This document discusses modals and their usage to express degrees of certainty and necessity when discussing Native American rock art in the Southwestern United States. It provides examples of must and have to to express necessity, don't have to to express lack of necessity, and should and ought to to express advisability. It also discusses using may, might, could and other modals to express varying degrees of certainty about the past purposes and meanings of the rock art, which remain largely unknown. Students are provided practice questions to apply these modals in discussing theories about the rock art.

1. Modals
Your Trip to the Southwest:
Native American Rock Art
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2. Use must or have to to express necessity.
In other areas, you have to hike up to caves
or into canyons to see the rock art.
Can you see the rock art from your car?
NO
What is necessary to see the rock art?
You have to leave the car and hike up to
caves or into canyons.
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3. Use don’t have to when talking about lack of
necessity.
You don’t have to look far to find magnificent
petroglyphs because they seem to be on just
about every rock or cliff face.
Is it necessary to look far?
NO.
You don’t have to look far.
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4. Should and ought to are used to express
advisability.
You should see the rock art in New Mexico.
Same meaning?
YES
You ought to see the rock art in New Mexico.
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5. Should and ought to are used to express
advisability.
You should see
the rock art in
New Mexico.
You ought to
see the rock art
in New Mexico.
Both mean it’s a good
idea to see the rock art.
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6. Practice 1
Write a sentence for each of the modals.
must have to don’t have to ought to should
1. ______________________________________.
2. ______________________________________.
3. ______________________________________.
4. ______________________________________.
5. ______________________________________.
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7. 7

8. The rock art spans thousands of years and an area
that includes almost all of the United States and
Mexico. However, the southwestern states contain an
unusually high number of images, often clustered
around old settlements. As you walk through these
areas, you may find figures of people, animals, or
plants carved into the rock. You can also see unique
geometric patterns. What were these patterns
supposed to represent? We may never know. The
artists could have been illustrating rain or lightning.
Or they may have been trying to depict emotions
such as joy or sadness. Whatever the meaning, the
beauty they had intended to convey is plain to see. 8

9. Use was / were supposed to when talking
about unknown or unfulfilled plans or
expectations in the past.
What were these patterns supposed to
represent?
We have no idea of the purpose of the
artist, so we can only guess.
Perhaps the rock art was supposed to
tell a story.
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10. Progressive form of modals express a possibility
about something in progress, either now or in the
past.
The artist could have been illustrating rain.
modal + have been + -ing
When did the artist live?
in the past
What were they doing?
illustrating rain
Are we certain?
No.
Perhaps they were.
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11. Practice 2 - Complete the sentences with the given
verbs and an appropriate modal. More than one modal
may be possible.
can learn
1. Scientists (learn)________________ a lot by
analyzing rock art from different areas.
2. Look! Those students are taking samples from the
rocks. They (study)___________________ the
must be studying
rock art.
3. The park ranger (give) ______________________
was supposed to give
a tour of the rock art today, but it’s been cancelled.
4. As they carved the rock, the prehistoric artists
(hope) ______________________ people in the
might have been hoping
future would see their art.
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12. 12

13. The reason why these prehistoric peoples created
the rock art remains a mystery. Many scientists
believe the artists must have created it for ceremonial
purposes. Others think they may have created it as a
form of language or to mark territorial claims. Some
people have even speculated the rock art could
depict visits from aliens or people from outer space,
but most scientists don’t think this is true. A much
simpler explanation is that the rock art could just be
the innocent drawings of ancient peoples. Whatever
the reason, we may never know, given the long time
period over which the rock art occurred and the vast
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geographic area where it can be found.

14. Degrees of Certainty: present tense
The rock art must tell a story.
The rock art could depict visits from aliens.
Which one is more certain?
must
95% sure
may
might
could
50% sure or less
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15. Degrees of Certainty: past tense
past
modal + have + participle
The artists must have created it for
ceremonial purposes.
Others think they may have created it as a form
of language.
Which one is more certain?
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16. Negative: In both present and past, the degrees of
certainty for modals change (except for must).
PRESENT
The rock art may not tell a story.
The rock art couldn’t depict visits from aliens.
Which one is more certain?
couldn’t
can’t
99% sure
must not
95% sure
may not
might not
50% sure
or less
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17. Negative: In both present and past, the degrees of
certainty for modals change (except for must).
PAST
The artists may not have wanted to tell a story.
The artists couldn’t have depicted visits from aliens.
couldn’t have
can’t have
99% sure
must not have
95% sure
may not have
might not have
50% sure
or less
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18. Practice 3
Use Degrees of Certainty modals to answer the
questions in your own words. Many answers are
possible.
1. Why were the petroglyphs made?
2. What did the geometric patterns mean?
3. What is the most frequently seen image in
the rock art?
4. What image probably is not seen in the rock
art?
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19. CREDITS
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