ………………………………………………..……….10
1.4 Research Questions…...……………………………………...………………....12
1.5 Research Hypotheses……………………………………………………………14
1.6 Significance of the Study…………………………………………………..…...15
1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study……………………………...……………17
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms ……………………………………………….18
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………..19
2.2 Conceptual Framework on Cognitive Restructuring (CR) …………………..20
2.2.1 Common Types of Thought and Belief Mistakes …………………………...25
2.2.2 The Cognitive Restructuring Process of Thought Recording Strategy ……..30
2.2.3 Features of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy ………………………………..34

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2.2.4 The Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Process ………………………………35
2.3 Conceptual Framework On Rational Emotive Behaviour Technique …….36
2.3.1 Basic Principles of Rational Emotive Counselling Technique …………….42
2.3.2 Core Irrational Ideas at the Root of most Neurotic Disturbances……….....45
2.3.3 Elusive Concepts of Rational and Irrational Beliefs ……………………...46
2.3.4 Differences between REC and other Schools of Psychotherapy …………48
2.3.5 Ellis’s A-B-C-D-E Technique …………………………………………….50
2.4 Conceptual and Theoretical Framework On Violent Behaviour ………….52
2.4.1 Development of Aggression ………………………………………………56
2.4.2 Development of Aggression in Adolescent Delinquency ………………...58
2.4.2.1 Early-Onset Type …………………………………………………………..59
2.4.2.2 Late-Onset Type ……………………………………………………………60
2.4.3 Factors Leading to Aggressive Behaviour …………………………………62
2.4.3.1 The Family as Training Ground …………………………………………....62
2.4.3.2 Violent Media and Aggression ……………………………………………..63
2.4.3.3 Drug Abuse/Use and Violent Behaviour …………………………………...65
2.5 Theoretical Framework on Cognitive Restructuring (CR) ………………...67
2.5.1 Theoretical Framework On Rational Emotive Technique (RET) …………73
2.6 Applicability and Suitability of CR and REB in Nigerian Context ………..76
2.7 Review of Related Empirical Studies ………………………………………78
2.8 Summary and Uniqueness of the Study …………………………………….95

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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction...………………………………………………………………..101
3.2 Research Design…........................................................................................101
3.3 Population of the Study……………………….……………………………..102
3.4 Samples and Sampling Techniques………………………………………….102
3.5 Instrument for Data Collection………….…………………………………...104
3.5.1 Validity of the Adopted Instrument………………………………………....106
3.5.2 Reliability of the Adopted Instrument……………………………………….107
3.6 Procedure for Intervention………………………………………………......107
3.7 Method of Data Collection………..…………………………………………111
3.7.1 Procedure for Scoring the Instrument .……………………………………...111
3.8 Procedure for Data Analysis ……………………………………………......112
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………114
4.2 Descriptive Data ……………………………………………………………....114
4.3 Analysis of the Research Questions ………………………………………......117
4.4 Hypotheses Testing ……………………………………………………………126
4.5 Summary of Findings ………………………………………………………....140
4.6 Discussion of Findings ………………………………………………………..141
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………...157
5.2 Summary of the Study ……………….………………………………………..157
5.3 Conclusions …………………………………………………………………....158

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5.4 Implications for Counselling ……………………………………………….....158
5.5 Recommendations …………………………………………………………......161
5.6 Suggestions for Further Research ……………………………………………..163
References………………………………………………………………………....165
Appendices………………………………………………………………………...180

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.2.1: A 3x2 Factorial Design of the Study …………………………………102
Table 3.4.1: The Schools and the Distribution of the Sampled Participants……….104
Table 4.3.1: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of the Treatment
Groups ………………………………………………………………...117
Table 4.3.2: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of the Cognitive
Restructuring Treatment Group ………………………………………118
Table 4.3.3: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of the Rational
Emotive Behaviour Treatment Group ………………………………..119
Table 4.3.4: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of Male Students for
the Cognitive Restructuring Treatment Group ……………………….120
Table 4.3.5: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of Female Students
for the Cognitive Restructuring Treatment Group …………………...120
Table 4.3.6: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of Male Students for
the Rational Emotive Behaviour Treatment Group ………………….121
Table 4.3.7: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of Female Students
for the Rational Emotive Behaviour Treatment Group ……………...122
Table 4.3.8: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of Male and Female
Students for the Cognitive Restructuring Treatment Group …………123
Table 4.3.9: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of Male and Female
Students for the Rational Emotive Behaviour Treatment Group ……123
Table 4.3.10: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of Cognitive
Restructuring Technique Group and the Control Group ……………124
Table 4.3.11: Group Statistics for Proneness to Violent Behaviour of Rational Emotive
Behaviour Technique Group and the Control Group ……………….125
Table 4.4.1: Difference between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Treatment
Groups ……………………………………………………………...126

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Table 4.4.2: ANCOVA Result of the Effect of the CR and RET Treatments among
Students …………………………………………………………...127
Table 4.4.3: Difference between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Group
Exposed to Cognitive Restructuring Technique …………………127
Table 4.4.4: ANCOVA Result of the Effect of Cognitive Restructuring Treatment
among Students …………………………………………………..128
Table 4.4.5: Difference between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Group
Exposed to Rational Emotive Technique ……………………….129
Table 4.4.6: ANCOVA Result of the Effect of Rational Emotive Treatment among
Students …………………………………………………………..129
Table 4.4.7: Difference between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Male Group
Exposed to Cognitive Restructuring Technique ………………...130
Table 4.4.8: ANCOVA Result of the Effect of Cognitive Restructuring Treatment
among Male Students …………………………………………...131
Table 4.4.9: Difference between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Female
Group Exposed to Cognitive Restructuring Technique ………...132
Table 4.4.10: ANCOVA Result of the Effect of Cognitive Restructuring Treatment
among Female Students ………………………………………...132
Table 4.4.11: Difference between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Male Group
Exposed to Rational Emotive Technique ……………………...133
Table 4.4.12: ANCOVA Result of the Effect of Rational Emotive Treatment among
Male Students …………………………………………………..134
Table 4.4.13: Difference between the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores of the Female
Group Exposed to Rational Emotive Technique ……………..135
Table 4.4.14: ANCOVA Result of the Effect of Rational Emotive Treatment among
Female Students ……………………………………………….135
Table 4.4.15: Difference between the Post-Tests Scores of the Male and Female
Students Exposed to Cognitive Restructuring Technique ……136

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Table 4.4.16: Difference between the Post-Tests Scores of the Male and Female
Students Exposed to Rational Emotive Behavior Counselling Technique
…………………………………………………………………137
Table 4.4.16: Difference between the Post-Tests Scores of the Group Treated with
Cognitive Restructuring (CR) Technique and the Control Group…138
Table 4.4.18: Difference between the Post-Tests Scores of the Group Treated with
Rational Emotive Behaviour (REB) Technique and the Control
Group………………………………………………………………...139

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.2.1: Pre-Test Scores of Participants across the Groups ………………114
Figure 4.2.2: Post-Test Scores of Participants across the Groups ……………..115
Figure 4.2.3: Pre-Test Scores of Participants Based on Gender ……………….116
Figure 4.2.4: Post-Test Scores of Participants Based on Gender ……………...116

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Abstract
The study was motivated by the kinds and types of violent behaviours being exhibited
by students and the relentless quest for solutions to such problems. Thus, it analyzed
the effectiveness of Cognitive Restructuring (CR) and Rational Emotive Counselling
(REC) techniques in remediating proneness to violent behaviour among secondary
school students in Katsina metropolis. Four hypotheses were raised for the study
among which are that there is no significant difference between the pre-test and post-
test scores of the treatment groups to remediate proneness to violent behaviour and also
that there is no significant difference between the post-test scores of the male and
female students exposed to cognitive restructuring technique in their proneness to
violent behaviour. The research design employed was pre-test post-test quasi-
experimental classification with three levels of treatment. A sample size of 120
subjects was purposively drawn from a population of 18, 814 students from secondary
schools in Katsina state Ministry of Education. The instrument used for data collection
was an adapted version of the Violence Proneness Scale (VPS) developed by Tarter,
Kirisci, Vanyukov, Cornelius, Pajer, Shoal, and Giancola, (2002). With the use of
paired samples t-test and an independent samples t-test, results revealed that there is an
observed difference in the effectiveness of the treatment groups in remediating
proneness to violent behaviour and also that there is an observed effectiveness in
remediating proneness to violent behaviour among male and female students exposed
to rational emotive technique with REC emerging as the best option. One of the
counseling implications of this study is that counsellors should use office disciplinary
data to guide interventions because those data can show the frequency of proneness to
violent behaviours, the locations of problems, the types of violent problems, the
students involved, and the staff members who are making referrals. One of the
recommendations offered was that rational emotive technique should be best utilized in
remediating proneness to violent behaviour among both male and female students as it
has proven most efficient.