Opportunities for learning from
crises in projects
Markus Hällgren and Timothy L. Wilson
Umeå School of Business, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate how individuals in projects learn from crises.
Design/methodology/approach – The multiple-case protocol described by Yin and his six sources
of evidence were utilized. Observations were contemporaneous and somewhere between direct and
participative. Bias was avoided by having the observer on site, but not part of the project team. A diary
recorded events; company notes and records substantiated observations.
Findings – The study contributes to the understanding of the need that project managers have to
adapt to changes from plan and the coincidental learning that occurs in the workplace. Both cumulative
and abrupt crises treated by project/site teams and corporate staff are described. A necessary and
sufficiency approach was used to rationalize the organizational learning. The necessary condition was
that the episodes could be described in terms used by Gherardi in her treatment of routine learning. As a
sufficiency condition, the authors discussed the systemic approach in which these episodes are handled.
Research limitations/implications – Because research was built on case studies, one has the
reservations commonly associated with this approach. Extension from and agreement with previous
studies, however, lend to acceptance of the study.
Practical implications – Results suggest that crises can be managed in accordance with four general
responses associated with learning within the organization. The responses themselves are associated
with five organizational practices that aid management in general.
Originality/value – The value of the work is that it extends basic concepts of organizational learning
to treating crises in projects, which are both by definition unique.
Keywords Project management, Learning organizations
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
“A crisis is a terrible thing to waste”, a quote attributed to Vinod Khosia to Larry Page,
founders of Google (Vaitheeswaran, 2007). In this case, the quote was associated with
carmakers’ addiction to oil and the consequential warming of the planet. We, however,
tend to agree with the general premise. Implicit in this approach to crises is that each of
them carries with them an opportunity, specifically the opportunity to learn from them.
In a study of deviations from plans in projects (Hällgren, 2004, 2007, 2009), we have
noted that some of these deviations rise to the level of crises (Hällgren and Wilson, 2007,
2008a,b).Inthiscase,thespecialcaseofprojects,crisesaredefinedasthosedeviationsthat
interrupt progress along the critical path of the project so as to interfere with contractual
obligations in timing and/or costs. Deviations along sub-critical paths that make those
paths critical of course also become crises. Clearly, this topic is important for two reasons..
O R I G I N A L P A P E RAn Engineering Dilemma Sustainab.docxhopeaustin33688
O R I G I N A L P A P E R
An Engineering Dilemma: Sustainability in the Eyes
of Future Technology Professionals
S. Haase
Received: 26 June 2012 / Accepted: 4 November 2012 / Published online: 30 November 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2012
Abstract The ability to design technological solutions that address sustainability
is considered pivotal to the future of the planet and its people. As technology
professionals engineers are expected to play an important role in sustaining society.
The present article aims at exploring sustainability concepts of newly enrolled
engineering students in Denmark. Their understandings of sustainability and the role
they ascribe to sustainability in their future professional practice is investigated by
means of a critical discourse analysis including metaphor analysis and semiotic
analysis. The sustainability construal is considered to delimit possible ways of
dealing with the concept in practice along the engineering education pathway and in
professional problem solving. Five different metaphors used by the engineering
students to illustrate sustainability are identified, and their different connotative and
interpretive implications are discussed. It is found that sustainability represents a
dilemma to the engineering students that situates them in a tension between their
technology fascination and the blame they find that technological progress bears.
Their sustainability descriptions are collected as part of a survey containing among
other questions one open-ended, qualitative question on sustainability. The survey
covers an entire year group of Danish engineering students in the first month of their
degree study.
Keywords Sustainability � Technology � Societal challenges �
Qualitative analysis � Survey analysis
S. Haase (&)
The Danish Centre for Studies in Research and Research Policy, School of Business and Social
Sciences, Aarhus University, Finlandsgade 4, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]
123
Sci Eng Ethics (2013) 19:893–911
DOI 10.1007/s11948-012-9417-0
Introduction
One of the main prejudices about engineers—and a serious obstacle for young
people taking up the engineering profession—is that engineers pave the world
with asphalt, create pollution, and generally wreck the environment.
(Henriksen 2006, 44.)
Technology is often expected to hold the potential key to overcome—or at least
make bearable—a range of the environmental, social and economic issues that
humanity must tackle. The list of such societal challenges threatening the existence
of present societies, living conditions, and environment is long. Since the so-called
Brundtland report (United Nations 1987), the need to address these challenges
systematically and in international coordination has been on the public agenda.
(Lozano 2008; Carew and Mitchell 2002, 2008; Jamison 2012; UN 1987). The
balancing of different elements of sustainability and practical operationalisation.
This document discusses factors that limit and facilitate curriculum implementation. It begins by defining key concepts like innovation, curriculum, and implementation. It then contrasts two approaches to implementation: the programmed approach, which aims to clearly specify the innovation, and the adaptive-evolutionary approach, which accepts the innovation will change during implementation. Research finds the latter may be more effective for complex innovations. Successful implementations attend to all dimensions of change, adapt to local contexts, and involve practitioners in the process.
Bazerman, M., & Moore, D. (2013) Judgment in managerial decision m.docxikirkton
Bazerman, M., & Moore, D. (2013) Judgment in managerial decision making
Chapter 6, 7
[INSERT TITLE HERE] 1
Running head: [INSERT TITLE HERE]
[INSERT TITLE HERE]
Student Name
Allied American University
Author Note
This paper was prepared for [INSERT COURSE NAME], [INSERT COURSE ASSIGNMENT] taught by [INSERT INSTRUCTOR’S NAME].
GEO 207: Global Geography
Module 4 Homework Assignment
PART I: answer with 100 words or more.
Since 2001, the role of the United States in the world has been at times championed as well as criticized; we are either loved or hated, so it seems. Speculate on the “standing” of America in the world today: are we still a superpower or have we lost our strength? Consider such important events as the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks, the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, issues pertaining to illegal immigration, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and our response to ISIS as well as Russian aggression in the Ukraine.
PART II – SHORT RESEARCH PAPER
Directions: Please search for two research articles that will serve as the basis for your homework this week.
Research the history of your family as far back as you can. Determine at what point your family moved to the United States and for what reasons (which is hallmark of cultural geography). Include the following:
When did your family originally arrive in the United States?
Where did they settle?
What reasons do you know or think that they settled for?
What social processes from your ancestors’ home country (e.g., unemployment, religious persecution) drove them to the United States? Did any other factors compel your family to move to the United States (e.g., poor economic conditions in the home country, frequent natural disasters, etc).
Your essay should be 2-3 pages, double-spaced, and APA-formatted.
My last name is DeWindt. It is Dutch origin. The rest you can research or make up as long as it is realistic.
191
how selF-JusTiFicaTion indirecTlY drives escalaTion oF commiTmenT
sbr 66 april 2014 191–222
dominik steinkühler/matthias d. mahlendorf/malte brettel*
how self-JusTifiCaTion indireCTly drives esCalaTion of
CommiTmenT – a moTivaTional perspeCTive**
absTraCT
self-justification is the most examined and empirically supported explanation of esca-
lation of commitment. based on motivated reasoning theory, we argue that the need
for self-justification affects escalation of commitment indirectly via other cognitive pro-
cesses. we suggest that the need for self-justification represents a strong motivation
for the continuation of a failing project. Thus, it influences the decision maker’s selec-
tive perception, sunk cost effect, and overoptimism, which in turn foster escalation of
commitment. we investigate escalation in the venture capital industry and thereby – in
addition to our theoretical contribution – strengthen the external validity of previous
studies in the laboratory.
Jel classification: m10, G24, G30.
Keyword ...
The Diffusion And Implementation of InnovationCSCJournals
In their efforts to try and meet the requirements of the ‘new economy’, corporations would be helped with a conceptual framework in which their innovative business models are combined with new perceptions of knowledge creation, the diffusion and implementation of innovations and change management. To come up with adequate problem analyses and (business) solutions for the complex issues they address, corporations need not only technological knowledge, but also have to gain insight into how technologies relate to the values of people, and how they can be implemented successfully. Action research set up in the form of reciprocal Human Resource Management projects is particularly designed to create solutions and implement strategies that cover this whole spectrum. In a corporate effort of academic researchers and experts in the field, technological and practical knowledge and skills are integrated in a mutual learning and knowledge creation process aimed at the implementation of innovative solutions. With that, it provides an answer to the call for a new knowledge and innovation paradigm that serves to support the ‘new economy’.
P
A
P
E
R
S
December 2008 � Project Management Journal � DOI: 10.1002/pmj 5
Why Do Projects Fail?
Project failure rates are certainly cause for concern, but consider that more
and more organizations are adopting a project-based model of organization,
called PBO, and it is not surprising to find that addressing failures and learning
from them has become increasingly important (Eden, Ackermann, & Williams,
2005; Gray & Larson, 2006; Hyvari, 2006; Robertson & Williams, 2006; Thiry &
Deguire, 2007).
Failures occur despite the fact that we have significantly improved the
process of planning, executing, and controlling projects. Two contributions
would include the Project Management Institute’s (PMI’s) A Guide to the
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (2004) and the
literature on critical success factors (CSFs) (Cooke-Davies, 2002; Fortune &
White, 2006; Hyvari, 2006; Pinto & Slevin, 1987; Sutterfield, Friday-Stroud,
& Shivers-Blackwell, 2006).
To help us understand how projects fail, it may be useful to classify the
approaches represented by the PMBOK® Guide, Capability Maturity Model
Integration (CMMI), Earned Value Management (EVM), Critical Chain
Project Management (CCPM), and CSFs as the Rational Expectation view
of project management. They assume that project leaders follow a rational
and consistent approach to project management and strive to achieve spe-
cific organizational goals (Bazerman, 1994; Beach & Connolly, 2005). It is a
view that emphasizes what “should” be done. Argyris (1999) referred to this
as the “espoused” theory of individuals and organizations.
There is, however, another view, and it focuses on the way in which indi-
viduals within an organization actually behave and make decisions.
Borrowing from the work of Simon (1955) and Tversky and Kahneman (1974,
1981), it can be classified as the “behavioral” view of project management. It
emphasizes what individuals and groups “actually” do and how managers
make decisions involving values and risk preferences (Bazerman, 1994).
Argyris (1999) called this the “theory-in-practice.”
This article focuses on the behavioral view of project management and
how an understanding of systematic biases—those common to the human
decision-making process—can prove useful in diagnosing project failure. By
studying these systematic biases, we can learn how decision makers respond
to ambiguity, complexity, and uncertainty, as well as how their own particu-
lar psychological processes influence project decision making (Schwenk,
1984). From this behavioral view we can learn more about why management
approves an overly ambitious scope, why communications between teams is
limited, why a manager might ignore signs that the project is going badly, or
why a manager discourages the participation of a wider constituency in the
project management process.
The article begins with a framework for analyzing project outcomes,
introduces the systematic biases commonly associated with d.
A Maturity Model For Integrating Sustainability In Projects And Project Manag...Arlene Smith
This document presents a maturity model for integrating sustainability into projects and project management. The model assesses the level of consideration given to sustainability in terms of resources, processes, business models, and products/services. The model is based on the key concepts of sustainability - integrating economic, environmental and social aspects; integrating short and long-term aspects; and consuming income rather than capital. By using this model, organizations can benchmark their maturity in sustainable practices and monitor their progress over time in translating abstract sustainability concepts into concrete actions.
This research proposal aims to use concepts from chaos theory to predict project outcomes through aligning project and team objectives. The researcher will apply the concept of self-similarity in fractals to demonstrate how sustained alignment of project goals and personal goals of project managers and teams can optimize cost outcomes. The proposal provides background on definitions of project success, highlighting differences between project management success and overall project success. It also reviews literature on high failure rates of projects in various sectors such as IT, defense acquisition, and infrastructure. The researcher proposes investigating how chaos theory concepts can be applied to model project dynamics and determine basins of possible project outcomes.
O R I G I N A L P A P E RAn Engineering Dilemma Sustainab.docxhopeaustin33688
O R I G I N A L P A P E R
An Engineering Dilemma: Sustainability in the Eyes
of Future Technology Professionals
S. Haase
Received: 26 June 2012 / Accepted: 4 November 2012 / Published online: 30 November 2012
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2012
Abstract The ability to design technological solutions that address sustainability
is considered pivotal to the future of the planet and its people. As technology
professionals engineers are expected to play an important role in sustaining society.
The present article aims at exploring sustainability concepts of newly enrolled
engineering students in Denmark. Their understandings of sustainability and the role
they ascribe to sustainability in their future professional practice is investigated by
means of a critical discourse analysis including metaphor analysis and semiotic
analysis. The sustainability construal is considered to delimit possible ways of
dealing with the concept in practice along the engineering education pathway and in
professional problem solving. Five different metaphors used by the engineering
students to illustrate sustainability are identified, and their different connotative and
interpretive implications are discussed. It is found that sustainability represents a
dilemma to the engineering students that situates them in a tension between their
technology fascination and the blame they find that technological progress bears.
Their sustainability descriptions are collected as part of a survey containing among
other questions one open-ended, qualitative question on sustainability. The survey
covers an entire year group of Danish engineering students in the first month of their
degree study.
Keywords Sustainability � Technology � Societal challenges �
Qualitative analysis � Survey analysis
S. Haase (&)
The Danish Centre for Studies in Research and Research Policy, School of Business and Social
Sciences, Aarhus University, Finlandsgade 4, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]
123
Sci Eng Ethics (2013) 19:893–911
DOI 10.1007/s11948-012-9417-0
Introduction
One of the main prejudices about engineers—and a serious obstacle for young
people taking up the engineering profession—is that engineers pave the world
with asphalt, create pollution, and generally wreck the environment.
(Henriksen 2006, 44.)
Technology is often expected to hold the potential key to overcome—or at least
make bearable—a range of the environmental, social and economic issues that
humanity must tackle. The list of such societal challenges threatening the existence
of present societies, living conditions, and environment is long. Since the so-called
Brundtland report (United Nations 1987), the need to address these challenges
systematically and in international coordination has been on the public agenda.
(Lozano 2008; Carew and Mitchell 2002, 2008; Jamison 2012; UN 1987). The
balancing of different elements of sustainability and practical operationalisation.
This document discusses factors that limit and facilitate curriculum implementation. It begins by defining key concepts like innovation, curriculum, and implementation. It then contrasts two approaches to implementation: the programmed approach, which aims to clearly specify the innovation, and the adaptive-evolutionary approach, which accepts the innovation will change during implementation. Research finds the latter may be more effective for complex innovations. Successful implementations attend to all dimensions of change, adapt to local contexts, and involve practitioners in the process.
Bazerman, M., & Moore, D. (2013) Judgment in managerial decision m.docxikirkton
Bazerman, M., & Moore, D. (2013) Judgment in managerial decision making
Chapter 6, 7
[INSERT TITLE HERE] 1
Running head: [INSERT TITLE HERE]
[INSERT TITLE HERE]
Student Name
Allied American University
Author Note
This paper was prepared for [INSERT COURSE NAME], [INSERT COURSE ASSIGNMENT] taught by [INSERT INSTRUCTOR’S NAME].
GEO 207: Global Geography
Module 4 Homework Assignment
PART I: answer with 100 words or more.
Since 2001, the role of the United States in the world has been at times championed as well as criticized; we are either loved or hated, so it seems. Speculate on the “standing” of America in the world today: are we still a superpower or have we lost our strength? Consider such important events as the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks, the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, issues pertaining to illegal immigration, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and our response to ISIS as well as Russian aggression in the Ukraine.
PART II – SHORT RESEARCH PAPER
Directions: Please search for two research articles that will serve as the basis for your homework this week.
Research the history of your family as far back as you can. Determine at what point your family moved to the United States and for what reasons (which is hallmark of cultural geography). Include the following:
When did your family originally arrive in the United States?
Where did they settle?
What reasons do you know or think that they settled for?
What social processes from your ancestors’ home country (e.g., unemployment, religious persecution) drove them to the United States? Did any other factors compel your family to move to the United States (e.g., poor economic conditions in the home country, frequent natural disasters, etc).
Your essay should be 2-3 pages, double-spaced, and APA-formatted.
My last name is DeWindt. It is Dutch origin. The rest you can research or make up as long as it is realistic.
191
how selF-JusTiFicaTion indirecTlY drives escalaTion oF commiTmenT
sbr 66 april 2014 191–222
dominik steinkühler/matthias d. mahlendorf/malte brettel*
how self-JusTifiCaTion indireCTly drives esCalaTion of
CommiTmenT – a moTivaTional perspeCTive**
absTraCT
self-justification is the most examined and empirically supported explanation of esca-
lation of commitment. based on motivated reasoning theory, we argue that the need
for self-justification affects escalation of commitment indirectly via other cognitive pro-
cesses. we suggest that the need for self-justification represents a strong motivation
for the continuation of a failing project. Thus, it influences the decision maker’s selec-
tive perception, sunk cost effect, and overoptimism, which in turn foster escalation of
commitment. we investigate escalation in the venture capital industry and thereby – in
addition to our theoretical contribution – strengthen the external validity of previous
studies in the laboratory.
Jel classification: m10, G24, G30.
Keyword ...
The Diffusion And Implementation of InnovationCSCJournals
In their efforts to try and meet the requirements of the ‘new economy’, corporations would be helped with a conceptual framework in which their innovative business models are combined with new perceptions of knowledge creation, the diffusion and implementation of innovations and change management. To come up with adequate problem analyses and (business) solutions for the complex issues they address, corporations need not only technological knowledge, but also have to gain insight into how technologies relate to the values of people, and how they can be implemented successfully. Action research set up in the form of reciprocal Human Resource Management projects is particularly designed to create solutions and implement strategies that cover this whole spectrum. In a corporate effort of academic researchers and experts in the field, technological and practical knowledge and skills are integrated in a mutual learning and knowledge creation process aimed at the implementation of innovative solutions. With that, it provides an answer to the call for a new knowledge and innovation paradigm that serves to support the ‘new economy’.
P
A
P
E
R
S
December 2008 � Project Management Journal � DOI: 10.1002/pmj 5
Why Do Projects Fail?
Project failure rates are certainly cause for concern, but consider that more
and more organizations are adopting a project-based model of organization,
called PBO, and it is not surprising to find that addressing failures and learning
from them has become increasingly important (Eden, Ackermann, & Williams,
2005; Gray & Larson, 2006; Hyvari, 2006; Robertson & Williams, 2006; Thiry &
Deguire, 2007).
Failures occur despite the fact that we have significantly improved the
process of planning, executing, and controlling projects. Two contributions
would include the Project Management Institute’s (PMI’s) A Guide to the
Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) (2004) and the
literature on critical success factors (CSFs) (Cooke-Davies, 2002; Fortune &
White, 2006; Hyvari, 2006; Pinto & Slevin, 1987; Sutterfield, Friday-Stroud,
& Shivers-Blackwell, 2006).
To help us understand how projects fail, it may be useful to classify the
approaches represented by the PMBOK® Guide, Capability Maturity Model
Integration (CMMI), Earned Value Management (EVM), Critical Chain
Project Management (CCPM), and CSFs as the Rational Expectation view
of project management. They assume that project leaders follow a rational
and consistent approach to project management and strive to achieve spe-
cific organizational goals (Bazerman, 1994; Beach & Connolly, 2005). It is a
view that emphasizes what “should” be done. Argyris (1999) referred to this
as the “espoused” theory of individuals and organizations.
There is, however, another view, and it focuses on the way in which indi-
viduals within an organization actually behave and make decisions.
Borrowing from the work of Simon (1955) and Tversky and Kahneman (1974,
1981), it can be classified as the “behavioral” view of project management. It
emphasizes what individuals and groups “actually” do and how managers
make decisions involving values and risk preferences (Bazerman, 1994).
Argyris (1999) called this the “theory-in-practice.”
This article focuses on the behavioral view of project management and
how an understanding of systematic biases—those common to the human
decision-making process—can prove useful in diagnosing project failure. By
studying these systematic biases, we can learn how decision makers respond
to ambiguity, complexity, and uncertainty, as well as how their own particu-
lar psychological processes influence project decision making (Schwenk,
1984). From this behavioral view we can learn more about why management
approves an overly ambitious scope, why communications between teams is
limited, why a manager might ignore signs that the project is going badly, or
why a manager discourages the participation of a wider constituency in the
project management process.
The article begins with a framework for analyzing project outcomes,
introduces the systematic biases commonly associated with d.
A Maturity Model For Integrating Sustainability In Projects And Project Manag...Arlene Smith
This document presents a maturity model for integrating sustainability into projects and project management. The model assesses the level of consideration given to sustainability in terms of resources, processes, business models, and products/services. The model is based on the key concepts of sustainability - integrating economic, environmental and social aspects; integrating short and long-term aspects; and consuming income rather than capital. By using this model, organizations can benchmark their maturity in sustainable practices and monitor their progress over time in translating abstract sustainability concepts into concrete actions.
This research proposal aims to use concepts from chaos theory to predict project outcomes through aligning project and team objectives. The researcher will apply the concept of self-similarity in fractals to demonstrate how sustained alignment of project goals and personal goals of project managers and teams can optimize cost outcomes. The proposal provides background on definitions of project success, highlighting differences between project management success and overall project success. It also reviews literature on high failure rates of projects in various sectors such as IT, defense acquisition, and infrastructure. The researcher proposes investigating how chaos theory concepts can be applied to model project dynamics and determine basins of possible project outcomes.
The document discusses sustainability in project management. It explores how sustainability relates to projects and project management. Key points include:
1) Sustainability involves balancing economic, social, and environmental factors over both the short and long term.
2) Project managers may have responsibility for sustainability aspects of projects and their outcomes.
3) Considering sustainability requires looking at a project's full lifecycle as well as the lifecycles of its outcomes and any associated products or assets.
Means for transferring knowledge in the relocation of ...butest
This document discusses means for transferring knowledge when relocating manufacturing units based on case studies. It develops a framework to identify suitable means based on the complexity of the knowledge and the environment for transferring knowledge. Four groups of means are identified: 1) documents/manuals and peer-to-peer training, 2) scenarios on real systems, 3) prototypes and games, and 4) emulation. The framework can support developing knowledge in the new manufacturing unit by positioning the proper means based on these parameters.
The Nature of Design Practice and Implications for Interaction Design Researc...Fran Maciel
This paper examines the relationship between design practice and interaction design research. It argues that interaction design research aimed at supporting practice has not always been successful because it has not been grounded in an understanding of design practice. The paper compares the nature of complexity in science and design, arguing that approaches from science may not be suitable for design due to fundamental differences in complexity. It concludes that interaction design research needs a deep understanding of design practice in order to develop approaches that are useful for practitioners.
1 This document was originally created on 26th May 2009 .docxkarisariddell
1
This document was originally created on 26th May 2009 and was last updated on 22
nd
September 2015. The author of this material is Peter
McSweeney and copyright is held by The University of Melbourne
Week 9 Project risk management
“Selecting the right project is business risk. Managing uncertainty to meet the stakeholders’
objectives is project risk.” (Verzuh, p.82)
The focus of the final week is to consider some of the underlying risk management processes
that can be applied toward the management of the project itself; and which the above quote
suggests are not germane to the choice of project. The focus of risk management in the PM
context is to ensure that the envisaged cost, schedule and quality are achieved. Again, a focus
on the triangle! Risk management in the PM sense would seek to:
- identify any risks
- assess their significance
- manage or respond to them.
Most of the significant risks (constraints) would be picked up in the initial project definition
phase. Given that most projects are defined under conditions of imperfect information and
subject to changing circumstances, it would be expected that the identification, assessment
and response cycle would be repeated throughout the life of the project. The model (Fig. 1) in
Verzuh (1999) suggests that the first pass or iteration picks up the big risks, and the
subsequent iterations identify those that emerge later. Dobie (2007) similarly outlines the risk
management process.
Figure 1 The risk management process (Source Verzuh E (1999) The fast forward MBA in
Project Management, John Wiley, Brisbane, p.81)
Risk Identification
Analyse the project to
identify sources of risk
Response Development
Define the risk,
including the potential
negative impact
Assign a probability to
the risk
Develop a strategy to
reduce the possible
damage
New risks
Control
Implement the risk
strategy
Continue to monitor the
project for new risks
New risks
Known risks
Risk management plan
2
This document was originally created on 26th May 2009 and was last updated on 22
nd
September 2015. The author of this material is Peter
McSweeney and copyright is held by The University of Melbourne
Applying organisational risk management models and defining risk
Most of you will have had experience of using a framework for risk management i.e. risk
identification, assessment, response and management. Risk management systems tend to
incorporate comprehensive risk registers for organisational activities which then drill down
into the management plan associated with each risk.
Project risks can be assessed as part of the broader organisational approach that already exists.
The PMBOK (p.238) defines project risk “as an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs,
has a positive or negative effect on at least one project objective, such as time, cost, scope, o.
PAPERS20 April 2013 ■ Project Management Jou.docxdanhaley45372
P
A
P
E
R
S
20 April 2013 ■ Project Management Journal ■ DOI: 10.1002/pmj
INTRODUCTION ■
U
ncertainty is both a reality and great challenge for most projects
(Chapman & Ward, 2003; Hillson, 2010). The presence of risk creates
surprises throughout the project life cycle, affecting everything
from technical feasibility to cost, market timing, financial perform-
ance, and strategic objectives (Hillson, 1999; Loch, Solt, & Bailey, 2008;
Thieme, Song, & Shin, 2003). Yet, to succeed in today’s ultracompetitive envi-
ronment, management must deal with these risks effectively despite these
difficulties (Buchanan & O’Connell, 2006; Patil, Grantham, & Steele, 2012;
Shenhar, 2001; Shenhar, Milosevic, Dvir, & Thamhain, 2007; Srivannaboon &
Milosevic, 2006). This concerns executives, and it is not surprising that lead-
ers in virtually all organizations, from commerce to government, spend
much of their time and effort dealing with risk-related issues. Examples trace
back to ancient times that include huge infrastructure projects and military
campaigns. Writings by Sun Tzu articulated specific risks and suggested
mitigation methods 2,500 years ago (Hanzhang & Wilkinson, 1998). Risk
management is not a new idea. However, in today’s globally connected, fast-
changing business world with broad access to resources anywhere, and pres-
sures for quicker, cheaper, and smarter solutions, projects have become
highly complex and intricate. Many companies try to leverage their
resources and accelerate their schedules by forming alliances, consortia, and
partnerships with other firms, universities, and government agencies that
range from simple cooperative agreements to “open innovation,” a concept
of scouting for new product and service ideas anywhere in the world. In such
an increasingly complex and dynamic business environment, risks lurk in
many areas, not only associated with the technical part of the work, but also
including social, cultural, organizational, and technological dimensions. In
fact, research studies have suggested that much of the root cause of project-
related risks can be traced to the organizational dynamics and multidiscipli-
nary nature that characterizes today’s business environment, especially for
technology-based developments (R. Cooper, Edgett, & Kleinschmidt, 2001;
Torok, Nordman, & Lin, 2011). The involvement of many people, processes,
and technologies spanning different organizations, support groups, subcon-
tractors, vendors, government agencies, and customer communities com-
pounds the level of uncertainty and distributes risk over a wide area of the
enterprise and its partners (Thamhain, 2004; Thamhain & Wilemon, 1999),
often creating surprises with potentially devastating consequences. This
paradigm shift leads to changing criteria for risk management. To be effec-
tive in dealing with the broad spectrum of risk factors, project leaders must
go beyond the mechanics of analyzing the work a.
This document presents a framework for analyzing how leadership development programs teach conflict handling skills and promote the transfer of learning. The framework focuses on three components: the knowledge base, learning approach, and practice setting. Regarding the knowledge base, programs can emphasize procedural knowledge (how to perform skills) or declarative knowledge (facts and concepts). In terms of learning approach, programs can take tactical approaches tailored to specific situations or strategic approaches applicable across situations. Finally, the practice setting considers whether skills are practiced in high-fidelity or low-fidelity environments relative to real work contexts. Initial support for the framework comes from analyses of leadership program brochures and interviews with managers and providers.
This document discusses the challenges and prospects of managing temporary organizations. It notes that modern organizations are increasingly relying on temporary project-based structures rather than permanent assignments. Managing temporary organizations presents unique challenges related to human resource management, as the relationship between the organization and employees is different. However, temporary organizations also provide benefits and flexibility. The document explores these challenges and prospects in temporary organizations in more detail.
Reconceptualising Design Research for Design Seeking and Scaling. Short position paper by Cook and Bannan, June 2013. **Critical comment and pointers to related literature invited** Contact: john2.cook@uwe.ac.uk
This document discusses a proposed model investigating the effects of psychological safety and social agile practices on team performance in agile information systems development (AISD). The model suggests that social agile practices positively influence psychological safety, which in turn positively impacts transparency, communication, and productivity in AISD teams. The model is based on a literature review and evaluated through case studies of AISD teams in insurance and software companies. Results from the case studies provide preliminary support for the model and its propositions.
1242020 Scenario and Mega-Trend Model Scoring Guidehttps.docxaulasnilda
1/24/2020 Scenario and Mega-Trend Model Scoring Guide
https://courserooma.capella.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/BMGT/BMGT8132/190700/Scoring_Guides/u01a1_scoring_guide.html 1/1
Scenario and Mega-Trend Model Scoring Guide
Due Date: End of Unit 1
Percentage of Course Grade: 15%.
CRITERIA NON-PERFORMANCE BASIC PROFICIENT DISTINGUISHED
Evaluate scenario
planning and trend
convergence
theories, models,
and processes.
25%
Does not evaluate
scenario planning
and trend
convergence
theories, models,
and processes.
Evaluates some aspects
of scenario planning
and trend convergence
theories, models, and
processes from
references, research,
and personal
experiences. Analyzes
some themes and
concepts in the
literature.
Evaluates scenario
planning and trend
convergence theories,
models, and
processes from
references, research,
and personal
experiences.
Analyzes major
themes and concepts
in the literature.
Evaluates and
synthesizes scenario
planning and trend
convergence theories,
models, and processes
from references,
research, and personal
experiences. Analyzes
major themes and
concepts in the
literature.
Create and illustrate
a scenario planning
and trend
convergence model.
25%
Neither creates nor
illustrates a
scenario planning
and trend
convergence
model integrating
theoretical support.
Creates and illustrates a
scenario planning and
trend convergence
model. Includes some
aspects from activities,
roles, and
responsibilities, and
how and when activities
will be performed.
Creates and illustrates
a scenario planning
and trend
convergence model.
Includes a set of
activities, roles, and
responsibilities, and
how and when
activities will be
performed.
Creates and illustrates a
scenario planning and
trend convergence
model integrating
theoretical support.
Includes a set of
activities, roles, and
responsibilities, and how
and when activities will
be performed.
Develop an
approach to leading
and implementing a
scenario planning
and trend
convergence model.
25%
Does not develop
an approach to
leading and
implementing a
scenario planning
and trend
convergence
model.
Develops some aspects
of an approach to
leading and
implementing a scenario
planning and trend
convergence model.
Develops an
approach to leading
and implementing a
scenario planning and
trend convergence
model.
Develops a
comprehensive
approach to leading and
implementing a scenario
planning and trend
convergence model.
Communicate in a
scholarly and
professional
manner.
25%
Neither
communicates in a
manner expected
of doctoral-level
composition nor
exhibits critical
thinking skills:
grammar,
punctuation,
mechanics, APA
style and
formatting.
Communicates at a
basic level in a manner
expected of doctoral-
level composition, and
exhibits some critical
thinking skills.
Communicates in a
manner expected of
doctoral-level
composition, and
exhibits critical
thinking skills.
Communicates
exceptionally well in a
manner expected of a
doctoral-level
composition, and
exhibits exceptional
cr ...
Ambidextrous organization and design thinkingJan Schmiedgen
The document is a student paper that explores how design thinking can help nurture innovation culture and overcome obstacles to change. It provides context on challenges facing organizations today from market changes. It reviews literature on innovation, culture and change management. It defines design thinking and discusses its focus on exploring new possibilities through divergent thinking versus exploiting proven approaches. The student aims to examine how design thinking can foster an innovation culture and facilitate change in organizations.
Context mapping by Froukje S. Visser, Pieter Jan Stappers, Remko Van Der LugtFran Maciel
This document discusses contextmapping, a technique for mapping the contexts of people's interactions with products. It provides insights from conducting several contextmapping studies over many years.
The key phases of contextmapping include preparation, sensitizing participants, group sessions using generative techniques, analysis of results, and communicating findings to the design team. Generative techniques allow participants to access and express tacit knowledge and latent needs through creative activities. The goal is to provide rich contextual information to inspire human-centered design.
The document outlines best practices for each phase based on experiences. It emphasizes clear goal setting, in-depth participant sensitization, and interactive communication methods to enhance empathy and understanding for users. Contextmapping aims to reveal a
Sustainable development is the greatest challenge of our time. It brings together a number of global problems—pollution and intoxication of the space in which we live; poverty and starvation; climate change; depletion of mineral and organic
resources; ecological devastation; and global inequity
Success in information technology (IT) projects remains elusive even after decades of efforts to improve it. Most of these efforts have focused on variations of the traditional project management paradigm as promulgated by Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). We suspected that a potential cause of high IT project failure is with the paradigm, which focuses on the project itself and on meeting time and cost targets. A new paradigm called Value-Driven Change Leadership (VDCL) originated from discussions of a panel of project management experts. This paper briefly describes the principles of that new paradigm. It also reports the results from a survey of four project managers on the association between project success and management principles from VDCL and PMBOK.
Korhonen and Takada 2012: Modeling the role of non-financial constraints in t...J. M. Korhonen
A working paper of technology evolution and adoption under constraints. Contains a case study of copper industry and a NK-based simulation experiment. Results: constraints do not drive the development of new technologies, but they can drive the adoption of already existing non-mainstream technologies.
This document proposes a framework for analyzing how leadership development programs teach conflict handling skills and promote transfer of learning. It suggests programs can take procedural or declarative approaches. Procedural approaches emphasize specific skills for situations through high fidelity practice, while declarative approaches focus on general principles through lower fidelity practice. The framework was initially supported by analyses of program materials and manager interviews that found both procedural and declarative knowledge and tactical and strategic conflict approaches are used.
An Investigation Into Project Team Dynamics And The Utilization Of Virtual En...Addison Coleman
This document summarizes a research study that investigated project team dynamics and the use of virtual environments. It reviewed literature related to factors that influence project team performance, such as clear goals, support from management, and effective communication. It also discussed challenges that virtual teams face related to communication, culture, technology, and project management. The study concluded that virtual teams require new skills and different management strategies compared to traditional colocated teams.
IRJET- Projects in Constructions due to Inadequate Risk ManagementIRJET Journal
This document discusses risks in construction projects due to inadequate risk management. It begins by introducing the topic and defining key terms like risk management. It then discusses sources of failure in construction projects when there is no initial risk assessment or risk management. Some of the major causes of project failure discussed include changes without documentation or tracking, incomplete status reports, and undefined parameters.
The document presents results from a questionnaire survey given to construction industry experts. The survey found that most companies have a poor understanding of managing troubled projects and not all project managers have the necessary skills. It then provides recommendations for recovering from failed projects, including conducting a review to identify lessons learned and causes of failure. Overall, the document advocates that systematic risk management can help construction projects
Based on your course reading assignments and your pending research p.docxcherishwinsland
Based on your course reading assignments and your pending research problem, what type of study do you believe you are conducting, and please explain why?
Extra materials:
Descriptive
research
is a study designed to depict the participants in an accurate way. More simply put, descriptive analysis is all about describing people who take part in the survey.
There are three ways a researcher can go about doing a descriptive research project, and they are:
Observational, defined as a method of viewing and recording the participants
Case study, defined as an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals
Survey, defined as a brief interview or discussion with an individual about a specific topic
Mixed
methods
research
(Extracted from the article below) is the use of quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or series of studies. It is a new methodology that is increasingly used by health researchers, especially within health services research. There is a growing literature on the theory, design, and critical appraisal of mixed methods research. However, few papers summarize this methodological approach for health practitioners who wish to conduct or critically engage with mixed methods studies.
Article: Using Mixed Methods in Health Research
Meta-Analysis
Meta
-
analysis
is a statistical technique for combining data from multiple studies on a particular topic. A Meta-analysis is an analytical tool for estimating the mean and variance of underlying population effects from a collection of empirical studies addressing ostensibly the same research question. Meta‐analysis has become an increasingly popular and valuable tool in psychological research, and significant review articles typically employ these methods.
Article: Meta-Analysis in Medical Research
Epidemiology
According to the Centers for Disease Control,
Epidemiology
is the method used to find the causes of health outcomes and diseases in populations. In epidemiology, the patient is the community and individuals are viewed collectively. By definition, epidemiology is the study (scientific, systematic, and data-driven) of the distribution (frequency, pattern) and determinants (causes, risk factors) of health-related states and events (not just diseases) in specified populations (neighborhood, school, city, state, country, global).
Article: Epidemiology is a Science of High Importance
Longitudinal Studies
Longitudinal Study, an epidemiologic study that follows a population forward over time, evaluating the effects of one or more variables on a process. If individuals are followed, it is termed a longitudinal cohort study. If classes—e.g., age classes—are studied, it is a longitudinal cross-sectional study. Longitudinal studies are the converse (opposite) of horizontal (parallel) studies.
Article Longitudinal Studies
.
Based on yesterday Assignment (Green Machine)1. Provide a Com.docxcherishwinsland
The document provides instructions for an assignment to analyze competitors in the green machine industry. Students are asked to assess the overall industry strategy, describe each major competitor's current marketing positioning and strategy, and identify the main sources of competitive advantage for each key rival firm.
More Related Content
Similar to Opportunities for learning fromcrises in projectsMarkus .docx
The document discusses sustainability in project management. It explores how sustainability relates to projects and project management. Key points include:
1) Sustainability involves balancing economic, social, and environmental factors over both the short and long term.
2) Project managers may have responsibility for sustainability aspects of projects and their outcomes.
3) Considering sustainability requires looking at a project's full lifecycle as well as the lifecycles of its outcomes and any associated products or assets.
Means for transferring knowledge in the relocation of ...butest
This document discusses means for transferring knowledge when relocating manufacturing units based on case studies. It develops a framework to identify suitable means based on the complexity of the knowledge and the environment for transferring knowledge. Four groups of means are identified: 1) documents/manuals and peer-to-peer training, 2) scenarios on real systems, 3) prototypes and games, and 4) emulation. The framework can support developing knowledge in the new manufacturing unit by positioning the proper means based on these parameters.
The Nature of Design Practice and Implications for Interaction Design Researc...Fran Maciel
This paper examines the relationship between design practice and interaction design research. It argues that interaction design research aimed at supporting practice has not always been successful because it has not been grounded in an understanding of design practice. The paper compares the nature of complexity in science and design, arguing that approaches from science may not be suitable for design due to fundamental differences in complexity. It concludes that interaction design research needs a deep understanding of design practice in order to develop approaches that are useful for practitioners.
1 This document was originally created on 26th May 2009 .docxkarisariddell
1
This document was originally created on 26th May 2009 and was last updated on 22
nd
September 2015. The author of this material is Peter
McSweeney and copyright is held by The University of Melbourne
Week 9 Project risk management
“Selecting the right project is business risk. Managing uncertainty to meet the stakeholders’
objectives is project risk.” (Verzuh, p.82)
The focus of the final week is to consider some of the underlying risk management processes
that can be applied toward the management of the project itself; and which the above quote
suggests are not germane to the choice of project. The focus of risk management in the PM
context is to ensure that the envisaged cost, schedule and quality are achieved. Again, a focus
on the triangle! Risk management in the PM sense would seek to:
- identify any risks
- assess their significance
- manage or respond to them.
Most of the significant risks (constraints) would be picked up in the initial project definition
phase. Given that most projects are defined under conditions of imperfect information and
subject to changing circumstances, it would be expected that the identification, assessment
and response cycle would be repeated throughout the life of the project. The model (Fig. 1) in
Verzuh (1999) suggests that the first pass or iteration picks up the big risks, and the
subsequent iterations identify those that emerge later. Dobie (2007) similarly outlines the risk
management process.
Figure 1 The risk management process (Source Verzuh E (1999) The fast forward MBA in
Project Management, John Wiley, Brisbane, p.81)
Risk Identification
Analyse the project to
identify sources of risk
Response Development
Define the risk,
including the potential
negative impact
Assign a probability to
the risk
Develop a strategy to
reduce the possible
damage
New risks
Control
Implement the risk
strategy
Continue to monitor the
project for new risks
New risks
Known risks
Risk management plan
2
This document was originally created on 26th May 2009 and was last updated on 22
nd
September 2015. The author of this material is Peter
McSweeney and copyright is held by The University of Melbourne
Applying organisational risk management models and defining risk
Most of you will have had experience of using a framework for risk management i.e. risk
identification, assessment, response and management. Risk management systems tend to
incorporate comprehensive risk registers for organisational activities which then drill down
into the management plan associated with each risk.
Project risks can be assessed as part of the broader organisational approach that already exists.
The PMBOK (p.238) defines project risk “as an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs,
has a positive or negative effect on at least one project objective, such as time, cost, scope, o.
PAPERS20 April 2013 ■ Project Management Jou.docxdanhaley45372
P
A
P
E
R
S
20 April 2013 ■ Project Management Journal ■ DOI: 10.1002/pmj
INTRODUCTION ■
U
ncertainty is both a reality and great challenge for most projects
(Chapman & Ward, 2003; Hillson, 2010). The presence of risk creates
surprises throughout the project life cycle, affecting everything
from technical feasibility to cost, market timing, financial perform-
ance, and strategic objectives (Hillson, 1999; Loch, Solt, & Bailey, 2008;
Thieme, Song, & Shin, 2003). Yet, to succeed in today’s ultracompetitive envi-
ronment, management must deal with these risks effectively despite these
difficulties (Buchanan & O’Connell, 2006; Patil, Grantham, & Steele, 2012;
Shenhar, 2001; Shenhar, Milosevic, Dvir, & Thamhain, 2007; Srivannaboon &
Milosevic, 2006). This concerns executives, and it is not surprising that lead-
ers in virtually all organizations, from commerce to government, spend
much of their time and effort dealing with risk-related issues. Examples trace
back to ancient times that include huge infrastructure projects and military
campaigns. Writings by Sun Tzu articulated specific risks and suggested
mitigation methods 2,500 years ago (Hanzhang & Wilkinson, 1998). Risk
management is not a new idea. However, in today’s globally connected, fast-
changing business world with broad access to resources anywhere, and pres-
sures for quicker, cheaper, and smarter solutions, projects have become
highly complex and intricate. Many companies try to leverage their
resources and accelerate their schedules by forming alliances, consortia, and
partnerships with other firms, universities, and government agencies that
range from simple cooperative agreements to “open innovation,” a concept
of scouting for new product and service ideas anywhere in the world. In such
an increasingly complex and dynamic business environment, risks lurk in
many areas, not only associated with the technical part of the work, but also
including social, cultural, organizational, and technological dimensions. In
fact, research studies have suggested that much of the root cause of project-
related risks can be traced to the organizational dynamics and multidiscipli-
nary nature that characterizes today’s business environment, especially for
technology-based developments (R. Cooper, Edgett, & Kleinschmidt, 2001;
Torok, Nordman, & Lin, 2011). The involvement of many people, processes,
and technologies spanning different organizations, support groups, subcon-
tractors, vendors, government agencies, and customer communities com-
pounds the level of uncertainty and distributes risk over a wide area of the
enterprise and its partners (Thamhain, 2004; Thamhain & Wilemon, 1999),
often creating surprises with potentially devastating consequences. This
paradigm shift leads to changing criteria for risk management. To be effec-
tive in dealing with the broad spectrum of risk factors, project leaders must
go beyond the mechanics of analyzing the work a.
This document presents a framework for analyzing how leadership development programs teach conflict handling skills and promote the transfer of learning. The framework focuses on three components: the knowledge base, learning approach, and practice setting. Regarding the knowledge base, programs can emphasize procedural knowledge (how to perform skills) or declarative knowledge (facts and concepts). In terms of learning approach, programs can take tactical approaches tailored to specific situations or strategic approaches applicable across situations. Finally, the practice setting considers whether skills are practiced in high-fidelity or low-fidelity environments relative to real work contexts. Initial support for the framework comes from analyses of leadership program brochures and interviews with managers and providers.
This document discusses the challenges and prospects of managing temporary organizations. It notes that modern organizations are increasingly relying on temporary project-based structures rather than permanent assignments. Managing temporary organizations presents unique challenges related to human resource management, as the relationship between the organization and employees is different. However, temporary organizations also provide benefits and flexibility. The document explores these challenges and prospects in temporary organizations in more detail.
Reconceptualising Design Research for Design Seeking and Scaling. Short position paper by Cook and Bannan, June 2013. **Critical comment and pointers to related literature invited** Contact: john2.cook@uwe.ac.uk
This document discusses a proposed model investigating the effects of psychological safety and social agile practices on team performance in agile information systems development (AISD). The model suggests that social agile practices positively influence psychological safety, which in turn positively impacts transparency, communication, and productivity in AISD teams. The model is based on a literature review and evaluated through case studies of AISD teams in insurance and software companies. Results from the case studies provide preliminary support for the model and its propositions.
1242020 Scenario and Mega-Trend Model Scoring Guidehttps.docxaulasnilda
1/24/2020 Scenario and Mega-Trend Model Scoring Guide
https://courserooma.capella.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/BMGT/BMGT8132/190700/Scoring_Guides/u01a1_scoring_guide.html 1/1
Scenario and Mega-Trend Model Scoring Guide
Due Date: End of Unit 1
Percentage of Course Grade: 15%.
CRITERIA NON-PERFORMANCE BASIC PROFICIENT DISTINGUISHED
Evaluate scenario
planning and trend
convergence
theories, models,
and processes.
25%
Does not evaluate
scenario planning
and trend
convergence
theories, models,
and processes.
Evaluates some aspects
of scenario planning
and trend convergence
theories, models, and
processes from
references, research,
and personal
experiences. Analyzes
some themes and
concepts in the
literature.
Evaluates scenario
planning and trend
convergence theories,
models, and
processes from
references, research,
and personal
experiences.
Analyzes major
themes and concepts
in the literature.
Evaluates and
synthesizes scenario
planning and trend
convergence theories,
models, and processes
from references,
research, and personal
experiences. Analyzes
major themes and
concepts in the
literature.
Create and illustrate
a scenario planning
and trend
convergence model.
25%
Neither creates nor
illustrates a
scenario planning
and trend
convergence
model integrating
theoretical support.
Creates and illustrates a
scenario planning and
trend convergence
model. Includes some
aspects from activities,
roles, and
responsibilities, and
how and when activities
will be performed.
Creates and illustrates
a scenario planning
and trend
convergence model.
Includes a set of
activities, roles, and
responsibilities, and
how and when
activities will be
performed.
Creates and illustrates a
scenario planning and
trend convergence
model integrating
theoretical support.
Includes a set of
activities, roles, and
responsibilities, and how
and when activities will
be performed.
Develop an
approach to leading
and implementing a
scenario planning
and trend
convergence model.
25%
Does not develop
an approach to
leading and
implementing a
scenario planning
and trend
convergence
model.
Develops some aspects
of an approach to
leading and
implementing a scenario
planning and trend
convergence model.
Develops an
approach to leading
and implementing a
scenario planning and
trend convergence
model.
Develops a
comprehensive
approach to leading and
implementing a scenario
planning and trend
convergence model.
Communicate in a
scholarly and
professional
manner.
25%
Neither
communicates in a
manner expected
of doctoral-level
composition nor
exhibits critical
thinking skills:
grammar,
punctuation,
mechanics, APA
style and
formatting.
Communicates at a
basic level in a manner
expected of doctoral-
level composition, and
exhibits some critical
thinking skills.
Communicates in a
manner expected of
doctoral-level
composition, and
exhibits critical
thinking skills.
Communicates
exceptionally well in a
manner expected of a
doctoral-level
composition, and
exhibits exceptional
cr ...
Ambidextrous organization and design thinkingJan Schmiedgen
The document is a student paper that explores how design thinking can help nurture innovation culture and overcome obstacles to change. It provides context on challenges facing organizations today from market changes. It reviews literature on innovation, culture and change management. It defines design thinking and discusses its focus on exploring new possibilities through divergent thinking versus exploiting proven approaches. The student aims to examine how design thinking can foster an innovation culture and facilitate change in organizations.
Context mapping by Froukje S. Visser, Pieter Jan Stappers, Remko Van Der LugtFran Maciel
This document discusses contextmapping, a technique for mapping the contexts of people's interactions with products. It provides insights from conducting several contextmapping studies over many years.
The key phases of contextmapping include preparation, sensitizing participants, group sessions using generative techniques, analysis of results, and communicating findings to the design team. Generative techniques allow participants to access and express tacit knowledge and latent needs through creative activities. The goal is to provide rich contextual information to inspire human-centered design.
The document outlines best practices for each phase based on experiences. It emphasizes clear goal setting, in-depth participant sensitization, and interactive communication methods to enhance empathy and understanding for users. Contextmapping aims to reveal a
Sustainable development is the greatest challenge of our time. It brings together a number of global problems—pollution and intoxication of the space in which we live; poverty and starvation; climate change; depletion of mineral and organic
resources; ecological devastation; and global inequity
Success in information technology (IT) projects remains elusive even after decades of efforts to improve it. Most of these efforts have focused on variations of the traditional project management paradigm as promulgated by Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). We suspected that a potential cause of high IT project failure is with the paradigm, which focuses on the project itself and on meeting time and cost targets. A new paradigm called Value-Driven Change Leadership (VDCL) originated from discussions of a panel of project management experts. This paper briefly describes the principles of that new paradigm. It also reports the results from a survey of four project managers on the association between project success and management principles from VDCL and PMBOK.
Korhonen and Takada 2012: Modeling the role of non-financial constraints in t...J. M. Korhonen
A working paper of technology evolution and adoption under constraints. Contains a case study of copper industry and a NK-based simulation experiment. Results: constraints do not drive the development of new technologies, but they can drive the adoption of already existing non-mainstream technologies.
This document proposes a framework for analyzing how leadership development programs teach conflict handling skills and promote transfer of learning. It suggests programs can take procedural or declarative approaches. Procedural approaches emphasize specific skills for situations through high fidelity practice, while declarative approaches focus on general principles through lower fidelity practice. The framework was initially supported by analyses of program materials and manager interviews that found both procedural and declarative knowledge and tactical and strategic conflict approaches are used.
An Investigation Into Project Team Dynamics And The Utilization Of Virtual En...Addison Coleman
This document summarizes a research study that investigated project team dynamics and the use of virtual environments. It reviewed literature related to factors that influence project team performance, such as clear goals, support from management, and effective communication. It also discussed challenges that virtual teams face related to communication, culture, technology, and project management. The study concluded that virtual teams require new skills and different management strategies compared to traditional colocated teams.
IRJET- Projects in Constructions due to Inadequate Risk ManagementIRJET Journal
This document discusses risks in construction projects due to inadequate risk management. It begins by introducing the topic and defining key terms like risk management. It then discusses sources of failure in construction projects when there is no initial risk assessment or risk management. Some of the major causes of project failure discussed include changes without documentation or tracking, incomplete status reports, and undefined parameters.
The document presents results from a questionnaire survey given to construction industry experts. The survey found that most companies have a poor understanding of managing troubled projects and not all project managers have the necessary skills. It then provides recommendations for recovering from failed projects, including conducting a review to identify lessons learned and causes of failure. Overall, the document advocates that systematic risk management can help construction projects
Similar to Opportunities for learning fromcrises in projectsMarkus .docx (20)
Based on your course reading assignments and your pending research p.docxcherishwinsland
Based on your course reading assignments and your pending research problem, what type of study do you believe you are conducting, and please explain why?
Extra materials:
Descriptive
research
is a study designed to depict the participants in an accurate way. More simply put, descriptive analysis is all about describing people who take part in the survey.
There are three ways a researcher can go about doing a descriptive research project, and they are:
Observational, defined as a method of viewing and recording the participants
Case study, defined as an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals
Survey, defined as a brief interview or discussion with an individual about a specific topic
Mixed
methods
research
(Extracted from the article below) is the use of quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or series of studies. It is a new methodology that is increasingly used by health researchers, especially within health services research. There is a growing literature on the theory, design, and critical appraisal of mixed methods research. However, few papers summarize this methodological approach for health practitioners who wish to conduct or critically engage with mixed methods studies.
Article: Using Mixed Methods in Health Research
Meta-Analysis
Meta
-
analysis
is a statistical technique for combining data from multiple studies on a particular topic. A Meta-analysis is an analytical tool for estimating the mean and variance of underlying population effects from a collection of empirical studies addressing ostensibly the same research question. Meta‐analysis has become an increasingly popular and valuable tool in psychological research, and significant review articles typically employ these methods.
Article: Meta-Analysis in Medical Research
Epidemiology
According to the Centers for Disease Control,
Epidemiology
is the method used to find the causes of health outcomes and diseases in populations. In epidemiology, the patient is the community and individuals are viewed collectively. By definition, epidemiology is the study (scientific, systematic, and data-driven) of the distribution (frequency, pattern) and determinants (causes, risk factors) of health-related states and events (not just diseases) in specified populations (neighborhood, school, city, state, country, global).
Article: Epidemiology is a Science of High Importance
Longitudinal Studies
Longitudinal Study, an epidemiologic study that follows a population forward over time, evaluating the effects of one or more variables on a process. If individuals are followed, it is termed a longitudinal cohort study. If classes—e.g., age classes—are studied, it is a longitudinal cross-sectional study. Longitudinal studies are the converse (opposite) of horizontal (parallel) studies.
Article Longitudinal Studies
.
Based on yesterday Assignment (Green Machine)1. Provide a Com.docxcherishwinsland
The document provides instructions for an assignment to analyze competitors in the green machine industry. Students are asked to assess the overall industry strategy, describe each major competitor's current marketing positioning and strategy, and identify the main sources of competitive advantage for each key rival firm.
Based on what youve learned from the material on incidental teachin.docxcherishwinsland
Based on what you've learned from the material on incidental teaching, in a two page (minimum) double spaced paper, describe in detail how you would implement an incidentaI teaching model in a preschool classroom with 10 children. Include: methods of target behavior identification, methods of reinforcement, and expected outcomes as a result of IT implementation.
.
Based on what you have learned related to cybercrime and technol.docxcherishwinsland
Based on what you have learned related to cybercrime and technology, write 2 pages outlining your opinion of what might happen in the future with the emergence of artificial intelligence and/or autonomous vehicles (any kind) and other emerging technologies.
What kind of crimes do you think might be possible?
How might our legal system have to change in order to keep up?
Do we need stricter laws or better technology? or both?
.
Based on what you have learned in this class, write a letter to a fu.docxcherishwinsland
Based on what you have learned in this class, write a letter to a future employer that explains how religion, language, philosophy, material culture, non-material culture, and/or interaction with the environment have shaped the origins and evolution of world civilizations. Please provide at least two concrete examples.
pick on and write about it. 3 pages
.
Based on what you have learned about using unified communication.docxcherishwinsland
Based on what you have learned about using unified communication platforms in a collaborative environment,
create
a 5-slide presentation to a department head or the CEO of a company to convince the audience that this would benefit their business.
Remember to use this format:
Introduction
State the business problem
The current set up
What is Unified Communication Platforms
State how Unified Communication Platforms will help the business
Cite at least two apps that are part of Unified Communication Platforms that is recommended by you
Cost of moving to Unified Communication Platform
Conclusion
Click
the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.
.
Based on what you have learned about using cloud-based office pr.docxcherishwinsland
Based on what you have learned about using cloud-based office productivity software,
create
a 5-slide presentation to the department head or CEO to convince him or her that using a cloud-based office productivity suite would benefit the company.
Include
the following in your presentation:
The stated business problem
The current set up
The benefits of moving to the cloud:
The benefits of collaboration
The difference moving to the cloud will be over current practice
Cost of moving to the cloud
Be sure that you also
include
an Introduction and Conclusion slide, along with graphics, Speaker Notes, and a properly formatted APA Reference slide.
Click
the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.
.
Based on week 13 reading assignment wh,describe an IT or simil.docxcherishwinsland
Based on week 13 reading assignment wh,
describe an IT or similar business project you have done or are currently doing. In your discussion, provide information on the following:
1. What is that project? Provide complete description.
2. What was the scope, deliverable, and results of the project?
3. What constraints did you experience and how did you handle them?
4. If you had to do the same project again, what changes will you recommend?
Week 13 reading assignment attached
.
Based on the video, how do we make ourselves vulnerable or not so vu.docxcherishwinsland
Based on the video, how do we make ourselves vulnerable or not so vulnerable with decision-making. Sometimes do we try to make the uncertain, certain, by making a decision without the facts and taking into consideration everyone's perspective of the decision at hand? Do we pretend that the other perspective doesn't even exist when we are making decisions?
https://www.ted.com/talks/brene_brown_the_power_of_vulnerability/up-next
.
Based on the video (specifically Section 1 Understanding the Comm.docxcherishwinsland
Based on the video (specifically Section 1:
Understanding the Communications Plan
) think of a presentation or proposal you have given or observed, or may be giving in the future, and complete a Stakeholder Register (
Stakeholder Register example
). Requirements include a brief synopsis of the presentation or proposal (1 page maximum) and a completed register. You may use whatever format for the register (word document, spreadsheet, etc.) that is convenient
.
Based on the texts by Kafka and Eliot, (writing on one or the other .docxcherishwinsland
Based on the texts by Kafka and Eliot, (writing on one or the other or both), discuss how the writers seem critical of modern culture, as they portray modern man as a self-conscious functionary who fears an acute loss of spirituality and identity, as well as the ability to achieve authenticity and happiness, overcome by the dehumanizing forces of industrialization and capitalism in post-WWI Europe.
- at least 700 words.
- MLA style
.
Based on the texts by Kafka and Eliot, (writing on one or the ot.docxcherishwinsland
Based on the texts by Kafka and Eliot, (writing on one or the other or both), discuss how the writers seem critical of modern culture, as they portray modern man as a self-conscious functionary who fears an acute loss of spirituality and identity, as well as the ability to achieve authenticity and happiness, overcome by the dehumanizing forces of industrialization and capitalism in post-WWI Europe.
.
Based on the techniques discussed for hiding data on a computer, w.docxcherishwinsland
Based on the techniques discussed for hiding data on a computer, which method would you use for the following:
Hiding information from a young family member who uses the same computer
Hiding information from a colleague who is a network administrator
Hiding information from an intelligence agency, such as the CIA
data hiding techniques
: -
1.hide in the properties
2.rename/change extension
3.steganography
4.hash
5.encryption
6.bit shifting
.
Based on the readings, there are specific components that encompass .docxcherishwinsland
Based on the readings, there are specific components that encompass SW-PBIS. Please describe any additional components that you think should also be included in the SW-PBIS plan. State why you think this(these) component(s) should be included.
An initial posting of roughly 150 words is due by January 12th.
.
Based on the readings titled ‘Lost Trust’, ‘Chinese Port Cities’ a.docxcherishwinsland
Based on the readings titled ‘Lost Trust’, ‘Chinese Port Cities’ and ‘Emerging Urban Form of Accra’, identify and describe emerging URBAN spatial patterns in the United States, Shanghai (China) and Accra (Ghana) under globalization.
Instructions. This is a 3-2-paragraph essay and should fit onto one page, 1.5 spacing and 1-inch margins (About 400 words).
Your second paragraph should identify and describe the emerging spatial patterns for the core (USA). This paragraph should be about 100 words.
Your second third paragraph should identify and describe the spatial patterns for the semi-periphery (China). This paragraph should be about 100 words.
Your fourth paragraph should make spatial patterns for the periphery (Ghana). This paragraph should be about 100 words.
Your first paragraph should be a very, very brief introduction (no more than 2 sentences or about 50 words) and the fifth should be a very brief conclusion (no more than two sentences or about 50 words). These make up the 2 in the 3-2- paragraph essay.
By putting these five paragraphs together, you would have written an essay about emerging geographies of urbanization under globalization in the core, semi-periphery and periphery focusing on spatial patterns ONLY.
Rubic_Print_FormatCourse CodeClass CodeAssignment TitleTotal PointsHCA-807HCA-807-O500Contrast of Health Care Structures200.0CriteriaPercentageUnsatisfactory (0.00%)Less Than Satisfactory (73.00%)Satisfactory (82.00%)Good (91.00%)Excellent (100.00%)CommentsPoints EarnedContent70.0%Contrast of Public and Private Structures20.0%A contrast of public and private structures is either missing or not evident to the reader.A contrast of public and private structures is present, but incomplete or inaccurate.A contrast of public and private structures is presented, but is cursory and lacking in depth. The research used for support is outdated.A contrast of public and private structures is thoroughly presented and includes a discussion of all necessary elements. The contrast is moderately well supported though some sources of support are outdated.A contrast of public and private structures is thoroughly presented with rich detail and includes a discussion of all necessary elements. The contrast is well supported with current and/or seminal research.Analysis of Current Viability and Future Sustainability of Each Structure20.0%An analysis of current viability and future sustainability of each structure is either missing or not evident to the reader.An analysis of current viability and future sustainability of each structure is present, but incomplete or inaccurate.An analysis of current viability and future sustainability of each structure is present, but cursory. The research used for support is outdated.An analysis of current viability and future sustainability of each structure is present and thorough. The analysis is moderately well supported though some sources of support are outdated.An analysis of current viability and .
Based on the readings this week, answer the two following questions .docxcherishwinsland
Based on the readings this week, answer the two following questions in 150 words per question:
1. In this weeks' readings the Puerto Rican and Jamaican voice (specifically DJ Kool Herc losing his accent) were omitted from hip hop/rap culture while the Chicano voice was avidly expressed. In your opinion, what factors contributed to this binary of resistance and conformity? In other words, why do you think Chicanos held on to their language and slang, where other ethnic groups did not?
2. In hip hop/rap culture, how important is a name in the quest for identity formation? Use examples from the texts.
.
Based on the readings for the week, discuss your opinion on the need.docxcherishwinsland
Based on the readings for the week, discuss your opinion on the need for variance analysis in either a service provider setting (retail or restaurant), or manufacturing setting.
VanZante, N. (2007, April). Helping students see the "big picture" of variance analysis. Management Accounting Quarterly, 8(3), 39-40, 42-47. Retrieved March 17, 2010, from ProQuest Database.
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Based on the reading assignment, your experience, and personal r.docxcherishwinsland
Based on the reading assignment, your experience, and personal research, please answer the following questions:
Thoroughly explain what is recovering, data, and validation as it relates to cell phone forensics?
What is evidence contamination as it relates to digital forensics?
List and describe at least two forms of contamination and how they can be avoided
What is the Faraday method?
List and explain three of the strategies associated with Faraday Methods
.
Based on the reading assignment (and in your own words), why are MNE.docxcherishwinsland
Based on the reading assignment (and in your own words), why are MNEs better able to exploit global opportunities (versus purely domestic competitors)?
Your response should be at least
200 words
in length. All sources used, including the textbook, must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
[removed] [removed] [removed] [removed]
Moffett, M. H., Stonehill, A. I., & Eiteman, D. K. (2012).
Fundamentals of multinational finance
. (IV ed., pp. 14-14). New York: Pearson.
In-text citation
(Moffett, Stonehill & Eiteman, 2012)
No Wiki, no dictionary.com, please cite all work.
.
Based on the primary documents from chapter 23 of AmericanYawp, plea.docxcherishwinsland
Based on the primary documents from chapter 23 of AmericanYawp, please answer the following questions in a thoughtful, well-written essay of approximately 750 words:
1: What is Herbert Hoover’s fear about the New Deal? What does he mean when he warns that a new deal “would destroy the very foundations of our American system”?2: What was Huey Long’s plan? Would Hoover have approved of it? Why or why not?3: What was FDR’s plan, as outlined in his re-nomination speech? Would Long and Hoover have approved or disapproved of this plan? Why or why not?
Papers should be double-spaced with normal fonts and margins and include an introduction and conclusion
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
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Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Film vocab for eal 3 students: Australia the movie
Opportunities for learning fromcrises in projectsMarkus .docx
1. Opportunities for learning from
crises in projects
Markus Hällgren and Timothy L. Wilson
Umeå School of Business, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate how
individuals in projects learn from crises.
Design/methodology/approach – The multiple-case protocol
described by Yin and his six sources
of evidence were utilized. Observations were contemporaneous
and somewhere between direct and
participative. Bias was avoided by having the observer on site,
but not part of the project team. A diary
recorded events; company notes and records substantiated
observations.
Findings – The study contributes to the understanding of the
need that project managers have to
adapt to changes from plan and the coincidental learning that
occurs in the workplace. Both cumulative
and abrupt crises treated by project/site teams and corporate
staff are described. A necessary and
sufficiency approach was used to rationalize the organizational
learning. The necessary condition was
that the episodes could be described in terms used by Gherardi
in her treatment of routine learning. As a
sufficiency condition, the authors discussed the systemic
approach in which these episodes are handled.
2. Research limitations/implications – Because research was built
on case studies, one has the
reservations commonly associated with this approach. Extension
from and agreement with previous
studies, however, lend to acceptance of the study.
Practical implications – Results suggest that crises can be
managed in accordance with four general
responses associated with learning within the organization. The
responses themselves are associated
with five organizational practices that aid management in
general.
Originality/value – The value of the work is that it extends
basic concepts of organizational learning
to treating crises in projects, which are both by definition
unique.
Keywords Project management, Learning organizations
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
“A crisis is a terrible thing to waste”, a quote attributed to
Vinod Khosia to Larry Page,
founders of Google (Vaitheeswaran, 2007). In this case, the
quote was associated with
carmakers’ addiction to oil and the consequential warming of
the planet. We, however,
tend to agree with the general premise. Implicit in this approach
to crises is that each of
them carries with them an opportunity, specifically the
opportunity to learn from them.
In a study of deviations from plans in projects (Hällgren, 2004,
3. 2007, 2009), we have
noted that some of these deviations rise to the level of crises
(Hällgren and Wilson, 2007,
2008a,b).Inthiscase,thespecialcaseofprojects,crisesaredefinedast
hosedeviationsthat
interrupt progress along the critical path of the project so as to
interfere with contractual
obligations in timing and/or costs. Deviations along sub-critical
paths that make those
paths critical of course also become crises. Clearly, this topic is
important for two reasons.
First, there appears to be a growing importance of projects in
industrial activity (Lundin,
2000; Lundinand Midler, 1998; Ruigrok et al., 1999;
Whittington et al., 1999; Whitley,2006)
which means as a practical matter, contributions to their
management are important.
Second, crises as concepts and phenomena are per se under-
studied areas within project
research. In contemporary writings, the management of crises is
either understood
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1753-8378.htm
IJMPB
4,2
196
International Journal of Managing
Projects in Business
Vol. 4 No. 2, 2011
pp. 196-217
4. q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1753-8378
DOI 10.1108/17538371111120207
as a matter of applying “tools and techniques” (Reid, 2000) or
as a behavioural process
(Loosemore, 1998). This understanding contributes to the
development of techniques for
handlingcrisesandforunderstandingpatternsandthegeneralphenom
enonofcrises.The
presenttheorizing,however, lacksunderstandingofoftenfine-
grained,mundanedetailsof
crises management practice and therefore how project teams
learn from crises. Typically,
“practice” is assumed to be synonymous with “routine”.
Projects and crisis by definition,
however, haveanelementofuniquenessand thus pose a challenge
tothe organizationthat
hastomanagethem.Learningunderthisuniqueversusroutinesituatio
nposesachallenge
of continued interest. This paper thus investigates the research
question of how
individuals in projects learn from crises.
Thepurposeofthispaper,therefore,
istoextendconceptsoflearningtothenon-routine
case where individuals must deal with crises in projects. The
point of departure from
previousworkisassociatedwithunforeseenoperationaltriggersinag
eneralsense.Inthis
regard, accidents involving people represent a special case.
There, learning may be
directed toward avoidance. If general triggers are considered,
management must be
5. oriented toward efficiently and effectively dealing with the
unforeseen. In fact, Weick and
Sutcliffe(2001,p.1)suggestthat“oneofthe
greatestchallengesanybusinessorganization
faces is dealing with the unexpected”. Consequently, we hope to
extend the consequential
elements that are seen to shape how people acquire
knowledgeability and sustain the
competent reproduction of practices.
The paper first develops the background of project management
in construction
firms and then how crises are handled in that particular
environment from a conceptual
point of view. This section is followed by the methodology
going into the details of the
case study, based on interviews and observation data, detailed
in the data section.
An analysis is then made based on four specific episodes, which
can be related to
conceptual elements of learning from practice. The discussion
section connects the
conceptual base with observations and our interpretation of
them. A short conclusions
section summarizes our contributions to theory in terms of four
general responses and
practice in the form of five organizational developments.
Background
Project management and organization of construction firms
An essential feature of project management is the idea that it is
possible to accomplish
developments within time and cost constraints with a reasonable
assurance. In other
words, project management tends to approach operations by
planning (Christensen and
6. Kreiner, 1991, p. 39), which has influenced much of the current
literature and practice on
projects (Söderlund, 2004). Of course, it has been recognised
that there are a variety of
project types (Nicholas, 2001, p. 6; Turner, 1999, pp. 25-7;
Ekstedt et al., 1999). That is,
there is a natural uncertainty in projects depending upon how
well work methods and
goals can be identified. Nevertheless, classical project
management approaches suggest
that it should be possible to bring a project to completion within
time and cost
constraints. Consequently, virtually every project has a plan
that specifies the
completion time and cost. Construction projects tend to be
among the “most certain” and
so these specifications are accepted by both customer and
provider in contracts –
frequently fixed by competitive bids.
The construction industry has been described as loosely coupled
(Dubois and Gadde,
2002), and construction firms themselves tend to be organized
around their projects.
Learning from
crises in projects
197
That is, their reason for being is the project work that they do.
As a consequence, their
structures can be described by some form of Mintzberg’s (1983)
maps, or diagrams. Put
7. another way, the operating core of the organization reflects the
project organization.
Number of projects determines the form. Ones with few or
single projects take on an
ad hocracy structure, larger ones a form of a professional
service firm. Despite being
loosely coupled in structure, projects tend to be tightly coupled
to plans, which can cause
considerable problems in learning (Dubois and Gadde, 2002;
Scarbrough et al., 2004) and
even crises in operations (Hällgren and Wilson, 2008b).
Learning in project-intensive organizations
Project-intensive organizations are comprised of a “permanent”
organization that utilizes
“temporary” groups to implement its project work (Anell and
Wilson, 2002; Ekstedt et al.,
1999; Lundin and Söderholm, 1995). In this regard, the ability
of the permanent
organization to learn from projects has been questioned (Ekstedt
et al., 1999, pp. 124-54).
Essentially, it is suggested that the knowledge processes that
take place in projects are
difficult to feed back to the permanent organizations. The
argument is that projects are
temporary endeavours in specific contexts where routines
necessary for learning cannot
bedeveloped asinapermanentsetting.Tothecontrary,Marchetal.
(1991)havesuggested
that not only do organizations learn from projects, their
competitors may as well. More
recently, Sense (2004) has surveyed the literature on
organizational learning and
suggested that it is possible to group different authors’
observations under specific
perspectives on organisational learning. These perspectives
8. included cognitive, which is
an informational processing view; behavioural, which has an
outcome focus and
sociological,wheremeaningisaresultofsocialrelationsandpractice.
Projectlearningwas
viewed as a product of the community rather than of the
individuals within it. Five
interdependent elements (learning relationships, cognitive style,
knowledge management,
learning support and a pyramid of authority) were identified
that constituted a learning
architecture for intra-project learning. Gherardi (2006) in an
extensive study of safety
development in construction projects suggested that not only
did individuals learn as a
socialization process in the organizations, but also
organizations learned as a consequence
of accidents. Somewhat similarly, Hällgren and Wilson (2007)
in their study of deviations
posited that two levels of learning occurred. Initially,
participants recognized
consequences of the interruption in a Simon sense (Simon,
1996, p. 100). Simon argued
that there are regularities which make planning possible. Then
again, with planning
follow that interruptions against the regularities a re-occurring
reality. The organization
itself developed an approach that permitted to handle these
problems, which could be
considered a form of secondary learning.
Methodological contributions to studies on organizational
knowledge and workplace
learning with an emphasis on projects
The practice turn in social sciences (Schatzki et al., 2001)
understands organizations
9. through studying what is done and said in often mundane
settings. The idea that the
approach brings forward is that micro-activities influence the
outcome and therefore are
worth studying in their own right. The approach aims to
understand phenomena
as diverse as strategy (Jarzabkowski, 2005; Whittington, 2006),
technology (Orlikowski,
2000, 2002), learning (Brown and Duguid, 1991; Wenger,
1998), ethics (Clegg et al., 2007),
management accounting (Ahrens and Chapman, 2007; Lukka,
2007), problem solving
IJMPB
4,2
198
(Orr, 1996) and institutional change (Seo and Creed, 2002;
Hallett and Ventresca, 2006).
Recently, practice studies have emerged within the field of
project management where
three concepts are recognized as fundamental to the practice
approach – practitioners
(e.g. the project manager), Praxis (the situated actions that the
project manager does) and
the practices (the norms, values, rules, traditions that the
project manager utilizes when
doing
projects;Blomquistetal.,2010).Thisrecognitionimpliesthatlearnin
gtakesplacein
the interplay among the practitioner, praxis, practices and the
social-situated settings,
i.e. projects-as-practice studies. In this area, Scarbrough et al.
10. (2004) reflected on the
processes of project-based learning, Hällgren and Wilson (2007)
focused on learning from
deviations and Söderholm (2008) on unexpected events.
In a general sense, knowledge within a project resides in the
people conducting the
project and in the development of the plan. Deviations from the
plan occur and these
deviations are commonly faced by the people within the project.
Examining the
micro-activities executed when managing deviations in a dual-
structure global
engineering organization, Hällgren and Wilson (2007) found
that some deviations were
managed on a local site level, others were pushed up to the
corporate project team and still
othersinvolvedthelinemanagement.Inaddition,theyfoundthatanu
mberofthesolutions
were attributed to “outside of the box” approaches, thus
requiring improvisational skills
among participants. These findings concur with Lindkvist
(2005) who argues that projects
cause non-conventional solutions to sometimes conventional
deviations, contacts outside
of the project team and a focus on personal experience and
network. The common
denominator among the studies has been an “emphasis on the
detailed processes and
practices, which constitute the day-to-day activities of
organizational life and which relate
to (project organizing) outcomes” (Johnson et al., 2003, p. 3).
Gherardi (2006) undoubtedly comes closest to anticipating this
study and in
establishing results that usefully serve in reflections upon it. In
11. essence, that research
representedacomprehensiveinvestigationofthedevelopmentofwor
kplacesafetyamong
firms in the construction industry. Numerous cases and
examinations of activities were
used to develop concepts of learning at the individual, group,
organizational and
institutional levels. It is impossible to cover the total
contribution that work has made to
the topics of organizational knowledge and workplace learning
in the space allotted here.
Nevertheless, there are four elements of that study that are
useful in appreciating the
results cited here. First, observations frequently were
determined and enriched by
reflecting upon episodes (Gherardi, 2006, p. 180). That is, it
was not generalities, but
specific activities that anchored the work. Frequently, specific
critical events could be
identified that were instrumental, even essential, in establishing
understanding. Second,
it was the interpretation of developments subsequent to these
critical events that were
used to characterize the learning that occurred in the
organization. Put another way,
organizational reactions captured the manner and degree of
learning – be it “darning,
patchingorquilting”.“Darning”referstothepracticeoftheinvisibler
epairingofthesocial
order, “patching” to a visible form of repair work of the social
order and finally, “quilting”
to making do with what is hand based on previous experiences
and the situation at hand
(Gherardi, 2006, pp. 181-3). Third, the concept of texture was
developed (Gherardi, 2006,
p. 64). In a way, texture represents the culture in which practice
12. in a firm occurs[1]. To a
certain extent, there is circularity in the development of texture.
That is, texture is
determined by reactions to critical events, but at the same time,
determines the reactions
that might occur within an episode. Finally, extensive
background is established that can
Learning from
crises in projects
199
be cited in describing the development of learning in an
organization. This contribution
goes beyond background. For instance, in this study, the
material on the education of the
individual (Gherardi, 2006, pp. 66-100) ranging from culture of
practice to situated
learning proved useful in characterizing the organization under
study.
It follows that this framework might be used to describe and
discuss some of the field
observations in handling construction project crises.
Deviations and crises in projects
There is a natural uncertainty in projects depending upon how
well work methods and
goals can be identified (Turner, 1999, pp. 25-7). Put another
way, a research project may
carry uncertainty because it is not evident how long a specific
step may take. In addition
to uncertainty, however, projects also have unforeseen
13. interruptions that disrupt
progress. A construction project, which should proceed with
relative certainty, can
be disrupted by unforeseen circumstances such as a delay in
material delivery. These are
the snags, difficulties and tensions referred by Hirschman and
Lindblom (1962) and are
called deviations in this paper – primarily deviations from
project plans but also from
expectations surrounding the project and its activities. Studies
on projects that are
followed closely show that deviations from a general, planned
endeavour do indeed
happen (Hällgren, 2007).
Not all deviations, however, are crises. Deviations along the
non-critical path for
instance can be handled by using some of the slack available
that makes the task
non-critical. It isonlywhenthedeviation occurs along
thecriticalpath,or whenitextends
the timing of a non-critical task to make it critical, does a crisis
occur. Our research
suggests that a relatively high incidence of these crises is
possible in the construction
industry. Although firms in the industry have been described as
loosely coupled systems
(Dubois and Gadde, 2002), which would suggest resistance to
the cascades of failures
associated with tightly coupled systems, crises still occur as a
consequence of the tight
coupling of activities in planning.
Because they occur across industries, much of the information
on crises and their
responses tend to be general (Mallak and Kurstedt, 1997;
14. Hwang and Lichtenthal, 2000;
Lagadec, 1997; Perrow, 1999). Regardless of the approach,
however, there are certain
things that appear common to industrial crises
conceptualisation. They include an
assumption of primarily singular events that have the propensity
to impart significant
injury to the company. Fundamentally, the observation is made
that complex
organizations somewhere along the line will experience
unimaginable events that
destabilise the organization (Lagadec, 1997). For instance,
Hensgen et al. (2006) use the
operational definition of a crisis “those internal and/or external
events that cause stress
on organisational resources and pose the greatest threats on any
organization’s security
and vitality”.
It should be noted from this definition that crises are associated
with consequences.
Nothing is said about magnitude as a criterion. That is, it does
not take a tsunami,
an earthquake, a fire, or a death on site to precipitate a crisis. In
other words, crises may
be associated with disasters, but not necessarily so. They are
any event or incident that
poses a threat to an organisation’s security or has an adverse
effect on financial
conditions, relationships or reputation in the marketplace.
Further, Hwang and
Lichtenthal (2000) have indicated crises do not necessarily have
to be associated with
a specific event. They identify two types of crises – abrupt
crises that strike suddenly
15. IJMPB
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and catch management off-guard versus cumulative crises (their
words) that accumulate
stressors and eventually erupt. Likewise, Roux-Dufort (2007)
allows for a type of crisis
that is a process of accumulation of deficiencies and weaknesses
rather than as a sudden
and extraordinary irruption.
The management of crises is, however, somewhat similar to the
practice approach,
about the effective control of social and behavioural instability.
Crises stimulate
temporary communications divided into phases that influence
the efficiency of the
management process. Crises also contribute to conflicts among
the participants who are
less prone to take a collective responsibility of the events and
communicate efficiently
(Loosemore, 1999).
Methodology
The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the understanding
of the need that project
managers have to adapt to changes from plan and the incidental
learning that may occur
intheworkplaceasa consequence ofthis
adaptation.Basically,themultiple-caseprotocol
described by Yin (1989, pp. 52-60) and his suggested six
sources of evidence (pp. 85-103)
16. were utilized in the study.In many ways,the methodology
parallelsthe approach used by
Gherardi (2006, pp. 52-6). Although a spiral approach was not
used, comparable detail in
cases was developed as a consequence of on-site observations.
In this study, cases were
followed in the experiences of distributed power plant projects
developed by an
integrated provider of projects of this type. These observations
were in line with the
classic ethnographic studies of Mintzberg (1973) and Carlson
(1951) and the stream of
ethnographic studies associated with contemporary practice
research (Jarzabkowski,
2005; Johnson et al., 2003; Schatzki et al., 2001) and
communities of practice (Lave and
Wenger, 1991; Brown and Duguid, 1991; Gherardi and Nicolini,
2000), which have gained
appreciation for producing knowledge based on actual practice
in everyday operations.
The larger portion of the study was on the practice of managing
deviations, i.e. when
something unexpected occurred and how such situations were
remedied (Hällgren,2009).
That is, unforeseen interruptions affected progress[2]. Crises
were of particular interest.
The “call” on whether a deviation was a crisis or not thus
depended upon its location
in the project plan, i.e. was it on the critical path or not? That
call invariably was made by
the project manager who worked at the corporate office, and it
represented the first level
of coding required to permit systematic analysis of qualitative
data (Miles, 1979).
17. Although one may expect that deviations and crises will occur
within a project, one
does not know at which point they might happen. In fact, it was
found that they occur at
any point within a project. Consequently, identification and
follow-up virtually
mandated an on-site presence. One suggestion by Van Maanen
(1988) of keeping a field
diary was helpful in the association of events prior to and after
these incidents occurred,
as well as what was considered deviations by the project team.
The observations
themselves were somewhere between the direct and
participative observations described
by Yin (1989, pp. 91-4). In other words, the observations were
made contemporaneously,
but the observer was not really part of the project team thus
avoiding the bias that might
be associated with such involvement (Yin, 1989, p. 94). In the
majority of instances
(13/15)[3], crises in projects were observed during a total of ten
weeks of on-site visits for
each project. A range of ancillary methods supported
observations. Informal
conversations with project principals were noted and recorded
in a diary of
observations. In this way, the diary provided notes on team
conversations as well as
Learning from
crises in projects
201
18. those conducted with onlookers. There was full access to the
database of plans, e-mails
and reports. Previous agreement gave access to phone calls and
other records for the
specific periods in which the deviations occurred. Subsequently,
60, formal,
semi-structured interviews among participants ranging between
30 minutes to 2 hours
were conducted and tape-recorded (Hällgren, 2004, 2008). From
this information, the
crises could be coded abrupt or cumulative (Hwang and
Lichtenthal, 2000) and then who
was instrumental in handling them – project overseers plus site
team, or corporate staff.
Team characteristics were determined by whether the team was
formally recognized as a
group and set up to handle a situation as an extraordinary task
over a period of time,
which defined the formal groups. Informal groups, on the other
hand, handled the crises
within the work-a-day responsibilities and were not recognised
as formal groups,
but collections of individuals contributing their resources to end
solutions. The results of
this coding approach are reflected in Figure 1.
Data collected by this process were used to build cases as in a
manner described by
Yin (1989), Eisenhardt (1989) and Eisenhardt and Graebner
(2007) who in combination
suggested first that cases include several types of data in order
to triangulate evidence.
Data hence included interviews, reports, minutes-of-meetings,
observations and e-mail
correspondencetocharacterizethecases.Inadditiontothe26formali
nterviewsconducted
19. on these cases, there were 26 informal conversations monitored
among participants, ten
meetings attended, 138 e-mails monitored and two formal
reports made available. Second,
it is recognised that good practice provides breaks for analysis
in order to get some
distancing from observations so that modifications might be
made in the methodology.
Two weekslongbreaksbetweenthe cases were therefore used for
post-analysis.Thistime
was utilized to summarize the individual cases as suggested by
Yin (1989). Third, it has
been recommended that cases should be spread in order to
extend the findings. In this
regard, projects were available with different geographic
locations and type, which
produced deviations along the projects’ time lines. Finally,
cross-case observations have
beendiscussedininternalseminarswiththeprojectgroupattheauthor
s’universityandat
external conferences of peers, which provided a sense of
credibility for observations and
inferences made from them (Lincoln and Guba, 1985, pp. 281-
308).
Observations
The organization
In order to understand the specific episodes that are captured in
the cases, it is necessary
to understand the nature of the business being conducted. The
organization that
Figure 1.
Hwang and Lichtenthal
(2000) crises anatomy
adapted to a project
20. management situation
Crises
Organizational
treatment
Cumulative Abrupt
Project overseers
plus site team
Corporation
staff
Q2 Q4
Q1 Q3
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cooperated in this study was an international project
organization, which specialized in
power plant and power conversion construction. The company
operated with a
quasi-independent sales force, which responded to opportunities
and was responsible
for bid preparation, together with an appointed project team
when appropriate. Projects
officially started when a bid was accepted and a first down
payment was made.
21. Typically, these projects would either be turnkey projects, i.e.
the full responsibility for
the construction of a plant, or engineering and equipment
projects, i.e. the design,
procurement and transportation of materials for plant
construction. Ostensibly, the size
of the project (13-80 MW) and duration (eight to 16 months)
reflected the complexity and
cost of these projects. The nature of work at the time of this
research produced
the opportunity to visit projects at various stages of completion
ranging from start-up
to transfer. At the time of this study, all the projects were of
concurrent engineering
nature. The firm employed the approach because it proved to be
a competitive
advantage. That is, it allowed customers to respond to sudden
market windows
(Wikström, 2000, p. 140).
Under common circumstances, the organization would have two
teams working on
each project. One team would be a project team that would be
located at the corporate
office. This team had the overall responsibility for the project,
i.e. it would plan, organize,
monitor and control the project. During this study, two
corporate project teams were
operating and they had responsibility for multiple projects. The
site team had
responsibility for operations at the physical project location,
which could be anywhere
in the world. Site teams were devoted to the project upon which
they were working and in
general did not share responsibilities with other projects. Every
team in the organization
22. had its own project manager or shared one if they were for the
same customer
in proximate locations. Senior engineers staffed the teams –
project teams used electrical
and mechanical engineers and in case of turnkey project a civil
engineer; site teams were
staffed with an electrical, mechanical and civil engineer as well
as a contract engineer
and other experts where they were needed. In terms of usual
terminology, the site team
would be a temporary team (Lundin and Söderholm, 1995;
Turner and Müller, 2003)
devoted to the project for the customer. The project team, on the
other hand, would be
part of the permanent organization, albeit temporarily assigned
to specific projects,
thus representing a temporary organization within the
permanent setting.
Cases
The observations presented here are built around Figure 1,
which associates the types of
crises observed with the general manner in which they were
handled, and Gherardi’s
(2006) approach in depicting episodes as occurring in three acts
– normalcy, breakdown
and mending, which are similar to the distinct phases identified
by Loosemore (1999,
pp. 13-14). See Table I for further specification of the figures
content.
Q1 – cumulative crisis handled by corporation staff: client
unwilling to accept hand over.
Normalcy. Normally, when a project is coming to its end a
“hand over” phase occurs.
23. This term means that all major activities by the company are
finished, and the client is
prepared to put the power plant into operation. Typically,
handing over does not mean
that all activities by the company are finished. Minor tasks are
put on a “punch list” that
involves tasks such as painting and final touches on buildings.
In some situations, major
tasks are also put on the punch list, but only if they can be
covered without interference
with the handing over process.
Learning from
crises in projects
203
Breakdown. In this case, which is not uncommon, a diesel
power plant company
was responsible for subsequent operations after project services
were completed.
The client, however, was unwilling to accept hand over because
they were not finished
with the tasks for which they were responsible. Accepting the
hand over would have
two major consequences; first, they would lose face and second,
they would have to
carry the cost of the operations. In this part of the world, losing
face is a big thing so on
a cultural level that would be a stigma for them. On a more
general level, the cost of the
operations was severe. Because of these two reasons, the client
was unwilling to
accept transfer at the time it normally would have been handed
24. over. The reason
for not accepting transfer was officially that the engine did not
perform the way it
should.
Mending – mobilization. Responding to the client’s
unwillingness to proceed further,
the project manager (together with his team and supported by
in-house technical
services) prepared a document that detailed the engines
performance and support. Then
the project manager and the local sales office approached the
client and explained why
the performance was not an issue. In addition, the project team
had an ace up their sleeve
as they were able to claim a “force majeure”, which had
occurred earlier in the project.
They discussed the issue with the client as this would save face
and allow for some other
Episode Explanation Utilised resources
Security and
viability threat
Q1 Client unwilling to
accept transfer
Several days of discussions
with the client and local
sales office to reach an
agreement on the transfer
In-house services (sales
and legal) and project
team
25. Penalty for late
transfer and less
corporate revenue
from plant
operations
Q2 Client delay in
essential component
implementation (delay
in major installation
component 1)
A several month
cumulative crisis ended in
demobilization of the entire
project site. Owing to
political considerations no
costs were claimed even
though this was discussed
in initial meetings
Site team and project
team
Project schedule
delay. Cost
associated with
re-mobilisation
and guarding the
plant
Q3 Engine variance
(essential component
non-compliance)
Explanation required.
26. Plants usually run at base
or peak load. Because of
delay in modification,
variance appeared. To be
adjusted later
Project team and sub-
contractor design team
Delay of entire
design, overall
delay and
customer
frustration
Q4 Transport damages Several days taken with
stakeholders to determine
responsibility. It took two
days to ascertain damage
and order new
components. Certain
components could be
repaired, but others had to
be re-ordered
Project and site team,
in-house services
(logistics) and sub-
contractors
(manufacturer,
logistics)
Project schedule
delay and period
payment
associated with
27. delivery
Table I.
Summary of case studies
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tasks to be finished within the time frame. In the end, both
parties agreed on the handing
over with the final ceremonies and final payment was made.
Q2 – cumulative crisis handled by project overseers plus site
team: client delay in
essential component implementation.
Normalcy. Normally, a power plant is constructed for:
. the client to sell power to the existing power system; and/or
. to provide their own installations with a stable flow of power
in an otherwise
fluctuating environment.
In this case, the client had ordered a power plant to provide
their paper mill with power
and steam, while the remaining power would be sold on the
power marketplace.
Breakdown. Hooking up the power plant to an existing structure
involves
considering the interfaces between often complex structures. In
this instance, interfacing
28. involved the construction of a pipe and cable rack from the
power plant to the paper mill.
This construction was critical because without it, performance
testing and hand over
could not be accomplished. Any delay would not only interrupt
the critical path, but also
delay the project immensely with associated costs. The client
was responsible for this
specific task.
This crisis was a truly cumulative one. It started well before
Christmas with the
project manager recognizing that the client had not yet started
their task that had a
mid-June completion date. Consequently, the project manager
contacted the client
repeatedly. Each time, the project manager received word that
the client was on top of
their task and that they would be finished in time. Naturally, the
project manager had his
doubts but there was not much more to do but wait. Well into
the project and one day
after the official deadline for completion of the pipe and rack,
the project manager sent a
final e-mail letting the client know that this delay threatened the
entire project.
The response was still that this would be done in time to not
delay project completion.
Mending – prioritization. Since the official deadline was passed
the project manager
had a legitimate position to making arrangements for subsequent
activities. First,
he contacted the line management about what had happened.
Second, he discussed the
situation at hand with the site team. This discussion was
29. focused on the impact of the
event and which path they would choose for the future
developments. The site and
project team were in agreement that the client would not be able
to make it in time and
this situation would have a major impact on the project.
To sort things out, the project manager booked a trip to the
foreign location with his
project team. The specific purpose of the trip was to discuss the
situation with the client
and advance the demands and the solutions that they thought
fitted. During the
subsequent meeting the client was not thrilled because what was
proposed involved
severe costs for them. That is, the client would be held
responsible for any costs involved
with the massive demobilization of the site, personnel costs and
costs involved with not
being able to make performance tests as planned. In the end, the
client did not have to
assume the costs (although they were quite huge compared to
the rest of the costs of the
project). In discussions with the line management and the sales
support service, it was
decided that they would accept the cost in exchange for the
hope of future projects.
Q3 – abrupt crisis handled by corporation staff: engine
variance.
Normalcy. Construction of a diesel power plant is under normal
conditions a complex
undertaking. One added complexity is that the client in some
cases wants to do some
30. Learning from
crises in projects
205
tasks themselves in order to save money and have control of
certain tasks. Within the
framework of this specific project, the client was responsible of
building load-absorbing
furnaces. The function of these furnaces would allow the power
plant to run at full
capacity and was thus essential for both the performance tests
and the subsequent hand
over process.
Breakdown. Once the implementation of the power plant had
reached the point where
the performance test could be initiated, it was discovered that
the engines had an
unexplainedvariancethatcausedacrisesforboththesiteteamandthec
lient.Thesituation
jeopardized the entire operations. If the operations would have
to be shut down, severe
penalties would result for the company; each delay day carried
huge costs according to the
contract on top of the costs of keeping personnel on site longer
than necessary.
Mending – normalization. In this instance, an explanation was
developed by the
project team that involved other project engineers and the
technical support function of
the company. Plants usually operate under full power. Because
that state had not been
31. accomplished, the variance appeared. Said the project manager:
The project has its tricky parts, which need to be thought over.
We have to fix this particular
problem with a document containing the explanation and then
send it to the customer.
Nevertheless, it took approximately 15 days from the time that
the deviation was
observed until the customer was convinced. Adjustments would
be made later,
as would the punch-list when the customer developed their end
of the installation.
Q4 – abrupt crisis handled by project overseers plus site team:
transport damages.
Normalcy. Building a power plant in remote areas also has its
tricky parts. Among
other things, logistics can be problematic. Equipment must be
taken first by sea from one
pointtotheother,whichtakesseveralmonths.Ontopofthat,theheavy
equipmentusually
needs to be transported several hundred kilometres to reach its
final destination. Delays in
this kind of process may carry permanent consequences to the
project and organization.
Breakdown. The transport damages emerged late in the project
after a majority of
the on-site activities were done that depended on equipment
delivery. When the site
team opened up one of the crates, they discovered that some
vital equipment (control
panels and switch gear cubicles) was severely damaged and
apparently beyond repair.
32. Even before the damages were discovered, delivery had already
been delayed, which
caused an initial stress to the organizations resources and
timetable.
The site team immediately responded to the situation by sending
an e-mail to the
project manager. He, however, could not do much more than
wait for additional
information and forwardthat information to his project
team.Duringthe first and second
day, while the information was gathered, the project manager
was observed talking on
his phone most of the day. Penalties existed for delays in
turnover, and transportation
itself added several months to any replacement process. The
phone calls went to the
parties involved. During one call the project manager rather
angrily said that he:
[. . .] must be able to order disregarding the responsibility of
the situation.
Mending – responsibility. Consequently, the temporary,
expeditious solution was to
placeorderswithouthavinga perfectestimation ofthedamages
onthebasisoftheproject
manager’s intuitive assessment of the situation. In the end,
about two months later,
the logistics company agreed to pay about a third of the money
that the project manager
thought suitable despite the fact that they were not contractually
obligated to do so.
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33. 206
The texture of the organization
To conclude the observations, it is necessary to understand the
internal environment
in which they occurred in order to understand developments. A
useful formalism exists
to rationalize situations observed in the field. In her treatment
of the development of
practitioners, Gherardi (2006, pp. 66-100) identified six inputs
into the construction of
personal knowledge in situated working practices. These
included absorbing the culture
of practice, knowledge pointers, knowing as aesthetic
understanding, conversation in
and on practice, knowledge mediation and situated learning
(Table II). The situation
Item Definition and example Comment Outcome
Culture of
practice
Stories that illustrate a
point. Team that was
attacked by guerrillas
One of the two illustrations
that “everyone” knew
about. Theory remains
abstract. Practice is
practice
34. Crises will occur. The
company employs heroes
Knowledge
pointers
Seeing and listening are
important in knowing.
Sub-contractor that was
consistently late
Initial call is essential in
resolving crisis, especially
in cumulative crises
Contractors will provide
problems, better be
prepared
Aesthetic
understanding
Use of senses to
understand a situation, i.e.
to have an ear or nose for
the situation. Form of
organisational knowledge
that is personal, e.g. under-
pricing of contract
Something just did not
“smell right”, which lead to
initial inquiry
Always be cautious
35. Conversations in
and on practice
Decisive factor in the
circulation of knowledge,
e.g. debriefing on
situations, which results in
monthly reports
Essentially, group extends
information to “good”, if
not “best” practice. Group
learns from individual
occurrences
Provide an arena for
discussions and mutual
development
Knowledge
mediation
Mentorship, exceptional
situation suggestions,
word of mouth and norms
important in transferring
knowledge, e.g. the project
manager having a junior
counterpart doing project
management-related
activities such as planning
and follow up
Especially, crises need
attention. One of the
functions of the group is to
36. get diverse input
By being close to the
scene professionals are
raised
Situated
learning
Learning tricks of the
trade, i.e. the shortcuts that
make an experienced
individual more efficient,
e.g. the resolution of tax
issues which the project
manager never been
involved in before
Linking problem
situations to solutions
Constant adaptation to
the situation
Source: After Gherardi (2006, pp. 66-100)
Table II.
On the development
of texture
Learning from
crises in projects
207
37. studied by her, i.e. the education of a novice in the subject of
safety, was different than the
study here of handling ofdeviationsin construction projects.That
is, safety inoperations
is almost a process variable; these episodes here tended to be
unique, albeit possibly
reoccurring at some future date. Nevertheless, the learning
required to expediently
handle situations threatening to disrupt a project apparently has
much in common with
the learning required of Gheradi’s novice. In a general
concurrence with Gherardi what is
done (praxis) and what is drawn upon (practices) mutually
develop and influence each
other (Whittington, 2006). Thus, it is suggested that what is
done is a reflection of what
was previously learned, and vice versa; what is done also
influences future behaviour. In
terms of general observations, learning and action thus cannot
be separated.
In essence, the six items in Table II help understand the texture
existing within which
learning occurs. For instance, the culture of practice is
conveyed in part by stories that
have a point. When it was learned that we were interested in
crises, we were told stories
that “everyone” knew about. One had to do with a site team that
was attacked by
guerrillas. This conveyance was meant to imply that although
we might be interested in
theories and abstractions, individuals in the company knew
about reality. More
importantly, for employees these stories carried a message of
38. the dire consequences that
may result in crises, but that the company will be there to
protect and support you.
An insidious form of crises faced by organizations is the
cumulative or creeping crisis
(Hwang and Lichtenthal, 2000; Roux-Dufort, 2007). These
situations are not associated
with spontaneous or even specific events, but instead develop
over time. Two elements
of texture thus become important in dealing with these
situations – aesthetic
understanding and knowledge pointers. Aesthetic understanding
deals with the use of
one’s senses to understand a situation, i.e. to have an ear or
nose for a situation. In some
situations, e.g. a client unwilling to accept transfer or ongoing
delays by a client,
something just does not seem to “smell right”. Likewise, there
are knowledge pointers
that suggest seeing and listening is important in knowing. With
regard to crises, there is
general agreement among both practitioners and academics that
timing of the first call
is important in rectifying situations. Delay can result if egos get
in the way. Emphasis
was placed upon this importance within the organization under
study.
One specific way in which the organization prepared for crises
was through its
conversations in and on practice. Specifically, use of ad hoc
groups (Engwall and
Svensson, 2001, 2004; Pavlak, 2004) to handle the specific
episode was the general
practice. Utilization of these groups tended to spread
39. recognition of the situation
throughout the organization. Further, there was a monthly
debriefing on each project
that tended to spread knowledge horizontally through the
organization. The use
of groups had additional effects on the environment. For one
thing, by using individuals
with past experience in handling similar episodes, a form of
knowledge mediation
developed. That is, a form of mentorship and certainly
exceptional situational
suggestions were obtained. Finally, the whole idea of having
senior people responsible
for projects at the corporate level was an example of situated
learning. These were the
individuals who had learned the shortcuts that tended to made
them both efficient and
effective.
Discussion
The purpose of this paper was to extend concepts of learning to
the special case of
where individuals must deal with crises in projects, and four
cases have been developed
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208
for analyses. The cases, reflecting internal and external events,
caused strains on the
organizational resources, which posed threats to the company’s
security or vitality
40. (Hensgen et al., 2006). Further, because the observed cases
affected the critical path, they
potentially affected profits and profitability – considerations of
no small impact in a
journal concerned with project management in business.
Nevertheless, because crises
are unique, it is not an easy task to demonstrate that
organizational learning has
occurred. We approach this task by considering necessary and
sufficiency conditions.
The necessary condition is that the episodes can be described in
terms used by Gherardi
(2006) in her treatment of routine learning. In that study,
learning could be associated
with a metric – efficiency or reduction in accidents over time.
Crises, however, are
unique and thus learning from them is not easily measured in
quantitative terms. As a
sufficiency condition then, we discuss the systemic approach,
the template as it were in
which these episodes are handled.
The crises did not as in Gherardi’s (2006) accidents have a
high-emotional content
associated with death or near death. Rather, they dealt more
with company and project
health. Nevertheless, the crises were associated with the same
feature of unexpectedness
in a general sense. As a first step then, there was the learning
that had to occur as each of
the crises was handled. Gherardi (2006, pp. 177-85) might call
this darning, patching and
quilting. The specific skills in darning is the art of invisible
repair work of the social
order; patching the visible repair work of the social order and
quilting is using what is at
41. hand to invent something new and/or to make imaginative reuse
of what is old. In the
engine variance case (Q3), for instance, an explanation was
developed for the variance,
which involved other project engineers and the technical
support functions of the
company. In a Simon (1996, p. 100) context, this situation
would be associated with his
acquiring information end of a cognitive spectrum. This step is
common to any
decision-making situation and although outcomes cannot be
certain, they persist in a
step toward normalized behaviour. These steps have been
associated with a Lindblom’s
(1959) scientific muddling approach (Hällgren and Wilson,
2007) because the decisions
themselves could change on the basis of feedback. In fact, an
essential element of
scientific muddling is that improvements are sought through
iterations on the basis of
learning that occurs as a consequence of the decision.
We suggest these episodes reflect cue-response situations where
the cues are of a
general nature. One of the contributions of this paper is thus the
identification of four
responses and thus learning opportunities associated with the
cases: mobilization,
prioritization, normalization and responsibility[4].
Q1 – mobilization
Mobilization refers to the practice of summoning the necessary
forces within the
organization in order to develop a joint appreciation of the
crises. That is, in order to
resolve the crises the situation needs to be understood in a
42. common way with the part
that finally is to convince. In this case, this would be the client.
This practice is similar to
“patching”. Patching is the practice of visually repairing the
social order (Gherardi, 2006,
p. 181). In this case, suggesting to the client that the parties
cannot be in disagreement
and that they have to agree on a solution. The repair work as
such was visible in terms of
official e-mails, contract references and visits with minute of
meetings.
The mobilization response addresses the issue of learning
within the framework
developed by Gherardi (2006). It comes most closely to what is
called knowledge
Learning from
crises in projects
209
mediation.Knowledge mediation includes
mentorship,exceptionalsituationsuggestions,
word of mouth and norms important in transferring knowledge.
Although mentorship
was not apparent in this specific episode, suggestions on how to
resolve the situation
finally produced a remedy. This type of learning utilizes
knowledge and powers of other
within the organization, which would imply that a network and
structure is essential in
the available support system. The nature of the crises, however,
suggests that it was how
43. the situation “smelled” that determined how it was subsequently
managed. This smell is
visible in how the project manager continuously referred to the
processes behind the
scene and what he thought was going on. Thereby referring to
previous experiences in
doing business in the area (aesthetic understanding) but also
paying attention to what is
not said (knowledge pointers).
Q2 – prioritization
The features of the prioritization response refer to making one
task more important than
another. The practice associated with this mechanism is the
reorganization of activities
and the allocation of resources. Typically, this call is made by
the project team with some
input by the site team. The specific episode involved a make or
break situation for the
project as it became clear that it might delay the entire project
and force demobilization.
It, therefore, was seen essential to the project team to shift tasks
that were immediately
dependent on the procedures that could be done before the work
had to end. This practice
is the art of darning. Darning is represented by an invisible
practice and is in the
empirical case illustrated by the sensitivity to which the client
was approached. As the
situation escalated the project manager had to become more
aggressive and in that
involve the corporate staff in the negotiations. The darning thus
developed into a
patching practice with a more visible approach, reflected in
official e-mails and meetings
(Gherardi, 2006, pp. 181-3).
44. The prioritization response required the parties to have a face-
to-face discussion on
how things should or could be solved, which thus required
mutual adaptation. The
prioritizationthushadtofirstbesetinternallyandthencommunicated
totheclientandthe
sub-contractors who at end had to comply in order to allow the
project process to continue.
Learning is addressed in prioritization in terms of situated
learning among the parties
involved in the process. The feature of situated learning is
knowing the shortcuts
involved in allowing the project to continue uninterrupted. The
knowledge of the project
manager and his team was obvious. The situated learning
requires the project manager
and his team to be aware of similar situations and the logic of
the project setup, thus
above all based on previous experiences and knowledge
pointers. Situated learning may
occur on the individual level but may be more importantly is to
reflect over how the
situated learning is distributed among several parties that as
long as they work in
similar projects at the same organization most likely will have
to face similar situations,
or at least be asked to help someone out in a similar situation.
Q3 – normalization
Recall crises in projects are associated with critical path
interruptions. If the timing
constraint can be re-negotiated, the critical portion the crises
goes away. Likewise,
if performance and cost goals are also negotiable, then these
45. elements of crises are
minimized. Consequently, negotiations on response goals carry
practices associated
with normalization; re-defining tasks and generally bringing
things back to earth.
IJMPB
4,2
210
Although each practice was observed in this case the
normalization practice was
relied upon most heavily. Normalization is basically the act of
making the crisis into
something normal, controllable and in less need of attention and
thus practically
defining away the situation. It necessitates, however, re-
negotiating the project goals.
Goal negotiations permit the project manager to put crises in
perspective. A goal
definition response is thus a way for the project manager to
rationalize a crisis rather
than actively manage it. This mutual negotiation is thus an
invisible repair work of
“darning” nature. The purpose of the darning practice is to get
the client to agree that the
crises is none existent there is no case for further dispute.
The learning associated with this response is associated with
teaching parties on
what and how they should think about a situation. It is thus
about presenting enough
evidence to make others trust one’s judgement without
46. contemplating alternatives. This
episode was handled by the project team presenting enough
trustworthy material to the
client that he could no longer see the crisis as a crisis. It was
thus very much a
conversation about practice (Gherardi, 2006). Specifically, all
the performance tests
could not be done according to procedure at the time, but as
long as the client complied
this was not regarded as a problem.
Q4 – responsibility
Transfer of responsibility refers to the practice of shifting
internal or external
organizationalaccountability.Inprojects,theseshiftsoccurwhentas
ksand consequences
are assigned to sub-contractors or clients. When the project
organization carries overall
responsibility, these responsibilities are shared. Sharing
responsibility carries at least two
implications; there needs to be a division of labor and a
common agreement on each
party’s responsibilities.
Commonly, the features of the responsibility mechanism are
formally documented in
the contractual agreement among organizations, i.e. instructions
for contract disputes
(as in Q4 the transport damages). In situations such as this
episode, instructions were not
followed which made the transfer of responsibility a semi-
informal one. “Semi-informal”
in the sense that there was a joint interest in dividing the
responsibility and that
meeting notes were taken and later on incorporated in a claim
request. In this sense,
47. the practice had a patching aura to it, however, examining site-
level activities
the practice had more of a quilting nature. The quilting refers to
making do with
what is at hand. In practice, this is seen in how the activities
were rearranged to fit a
future available product which would replace the damaged
equipment and be readily
installed.
Transfer of responsibility carries consequences for learning
also. Once again,
according to a Gherardis’ (2006) framework, it resembles
situated learning and
adaptation to situation. Although the costs were severe, it was
better to be proactive in
ordering equipment facing project delay with the subsequent
contractually stipulated
fines. Thus, a risk that was taken was balanced against possible
additional costs. This
decision could not have been made without considering the
project in general and the
crisis in particular in combination with past experiences of
both.
To make such a decision, the project manager, however, had to
have enough
information about the situation to be reasonably certain that the
cost would at least not
entirely fall into his lap. From a more general perspective, the
situation and the project
set up (concurrent engineering) governed the way the crises
were managed.
Learning from
crises in projects
48. 211
The second aspect of learning observed or sufficiency condition
in these cases
involved the patterns in which they tended to be handled. Each
crisis presents a
company with the opportunity to review organizational
practices. Per Khosia and Page
(Vaitheeswaran, 2007), these crises were not wasted. The
review of the organizational
texture suggests that the company had developed systemic
practices that enabled it to
handle these critical episodes. Ekstedt et al. (1999, pp. 140-2)
would call this development
system embedded knowledge and would be effective in what
they call the generation
phase of learning. That is, the system adapts so that crises of
the type documented here
can be handled in an expeditious manner. From our projects-as-
practice study, five
practices in the process have been identified that can be
associated with a
knowledgeable approach to handling crises.
The initial call. The importance of the initial call should not be
under estimated
(Hensgen et al., 2006; Perrow, 1999). It essentially starts the
clock in the time taken to get
recovery. Further, it initiates the deviation-crises call. These
calls are especially
important in the case of cumulative crisis whose consequences
could be greater the
longer they go unnoticed. Loosemore (1998) noted that the
49. behaviour associated with the
initial call, or rather the cumulative/abrupt features of the
situation, differed depending
upon the situation. Cumulative situations created a sense of
backward momentum and a
negative feeling within the project team. Thus, it seems as early
initial call may allow
cumulative crises to be regarded with a more positive turn.
An immediate initial call also allows the project team to reflect
longer over the
situation. As noted by Hällgren (2007), the project is past the
point of no return as soon as
the project is initiated, which implies that there is commonly
not much time to allow a
crisis to muddle along. Hence, an early call is essential both in
terms of time to manage
but also in what kind of learning that could be utilized and
developed.
Maintenance of relative calmness. Crises are associated with
both an element
of surprise and an outlet of associated emotion at the personal
level. The company,
however, at any given time had over a 100 projects ongoing.
Observations suggested
that other activities in the project and other projects in the
organization went on as
planned while the crisis in the affected project was being
handled. Likewise, activities
associated with recovery proceeded with a relative calmness.
There was an atmosphere
of urgency, but individuals went about their business in a
professional manner.
Assessment of situation and assignment of responsibility. The
50. initial call invariably
went to the project manager at the corporate office. It was his
responsibility to use
company resources in assessing the situation and making the
call on the approach.
In this sense, the project manager’s function is, as a project
manager expressed it,:
“to be the initiating force behind anything that happens in the
project”. The role of the
project manager is thus to initiate interest following the
situation and secure the
necessary resources. According to Loosemore (1999, pp. 14-15),
this responsibility is
prone to be divided rather than shared among the (external)
actors.
Temporary permanency and crises response teams. In addressing
these crises, the
organization was observed using two group setups that aided
operations and learning.
One team would be the semi-permanent project team, which
would be stable over several
projects, and the ad hoc crisis response teams. The semi-
permanency of the project team
was observed as being useful in the way the project team
worked and the knowledge
they developed as a group. Over time they developed the
features of learning
that Gherardi (2006) observed; a culture of practice, knowledge
pointers,
IJMPB
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212
51. aesthetic understanding, conversations in and on practice,
knowledge mediation and
situated learning. Thus, one appreciation from this is that the
semi-permanency allowed
for the development of a praxis which would not have been
present in an all together
temporary setting (Lindkvist, 2005).
The crisis response team, on the other hand, is one of the most
temporary
organizational forms observed (Engwall and Svensson, 2001,
2004; Pavlak, 2004). These
teams are organized around one specific issue that needs
remedied, and they dissolve
once the solution is in place. The learning associated in these
team developments tends to
be both horizontal and vertical. Horizontal in the way the
response team involved other
engineers or project teams in the solution (e.g. the engine
variance in Quadrant 3) and
vertical in the way it involved support functions and line
management (e.g. the transport
damages in Quadrant 4). Through these situations and
individuals, organizational
practices are developed that equip the organization to handle
similar situations more
efficiently and effectively in the future. Next time the
individual (e.g. the sales support
function) faced a similar situation, he or she would be better
equipped to manage that
situation, a learning that benefits future projects conducted by
other project teams.
Debriefings. One important way of communicating learning
52. across the organization
was present in the organizational practices of the monthly
meetings. Debriefings allowed
the project manager to reflect over the situation and put the
most pressing situations in a
monthly report. In one-day meetings, all the project managers
gathered to discuss
pressing deviations and crisis in their projects. In the
discussion, some resources would
be distributed by the line management, but also there would be
knowledge pointers
directed in the project teams direction in regard to the
management of the situation.
Asinthecaseofthe crisisresponseteamdebriefingsserved
adualfunction.Itallowed
both line management and other project teams to learn about
operations, i.e. knowledge
for future utilization.
Conclusions
Based on a “projects-as-practice” approach this paper has
suggested that crises need not
be wasted. Indeed, concepts of learning have been extended to
the non-routine case where
individuals must deal with crises in projects. A necessary and
sufficiency approach was
used torationalizethe organizational learningthat was
observed.The necessary condition
was thatthe episodes could be described in terms used
byGherardi(2006)in her treatment
of routine learning. As a sufficiency condition, we discussed the
systemic approach, the
template as it were in which these episodes are handled. Results
suggest that crises can be
managed in accordance with at least four general responses
53. (mobilization, prioritization,
normalization and responsibility) associated with learning
within the organization
throughcultureofpractice,knowledgepointers,aestheticunderstand
ing,conversationsin
and on practice, knowledge mediation and situated learning. The
responses themselves
are associated with five organizational practices (the initial call,
maintenance of relative
calmness, assessment of situation and assignment of
responsibility, temporary
permanency and crises response teams and debriefings) that aid
the management of the
crises ingeneral and learning from them inparticular. The
practices provide opportunities
for horizontal and vertical learning in and between projects and
the permanent
organization. One particular contribution is thus that learning
opportunities initiated by
the crisis exist in both the temporary and permanent
organizations.
Learning from
crises in projects
213
Notes
1. Actually, Gherardi (2006, p. 64) leaves the concept of texture
undefined, perhaps because it
changes over time. Rather, it is left as adequate to appreciate
that it can be shown and
demonstrated. In Chapter 6 of that text, for instance, three firms
54. reacting to accidents in three
different ways would suggest that texture has comparison, but
perhaps not absolute
characteristics.
2. All in all 118 deviations were observed.
3. Two of the crises were common knowledge in the corporation
and these details were
determined by separate interviews. They are included here
because their elements appeared to
coincide with observations in the other 13 crises.
4. Note: This quadrant contains the accidents covered by
Gherardi.
5. This is not a claim that responses to other crises are limited
to these four types. The response
nature is an illustration of the practice used in relation to the
nature of these specific crises.
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About the authors
64. Markus Hällgren is an Assistant Professor at the Umeå School
of Business, Sweden. His primary
research interest is projects-as-practice and organisation theory
applied to projects. He is currently
studying the practice of managing deviations in construction
projects, the practice of managing
innovation in distributed systems and group dynamics in
mountain climbing expeditions.
Markus Hällgren is the corresponding author and can be
contacted at:
[email protected]
Timothy L. Wilson is an Adjunct Professor of Marketing and
Management at USBE.
His academic interests include project management
fundamentals, business-to-business
marketing and organizational/industry development. In his early
career in the USA, he was
involved with technology push projects – first as an engineer
and then as an R&D manager.
Learning from
crises in projects
217
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