1. F i n a l E s s a y : G e o g r a p h y 5 0 0
Nuclear Weapons Fallout and a New
Geologic Epoch: The Anthropocene
Andrew J. Paladino, Department of Geography,
Syracuse University
Why radioactive isotopes present in stratigraphic records are the best representation of a
golden spike in defining a new unit of geologic time.
Fall
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The “Anthropocene”, or the recent age of human impact on planet earth, exists as
an informal term that has attempted to make its presence as the new Epoch on the
Geological Time Scale. In order for this proposal to become a reality, scientists must first
find a “golden spike” in stratigraphic records that would provide sufficient
evidence that the marker exists as a direct result of human activity. Although there is an
ongoing debate on what this potential marker would be or where it might be found, many
believe that the real debate is whether or not a marker exists that qualifies it as “human
produced”. Some examples of potential markers could be fossils from mega-fauna
extinction, the presence of carbon or methane in glacier ice cores, fly ash from coal
burning, or radioactive isotopes from nuclear weapons fallout.
The following essay argues that the Nuclear Weapons Fallout episode that
occurred around the Mid 20th Century is the best representation of the production of a
“recent” golden spike because of its close relationship with the nomenclature of the term
Anthropocene. In addition, Nuclear Fallout has resulted in the presence of radioactive
isotopes that remain in the Earth long periods of time. The essay will first bring light on
the Anthropocene and why it should be established as a new epoch in geological time.
Secondly, the essay will define a “golden spike” and tell of the different golden spike
debates between scientists. Third, the essay will describe why radioactive isotopes from
Nuclear Fallout are the best representations of human produced markers that would
establish the Anthropocene as a new epoch on the Geological Time Scale. Lastly, the
essay will bring light on how the nomenclature of the Anthropocene is closely related to
the idea of Nuclear World.

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Paul Crutzen and Eugene Sotermer (2000) were the first pair of scientists to ever
coin the term Anthropocene. “They offer the term Anthropocene for the time interval
dominated by human activities and indicate that the onset of the human ability to
significantly shape Earth’s environment became notable with the Industrial Revolution”
(Autin and Holbrook, 2012, pg. 60). The term Anthropocene suggests that the Earth is
now moving out if it’s current epoch, called the Holocene, and that human activity is
largely responsible for this exit that further suggests that humankind has become a global
geological force in it’s own right (Stephan and Grinevald, 2011, pg. 843). It can be noted
that many scientist and researchers have different interpretations of the term as a whole,
but the word Anthropocene can be better understood if broken down into two parts. The
prefix anthro can be defined as humanlike, while the prefix cene can be defined as recent.
Collectively, the prefixes can be put together to create the term “recent humans”. It must
makes sense then, that the Anthropocene can further be defined as the methods through
which humans today are impacting the Earth’s natural systems. The next big question is,
what should be a formal start date for the Anthropocene Epoch? The Anthropogenic
debate continues to the surrounding nations of a stratigraphic “golden spike”.
A golden spike or a GSSP (Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point) is
defined as the reference section that denotes the “standard” for recognition of a new
period of geologic time worldwide (Knoll and Walter, 2004). Time Stratigraphic Units
represent layers of rock containing lithological, fossil, mineral, chemical, or geophysical
signatures that allow for the recognition and measurement of geologic time (Autin and
Holbrook, 2012, pg 60). For example, the Golden Spike that separates the Pleistocene
Epoch from the Holocene Epoch was defined by an excess in deuterium levels that were

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found in the Greenland Ice Core at an approximate depth of 1492.45 meters and an
approximate location of 75.10°N and 42.32°W. The excess in deuterium marked the
clearest signal of climate warming that showed an end to the last cold episode of the
Pleistocene (Stratigraphy.org). The Joint Working Group of the North Atlantic
INTIMATE program proposed the Pleistocene-Holocene spike in 2004 with additional
help from SQS (Sub-commison on Quaternary Stratigraphy). It wasn’t until 2008 that the
Executive Committee of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) officially
ratified the GSSP (Walker and Johnson, 2008). The current debate surrounding the
establishment of an Anthropogenic golden spike brings several questions to the table.
What recent human event on earth would have caused a dramatic shift in stratigraphy?
Why isn’t the GSSP that marked an end to the Pleistocene a good example of an
environment shift that resulted from human activity? Is there a golden spike that is
present in stratigraphic records on a global scale?
Although the nomenclature of the Anthropocene suggests a “recent” golden spike
in stratigraphic records, a handful of scientists believe that a human golden spike could
have been the result of human activity dating back to the Pleistocene Epoch. The first
event that could have potentially influenced the Anthropocene was the mass extinction of
Megafauna that occurred between 10,000-50,000 years ago. “The losses of Megafauna
were not evenly distributed: Africa lost 18%, Eurasia lost 36%, North America lost 72%,
South America lost 83%, and Australia lost 88% of their large bodied mammalian
genera” (Lewis and Maslin, 2015, pg. 173). Although the mass rates of extinction could
have created an interesting output of fossils in stratigraphic units, the extinctions occurred
on different continents at different times. The uneven correlation creates a handful of

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evidence that lacks an establishment of an Anthropogenic GSSP. The next event that has
been noted as a potential GSSP marker was the early development of agriculture.
The development of agriculture causes long lasting Anthropogenic environmental
impacts as it replaces natural vegetation and thereby increases species extinction rates,
and alters biogeochemical cycles (Lewis and Maslin, 2015). Although the origins of
agriculture vary from place to place, the first know locations to establish extensive
farming methods were Southwest Asia, South America, and North China. “The clearing
of forests and conversion of land to cropping and the development of irrigated rice
agriculture about 5,000 years ago emitted enough atmospheric CO2 and CH4 to prevent
the initiation of the next ice age” (Steffan and Grinevald, 2012, pg. 847). Although
increases in these atmospheric gases were thought to have delayed a period of new
glaciation and provide evidence of a potential anthropogenic GSSP, there is an ongoing
debate on whether or not their presence was marked entirely by humans. Methane (CH4),
for example, provides a possible GSSP at 5,020 years BP, the date of the date of the
lowest CH4 value recorded in the GRIP Ice Core (Lewis and Maslin, 2015). Although the
GSSP provides evidence of the affects of human agriculture, the evidence is lacking as a
result of an overall natural output of global CH4 at the time. Further evidence of pre-
industrial golden spikes may be attributed to the time period surrounding the collision of
the Old World and the New World.
The Columbian Exchange that resulted in the settlement of the New World
following the voyages of Columbus in 1492 represented a dramatic transformation in
agricultural and industrial practices. “The cross continental movement of food, species,
domesticated animals, human commensals, plus accidental transfers contributed to a

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swift, ongoing, radical reorganization of life on earth without geological precedent”
(Lewis and Maslin, 2015, pg. 174). These changes dramatically altered environmental
conditions and eventually led to what many scientists refer to as The Orbis Theory. The
theory is represented further by a global dip in atmospheric CO2 that occurred around the
year 1610. The dip can be attributed to the abandonment of agriculture in the old world as
many left their homes to travel to the New World. The dip signifies Earth’s last globally
synchronous cool period before the long-term global warmth of the Anthropocene Epoch,
making it a huge contender for a potential time period to coin a GSSP (Lewis and Maslin,
2015, pg. 177). The Golden Spike that would represent the Orbis dip would be located at
the lowest point of CO2 in Glacier Ice. Although the different proposals of pre-industrial
golden spikes are good examples of changes to earth’s systems, they lack significant
amounts evidence that post-industrial GSSP’s provide.
“The Industrial Revolution, with it’s origins in Great Britain in the 1700’s…
marked the end of agriculture as the most dominant human activity and set the species on
a far different trajectory from the one established during most of the Holocene” (Steffen
and Grinevald, 2012, pg. 847). The Revolution marked a period of time where fossils
fuels were increasingly used to promote advances in transportation, communication,
technology, and industrial practices. “Exploiting fossil fuels allowed humanity to
undertake new activities and vastly expand and accelerate the existing activities” (Steffen
and Grinevald, 2012, pg. 848). Such advances included the Haber-Bosch process (the
creation of fertilizer out of air), the rapid increase in the conversion of natural ecosystems
into cropland and grazing, and the increase in the diversion of water from rivers through
the construction of damns” (Steffen and Grinevald, 2012, pg. 848). Another major factor

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the Industrial Revolution affected was the exponential increase in global population.
“Between 1800 and 2000, the human population increased from one billion to six billion”
(Steffen and Grinevald, 2012, pg. 848). A few proposed GSSP’s that could have resulted
from the Industrial Era include but are not limited to the rise in atmospheric CO2, CH4,
and NO3 levels from the burning of fossil fuels, and the increase in lead isotopes found in
various layers of rock sediment (Lewis and Maslin, 2015, pg. 175). Although the
Industrial Era marked the beginning of large-scale human impacts on the environment,
the most dramatic catalyst in environmental change resulted from the Great Acceleration.
“The Great Acceleration is marked by a major expansion in human population,
large changes in natural processes, and the development of novel materials from minerals
to plastics to persistent organic pollutants and organic compounds” (Lewis and Maslin,
2015, pg. 176). The greatest advent of change that began during the Great Acceleration
was the Nuclear Weapons Fallout at the end of World War II. Nuclear Fallout is defined
as the residual radioactive material propelled into the upper atmosphere following a
nuclear blast or a nuclear reaction conducted in an unshielded facility (Waters and
Syvitski, 2015). The Fallout Era marked a time of advanced wartime technology that was
capable of altering the environment on a global scale.
“Between the years of 1945 and 1998, there were 2053 nuclear weapon tests,
mainly in Central Asia, the Pacific Ocean, and the Western United States; 543 were
atmospheric tests”(Waters and Syvitzki, 2015). The first test was conducted on July 16,
1945 at the Trinity Test Site in New Mexico. “After an intense flash of light and heat, and
a roaring shock wave that took 40 seconds to reach its closest observers, a fireball rose
into the sky, forming a mushroom cloud that rose 7.5 miles high” (Waters and Syvitski,

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2015). A successful test at Trinity gave the United States the confidence they needed in
attempting to end the Second World War. It was less than a month later (August 6th,
1945) that the Unites States Air Force dropped their first nuclear bomb on Hiroshima. A
second U.S. nuclear bomb was dropped on Nagasaki just three days after the fact
(history.com staff, 2009). At that moment, the World had officially entered into the
Nuclear Age. The greatest nuclear test ever conducted yielded a bomb known as Tsar
Bomba. It was detonated by the Soviet Union in Northern Russia on October 30th, 1961
and produced 30 megatons of TNT, which made 3,300 times more powerful than the
bomb dropped on Hiroshima (Tsar Bomba.org). Although Nuclear Weapons Testing
dissipated to a large extent after the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, other sources of
radiation such as nuclear reactors and nuclear power plants are still prosperous to this
day. Now that we know the impacts of nuclear fallout, how might this impact show a
correlation to a golden spike in stratigraphic records?
Although Plutonium 239 is only one of the many radioactive isotopes that resulted
from nuclear fallout, it is significant in its ability to remain in stratigraphic records for
long periods of time. The isotope has perhaps the longest half-life among others in its
category, over 24,000 years. Plutonium 239 has other features that recommend it as a
stable marker in layers of sedimentary rock and soil including its low solubility and high
particle reactivity (Waters and Syvitski, 2015). In addition to the isotope’s long half-life,
it takes the advantage over other radioactive isotopes in the same category as a result of
its abundance in the atmosphere, in the soil, and in the ocean. “Plutonium is an element
that mostly binds with decayed plant matter and iron oxides on the surface of soil
particles” (Waters and Syvitski, 2015). The downside to this attribute is that the element

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can then force its way into organic-rich soils, where it then may be deposited in sediment
layers that appeared in stratigraphic units prior to nuclear fallout episodes. “Within the
oceans, Plutonium sticks to the surface of suspended matter that falls through the water
column and is further distributed throughout the ocean as a result of currents and the
movement of sediment” (Waters and Syvitski, 2015). In the atmosphere, although nuclear
testing has ceased to exist, radioactive matters remains prevalent in the air as a result of
offsets from nuclear reactors and nuclear accidents. Finally, Plutonium 239 is a good
example of a global GSSP because there were an overall large number of countries that
took part in the Mid 20th Century Nuclear Weapons Testing. “While Plutonium is easily
detectable over the entire Earth using modern measurement techniques, a site to define
the Anthropocene would ideally be located between 30° and 60° north of the equator,
where fallout is maximal within undisturbed marine or lake environments” (Waters and
Syvitski, 2015). The Nuclear Fallout of the 20th century brings light on the nomenclature
of the Anthropocene in many ways.
First, it is the belief of many that humans are not forces of nature; rather they are
modifiers of it. Although many believe that there is no separation between nature and
humanity, the Anthropocene suggests that only one entity can rule over the other and not
vise-versa. Humans cannot exist without the entity of nature, but they have created the
tools they need to have the ability to shape it significantly. The ability to coexist
peacefully with such an entity has allowed humans to take full advantage of the resources
around them. Modifications to nature have been so dramatic in recent eras that many
have gone so far as to predict the Earth’s doom day. Second, it is only natural that
humans cannot coexist peacefully with other humans. War is an inevitable factor of life.

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The Nuclear Weapons fallout represents an end to humanity, in the same sense that the
Anthropocene Epoch represents what some might fear will lead to an end in humanity.
As a result of this reasoning, it only makes sense that Nuclear Fallout provides the best
example of an Anthropogenic golden spike because it yields a form of global evidence
that may symbolize the beginning of the end.
In conclusion, The Nuclear Weapons Fallout that occurred around the mid 20th
Century is the best time indication to mark the start of the Anthropocene because of its
high yield in radioactive isotopes (Plutonium 239) that have the ability to remain present
in stratigraphic records for long periods of time. Although Fallout dissipated largely after
the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, radioactive isotopes remain abundant in
stratigraphy as well as in the atmosphere as a result of the distribution and abundance of
nuclear reactors around the world. While Pre-Industrial GSSP’s provided early examples
of human environmental alterations in the Pleistocene Epoch, the alterations produced
evidence that was too small and ultimately too insignificant to appear in Global Strata.
Perhaps the most qualified GSSP that was proposed prior to the Industrial Era was the
Orbis Dip of 1610. The dip represented the last cool weather event in correlation to the
lowest output of atmospheric carbon, thus making it a good contender for a GSSP. What
it lacks however is its ability to relate to the nomenclature of the Anthropocene that idea
of a Nuclear Weapons Fallout brings light upon. Ultimately, the debate over when to coin
the start of the Anthropocene will continue until The Anthropogenic Working Group can
agree on a spike that adheres to GSSP standards. Once that is completed, The Sub
commission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) and International Commission on
Stratigraphy (ICS) will review the proposal until the Executive Committee of the

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International Union of Geologic Sciences (IUGS) submits the GSSP for formal
ratification.

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