Bulls played an important religious and symbolic role in Minoan culture. They are prominently depicted in Minoan art, especially at Knossos. One famous Minoan ritual possibly depicted is bull-leaping, where athletes demonstrate skill by vaulting and somersaulting over charging bulls. While some scholars doubt bull-leaping occurred, evidence from later French bull sports and Minoan art suggest it was a real ritual, though its purpose and meaning are still debated among scholars.
The Etruscans were an ancient civilization that inhabited parts of central Italy from the 8th to 3rd centuries BC. They developed a thriving culture with advanced art and religious practices, though their language remains largely unknown. Etruscan art flourished especially in tomb painting, sculpture used to decorate temples, and ornate objects buried with the dead. Their art showed influences from Greece but maintained a distinctive style, providing insights into Etruscan life and beliefs through depictions of daily activities and religious ceremonies.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in Egyptian art, including their fascination with the afterlife and the artistic revolution during the Amarna period. It discusses the importance of patronage and symbolism in Egyptian art and compares it to Near Eastern examples. Several works of art are described in brief, including the Palette of King Narmer, the Stepped Pyramid of Djoser, the Great Pyramids at Giza, and sculptures from the Old Kingdom including the Great Sphinx and statues of Khafre, Menkaure and Khamerernebty, and a Seated Scribe. A chronology of major periods of Egyptian history is also included.
The document discusses several sculptures from ancient Greece and Rome, including the Apollo Belvedere, Farnese Hercules, Nike of Samothrace, and Dying Gaul. It also discusses the Altar of Zeus from Pergamon, which featured a large frieze depicting the battle between gods and giants. Portraiture evolved during this period to capture more realistic details of individuals from all walks of life.
The document summarizes aspects of ancient Greek art and culture from 700 BCE to 30 BCE. It describes the Etruscans who lived in northern Italy from 950 to 300 BCE and influenced early Rome. It then covers the classical style in Greece which emphasized harmony, balance, humanism, and idealism. Finally, it discusses various genres of Greek art including pottery, sculpture, and architecture during the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods.
The document provides a brief overview of prehistoric and Egyptian art from the caves at Lascaux to structures like the Temple of Dendru and Abu Simbel. Key examples mentioned include cave paintings from Lascaux featuring horses and bird-headed men, prehistoric dogu figurines from Japan, Egyptian limestone sculptures following hierarchical proportions, and painted limestone pieces depicting figures like Queen Nefertiti and structures like the facade of the Temple of Abu Simbel.
Bull leaping originated in Minoan Crete during the Bronze Age from 1900-1500 BC. It began in the city of Knossos, where bulls were sacred animals. Bull leaping involved acrobats flipping over bulls and trying to land on their feet, and it was performed for both religious and sporting purposes. While very dangerous, bull leaping demonstrated prowess and was part of religious worship of the sacred bull.
This document discusses several early Christian artworks found in the catacombs of Rome and the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD. It describes wall paintings depicting biblical scenes from the Old and New Testaments. It also describes the decorated loculi tombs and the famous Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus. The artworks show both pagan and Christian imagery mixed together and the Roman artistic styles adapted for Christian theological themes.
This slideshow covers ancient art and cultural mythology from the Upper Paleolithic through the Hellenistic period in 3 parts: The Ancients (Upper Paleolithic through Minoan), Egyptian art, and Greek art (Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic). It features over 30 works including Venus of Willendorf, Great Pyramid of Giza, Parthenon, Riace Warriors, and the Altar of Zeus to summarize the major cultures and artistic developments during these time periods.
The Etruscans were an ancient civilization that inhabited parts of central Italy from the 8th to 3rd centuries BC. They developed a thriving culture with advanced art and religious practices, though their language remains largely unknown. Etruscan art flourished especially in tomb painting, sculpture used to decorate temples, and ornate objects buried with the dead. Their art showed influences from Greece but maintained a distinctive style, providing insights into Etruscan life and beliefs through depictions of daily activities and religious ceremonies.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in Egyptian art, including their fascination with the afterlife and the artistic revolution during the Amarna period. It discusses the importance of patronage and symbolism in Egyptian art and compares it to Near Eastern examples. Several works of art are described in brief, including the Palette of King Narmer, the Stepped Pyramid of Djoser, the Great Pyramids at Giza, and sculptures from the Old Kingdom including the Great Sphinx and statues of Khafre, Menkaure and Khamerernebty, and a Seated Scribe. A chronology of major periods of Egyptian history is also included.
The document discusses several sculptures from ancient Greece and Rome, including the Apollo Belvedere, Farnese Hercules, Nike of Samothrace, and Dying Gaul. It also discusses the Altar of Zeus from Pergamon, which featured a large frieze depicting the battle between gods and giants. Portraiture evolved during this period to capture more realistic details of individuals from all walks of life.
The document summarizes aspects of ancient Greek art and culture from 700 BCE to 30 BCE. It describes the Etruscans who lived in northern Italy from 950 to 300 BCE and influenced early Rome. It then covers the classical style in Greece which emphasized harmony, balance, humanism, and idealism. Finally, it discusses various genres of Greek art including pottery, sculpture, and architecture during the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods.
The document provides a brief overview of prehistoric and Egyptian art from the caves at Lascaux to structures like the Temple of Dendru and Abu Simbel. Key examples mentioned include cave paintings from Lascaux featuring horses and bird-headed men, prehistoric dogu figurines from Japan, Egyptian limestone sculptures following hierarchical proportions, and painted limestone pieces depicting figures like Queen Nefertiti and structures like the facade of the Temple of Abu Simbel.
Bull leaping originated in Minoan Crete during the Bronze Age from 1900-1500 BC. It began in the city of Knossos, where bulls were sacred animals. Bull leaping involved acrobats flipping over bulls and trying to land on their feet, and it was performed for both religious and sporting purposes. While very dangerous, bull leaping demonstrated prowess and was part of religious worship of the sacred bull.
This document discusses several early Christian artworks found in the catacombs of Rome and the mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD. It describes wall paintings depicting biblical scenes from the Old and New Testaments. It also describes the decorated loculi tombs and the famous Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus. The artworks show both pagan and Christian imagery mixed together and the Roman artistic styles adapted for Christian theological themes.
This slideshow covers ancient art and cultural mythology from the Upper Paleolithic through the Hellenistic period in 3 parts: The Ancients (Upper Paleolithic through Minoan), Egyptian art, and Greek art (Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic). It features over 30 works including Venus of Willendorf, Great Pyramid of Giza, Parthenon, Riace Warriors, and the Altar of Zeus to summarize the major cultures and artistic developments during these time periods.
The document provides an overview of prehistoric, non-European, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman art from 30,000 BC to 476 AD. It summarizes key pieces like the Venus of Willendorf, cave paintings at Lascaux, Stonehenge, Terracotta Army, Great Sphinx of Giza, and Parthenon. The document also briefly outlines the periods and styles of Greek pottery and introduces some famous sculptures like the Venus de Milo.
The Etruscans were an ancient civilization that inhabited central Italy from around 800 BC to 400 BC. They greatly influenced early Roman culture and civilization. The Etruscans originated in Asia Minor and were the first civilized people to settle in Italy. They introduced advanced technologies like arches, sewers and hydraulic engineering to the region. The Etruscans also contributed significantly to art, architecture, religion and trade in Italy. Though the Romans eventually conquered the Etruscans, they adopted many aspects of Etruscan culture and credited them with founding the city of Rome.
The document provides information about Cycladic art from the Cycladic Islands in the Aegean Sea. It describes distinct features of Cycladic art including small, simple female idols used for funerary purposes that ranged from 1 to 5 feet tall and had minimal facial features. A few male statues depicted musicians. The document also provides details about Minoan and Mycenaean art, including characteristics of Palace architecture and wall paintings at Knossos, distinctive features of Minoan pottery and figurines, and burial practices like beehive tombs and shaft graves.
The document provides information on several works of art from ancient civilizations through the medieval period. It begins with discussing the Stele of Hammurabi from ancient Babylonia that features the earliest known legal codes. It then briefly describes the Audience Hall at Persepolis, the Funerary Temple of Hatshepsut from ancient Egypt, and a Minoan fresco depicting bull jumping. The document continues with analyzing a Greek archaic sculpture of a Trojan archer. It concludes by mentioning other works such as the Kritios Boy sculpture, the Old Market Woman statue, the Ara Pacis altar from ancient Rome, frescoes from Pompeii, and various architectural structures from ancient Rome through the medieval Islamic
Between 3000-1200 BC, three important civilizations flourished in the Aegean region: the Cycladic civilization on the Cyclades islands, the Minoan civilization on Crete, and the Mycenaean civilization on the Greek mainland. The Minoans were known for their palace at Knossos on Crete, which after an earthquake was rebuilt even more grandly in the New Palace period around 1700 BC. Minoan art showed naturalistic styles and was inspired by nature, as seen in frescoes depicting plants, animals, and rituals like bull leaping. The Mycenaeans on the mainland were known for their fortified citadels and shaft graves containing gold funeral masks and other
The document summarizes various important artworks from ancient cultures around the world, including sculptures like the Lion Man and Woman of Willendorf from prehistoric Europe, the complex stone structures of Stonehenge, and early cave paintings from Pech-Merle Cave in France. It also describes architectural works such as the Ishtar Gate of Babylon, funerary structures like the tomb and funeral mask of King Tut from ancient Egypt, and painted reliefs depicting Egyptian royalty hunting, like the artwork of Ti watching a hippo hunt. The document provides brief contextual information on the significance and stylistic elements of each piece.
Hidden Treasures of Afghanistan- Four Seasons Magazinesbweissman
Hidden treasures from the National Museum of Kabul were preserved thanks to dedicated efforts during Afghanistan's civil wars. Museum staff secretly stored artifacts dating back thousands of years in the vault of the Central Bank to protect them from destruction. The treasures were rediscovered in 2004, including the famous Bactrian Gold. An exhibition brought some of these long-hidden masterpieces to museums in the United States, sharing Afghanistan's rich cultural history.
Afghanistan Feature Article- Four Seasons Magazinepamelakdaniels
Hidden treasures from the National Museum of Kabul were preserved thanks to dedicated efforts during Afghanistan's civil wars. Museum staff secretly stored artifacts dating back thousands of years in the vault of the country's central bank for safekeeping. In 2004, the vault was opened and many artifacts were discovered intact, including the famous Bactrian Gold. The preservation of Afghanistan's cultural heritage despite decades of war is a testament to the spirit of the Afghan people.
The document summarizes sculptures from various early ages and periods. It describes pre-historic sculptures like the Venus of Willendorf and Venus of Brassempouy. Egyptian sculptures often had symbolic elements and used materials like wood, ivory, and stone. Examples given are portraits of Queen Nefertiti and Pharaoh Menkaure. Greek sculptures evolved from stiff poses to showing anatomy, while Roman sculptures commonly used relief. Byzantine sculptures had religious and natural motifs. Gothic sculptures became more lively and realistic projecting from walls.
Art History: PreHistory through Greek potterysandinagay
I wanted my students to learn a little art history. So we started from the beginning and went to the Greek pottery. Then I had them create vases depicting one of the five Greek styles of pottery. The week before I discussed cave paintings/art. So this is really the 2nd part to the art history.
Chapter 1 cave paintings to egyptians(final)Karen Owens
This document provides an overview of prehistoric cultures from the Paleolithic era through ancient civilizations. It describes the major developments in tools, art, architecture, religion, and systems of writing that occurred from approximately 6 million BCE through 1500 BCE across Africa, Asia, Europe, and Mesoamerica. Key events mentioned include the earliest cave paintings from France dated to 15,000-10,000 BCE, the emergence of agriculture in the Neolithic era, structures like Stonehenge and Ziggurats, early legal codes like Hammurabi's, and the rise of ancient empires in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China.
The document provides an overview of Etruscan culture and burial practices. The Etruscans inhabited what is now central Italy and buried their dead in elaborate terra cotta sarcophagi placed in beehive-shaped tombs. The tombs were decorated with sculptures and paintings depicting banquets and sexual acts. The Etruscans held social gatherings in the tombs to honor their deceased ancestors. Their culture was eventually assimilated by the expanding Roman Empire.
The document discusses various ancient civilizations and their artworks. It describes cave paintings from Chauvet Cave in France from around 32,000 years ago that depict animals and were created using red ochre and black charcoal. Small stone female figurines from the Upper Paleolithic period are also mentioned. Rock shelter paintings from the Mesolithic period portrayed humans alone and in groups, in contrast to earlier cave paintings. Megalithic structures like Stonehenge from the Neolithic period are discussed. The document then covers the art of civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Aegean, Greece, Rome, and the Byzantine period.
The document discusses various ancient civilizations and their artworks. It describes cave paintings from Chauvet Cave in France from around 32,000 years ago that depict animals and were created using red ochre and black charcoal. Small stone female figurines from the Upper Paleolithic period are also mentioned. Rock shelter paintings from the Mesolithic period portrayed humans alone and in groups, in contrast to earlier cave paintings. Megalithic structures like Stonehenge and its sarsen stones and design are summarized. Artworks from civilizations in Mesopotamia, Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria, Persia, Ancient Egypt, Nubia, the Minoans, Mycenae
The document discusses various ancient civilizations and their artworks. It describes cave paintings from Chauvet Cave in France from around 32,000 years ago that depict animals and were created using red ochre and black charcoal. Small stone female figurines from the Upper Paleolithic period are also mentioned. Rock shelter paintings from the Mesolithic period portrayed humans alone and in groups, in contrast to earlier cave paintings. Megalithic structures like Stonehenge from the Neolithic period are discussed. The document then covers the art of civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Aegean, Greece, Rome, and the Byzantine period.
AT 1000_Lecture 3 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia.pptxChristosA1
Mesopotamia was home to some of the earliest civilizations including Sumer and Akkad. Sumer developed writing, city-states, and advances in agriculture. Later, Akkadian rulers like Sargon centralized political power in the region. Important sites include Ur, where artifacts like the Standard of Ur were discovered, and Babylon, where Hammurabi established his law code. Assyria grew powerful under rulers like Ashurnasirpal II, while Persia later dominated the region under Cyrus the Great and structures were built like the Apadana at Persepolis.
The document discusses the history and evolution of Egyptian coffins and sarcophagi from earliest times through the Ptolemaic period. It notes that the earliest burials contained no coffins and that over time coffins developed from simple baskets and planks into more elaborate anthropoid shapes. Decorations on coffins became more important and included images to aid the deceased in the afterlife as well as extracts from funerary texts. Coffin styles continued changing and becoming more ornate throughout Egyptian history.
Bernat Martorell's painting Saint George Killing the Dragon from 1434/35 depicts a scene from a legend where Saint George rescues a princess from a dragon. The central panel originally was part of a larger altarpiece devoted to Saint George, the patron saint of Catalonia. Martorell included symbolic and contemporary details that would have been understood by medieval viewers, such as Saint George's armor marked with the red cross of Catalonia. The painting combines dramatic storytelling with rich colors and textures to excite viewers and convey the triumph of good over evil.
The Etruscans originated in what is now Tuscany, Italy, though their ancestors may have come from Asia Minor. During the Iron Age between 1000-1 BC, they established major city-states like Tarquinia, Caere, Vulci, and Veii. The Etruscans built fortified cities with temples, aqueducts, bridges, and underground family tombs. Their art was produced mostly for religious purposes and funerary customs, including painted frescoes and terra cotta sculptures that emphasized the afterlife. The Etruscans were also skilled metalworkers known for bronzework, mirrors, jewelry of gold and silver, and black pottery with incised designs.
The document provides instructions for an activity where students will view Egyptian and Mesopotamian artifacts in a slideshow and identify which features of civilization each artifact exemplifies. It then lists several Egyptian and Mesopotamian artifacts, providing a brief description and image of each.
This document appears to be a scavenger hunt checklist, as it contains blanks for a finder's time and date found, as well as 10 numbered lines for writing clues or locations found. The overall purpose seems to be tracking progress on solving a scavenger hunt or treasure hunt.
The document discusses different forms of energy including kinetic energy, potential energy, and chemical energy. It explains that energy can change forms through transformations but the total amount of energy stays the same. Examples are given of energy transformations, such as chemical energy in muscles changing to kinetic energy of motion when a person moves. Potential energy stored by raising an object can also change to kinetic energy if the object falls.
The document provides an overview of prehistoric, non-European, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman art from 30,000 BC to 476 AD. It summarizes key pieces like the Venus of Willendorf, cave paintings at Lascaux, Stonehenge, Terracotta Army, Great Sphinx of Giza, and Parthenon. The document also briefly outlines the periods and styles of Greek pottery and introduces some famous sculptures like the Venus de Milo.
The Etruscans were an ancient civilization that inhabited central Italy from around 800 BC to 400 BC. They greatly influenced early Roman culture and civilization. The Etruscans originated in Asia Minor and were the first civilized people to settle in Italy. They introduced advanced technologies like arches, sewers and hydraulic engineering to the region. The Etruscans also contributed significantly to art, architecture, religion and trade in Italy. Though the Romans eventually conquered the Etruscans, they adopted many aspects of Etruscan culture and credited them with founding the city of Rome.
The document provides information about Cycladic art from the Cycladic Islands in the Aegean Sea. It describes distinct features of Cycladic art including small, simple female idols used for funerary purposes that ranged from 1 to 5 feet tall and had minimal facial features. A few male statues depicted musicians. The document also provides details about Minoan and Mycenaean art, including characteristics of Palace architecture and wall paintings at Knossos, distinctive features of Minoan pottery and figurines, and burial practices like beehive tombs and shaft graves.
The document provides information on several works of art from ancient civilizations through the medieval period. It begins with discussing the Stele of Hammurabi from ancient Babylonia that features the earliest known legal codes. It then briefly describes the Audience Hall at Persepolis, the Funerary Temple of Hatshepsut from ancient Egypt, and a Minoan fresco depicting bull jumping. The document continues with analyzing a Greek archaic sculpture of a Trojan archer. It concludes by mentioning other works such as the Kritios Boy sculpture, the Old Market Woman statue, the Ara Pacis altar from ancient Rome, frescoes from Pompeii, and various architectural structures from ancient Rome through the medieval Islamic
Between 3000-1200 BC, three important civilizations flourished in the Aegean region: the Cycladic civilization on the Cyclades islands, the Minoan civilization on Crete, and the Mycenaean civilization on the Greek mainland. The Minoans were known for their palace at Knossos on Crete, which after an earthquake was rebuilt even more grandly in the New Palace period around 1700 BC. Minoan art showed naturalistic styles and was inspired by nature, as seen in frescoes depicting plants, animals, and rituals like bull leaping. The Mycenaeans on the mainland were known for their fortified citadels and shaft graves containing gold funeral masks and other
The document summarizes various important artworks from ancient cultures around the world, including sculptures like the Lion Man and Woman of Willendorf from prehistoric Europe, the complex stone structures of Stonehenge, and early cave paintings from Pech-Merle Cave in France. It also describes architectural works such as the Ishtar Gate of Babylon, funerary structures like the tomb and funeral mask of King Tut from ancient Egypt, and painted reliefs depicting Egyptian royalty hunting, like the artwork of Ti watching a hippo hunt. The document provides brief contextual information on the significance and stylistic elements of each piece.
Hidden Treasures of Afghanistan- Four Seasons Magazinesbweissman
Hidden treasures from the National Museum of Kabul were preserved thanks to dedicated efforts during Afghanistan's civil wars. Museum staff secretly stored artifacts dating back thousands of years in the vault of the Central Bank to protect them from destruction. The treasures were rediscovered in 2004, including the famous Bactrian Gold. An exhibition brought some of these long-hidden masterpieces to museums in the United States, sharing Afghanistan's rich cultural history.
Afghanistan Feature Article- Four Seasons Magazinepamelakdaniels
Hidden treasures from the National Museum of Kabul were preserved thanks to dedicated efforts during Afghanistan's civil wars. Museum staff secretly stored artifacts dating back thousands of years in the vault of the country's central bank for safekeeping. In 2004, the vault was opened and many artifacts were discovered intact, including the famous Bactrian Gold. The preservation of Afghanistan's cultural heritage despite decades of war is a testament to the spirit of the Afghan people.
The document summarizes sculptures from various early ages and periods. It describes pre-historic sculptures like the Venus of Willendorf and Venus of Brassempouy. Egyptian sculptures often had symbolic elements and used materials like wood, ivory, and stone. Examples given are portraits of Queen Nefertiti and Pharaoh Menkaure. Greek sculptures evolved from stiff poses to showing anatomy, while Roman sculptures commonly used relief. Byzantine sculptures had religious and natural motifs. Gothic sculptures became more lively and realistic projecting from walls.
Art History: PreHistory through Greek potterysandinagay
I wanted my students to learn a little art history. So we started from the beginning and went to the Greek pottery. Then I had them create vases depicting one of the five Greek styles of pottery. The week before I discussed cave paintings/art. So this is really the 2nd part to the art history.
Chapter 1 cave paintings to egyptians(final)Karen Owens
This document provides an overview of prehistoric cultures from the Paleolithic era through ancient civilizations. It describes the major developments in tools, art, architecture, religion, and systems of writing that occurred from approximately 6 million BCE through 1500 BCE across Africa, Asia, Europe, and Mesoamerica. Key events mentioned include the earliest cave paintings from France dated to 15,000-10,000 BCE, the emergence of agriculture in the Neolithic era, structures like Stonehenge and Ziggurats, early legal codes like Hammurabi's, and the rise of ancient empires in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China.
The document provides an overview of Etruscan culture and burial practices. The Etruscans inhabited what is now central Italy and buried their dead in elaborate terra cotta sarcophagi placed in beehive-shaped tombs. The tombs were decorated with sculptures and paintings depicting banquets and sexual acts. The Etruscans held social gatherings in the tombs to honor their deceased ancestors. Their culture was eventually assimilated by the expanding Roman Empire.
The document discusses various ancient civilizations and their artworks. It describes cave paintings from Chauvet Cave in France from around 32,000 years ago that depict animals and were created using red ochre and black charcoal. Small stone female figurines from the Upper Paleolithic period are also mentioned. Rock shelter paintings from the Mesolithic period portrayed humans alone and in groups, in contrast to earlier cave paintings. Megalithic structures like Stonehenge from the Neolithic period are discussed. The document then covers the art of civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Aegean, Greece, Rome, and the Byzantine period.
The document discusses various ancient civilizations and their artworks. It describes cave paintings from Chauvet Cave in France from around 32,000 years ago that depict animals and were created using red ochre and black charcoal. Small stone female figurines from the Upper Paleolithic period are also mentioned. Rock shelter paintings from the Mesolithic period portrayed humans alone and in groups, in contrast to earlier cave paintings. Megalithic structures like Stonehenge and its sarsen stones and design are summarized. Artworks from civilizations in Mesopotamia, Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria, Persia, Ancient Egypt, Nubia, the Minoans, Mycenae
The document discusses various ancient civilizations and their artworks. It describes cave paintings from Chauvet Cave in France from around 32,000 years ago that depict animals and were created using red ochre and black charcoal. Small stone female figurines from the Upper Paleolithic period are also mentioned. Rock shelter paintings from the Mesolithic period portrayed humans alone and in groups, in contrast to earlier cave paintings. Megalithic structures like Stonehenge from the Neolithic period are discussed. The document then covers the art of civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Aegean, Greece, Rome, and the Byzantine period.
AT 1000_Lecture 3 Ancient Mesopotamia and Persia.pptxChristosA1
Mesopotamia was home to some of the earliest civilizations including Sumer and Akkad. Sumer developed writing, city-states, and advances in agriculture. Later, Akkadian rulers like Sargon centralized political power in the region. Important sites include Ur, where artifacts like the Standard of Ur were discovered, and Babylon, where Hammurabi established his law code. Assyria grew powerful under rulers like Ashurnasirpal II, while Persia later dominated the region under Cyrus the Great and structures were built like the Apadana at Persepolis.
The document discusses the history and evolution of Egyptian coffins and sarcophagi from earliest times through the Ptolemaic period. It notes that the earliest burials contained no coffins and that over time coffins developed from simple baskets and planks into more elaborate anthropoid shapes. Decorations on coffins became more important and included images to aid the deceased in the afterlife as well as extracts from funerary texts. Coffin styles continued changing and becoming more ornate throughout Egyptian history.
Bernat Martorell's painting Saint George Killing the Dragon from 1434/35 depicts a scene from a legend where Saint George rescues a princess from a dragon. The central panel originally was part of a larger altarpiece devoted to Saint George, the patron saint of Catalonia. Martorell included symbolic and contemporary details that would have been understood by medieval viewers, such as Saint George's armor marked with the red cross of Catalonia. The painting combines dramatic storytelling with rich colors and textures to excite viewers and convey the triumph of good over evil.
The Etruscans originated in what is now Tuscany, Italy, though their ancestors may have come from Asia Minor. During the Iron Age between 1000-1 BC, they established major city-states like Tarquinia, Caere, Vulci, and Veii. The Etruscans built fortified cities with temples, aqueducts, bridges, and underground family tombs. Their art was produced mostly for religious purposes and funerary customs, including painted frescoes and terra cotta sculptures that emphasized the afterlife. The Etruscans were also skilled metalworkers known for bronzework, mirrors, jewelry of gold and silver, and black pottery with incised designs.
The document provides instructions for an activity where students will view Egyptian and Mesopotamian artifacts in a slideshow and identify which features of civilization each artifact exemplifies. It then lists several Egyptian and Mesopotamian artifacts, providing a brief description and image of each.
This document appears to be a scavenger hunt checklist, as it contains blanks for a finder's time and date found, as well as 10 numbered lines for writing clues or locations found. The overall purpose seems to be tracking progress on solving a scavenger hunt or treasure hunt.
The document discusses different forms of energy including kinetic energy, potential energy, and chemical energy. It explains that energy can change forms through transformations but the total amount of energy stays the same. Examples are given of energy transformations, such as chemical energy in muscles changing to kinetic energy of motion when a person moves. Potential energy stored by raising an object can also change to kinetic energy if the object falls.
The Nook Color is a 7-inch Android tablet with an 8-hour battery life, 8GB internal storage plus micro SD support, Wi-Fi connectivity but no 3G or GPS. It has a 1024x600 screen resolution, weighs 15.8 ounces, and originally sold for $249 but can now be found for as little as $99.
The document outlines the Greek gods' family tree according to Hesiod's Theogony from 700 BCE. It begins with the primordial deities Chaos and includes Earth, Tartarus, Eros, Night, and Erebos. Their offspring were Sky and several personified concepts. The next generation comprised the Titans including Oceanus, Mnemosyne and Cronus. Cronus mated with Rhea and they produced the first six Olympians: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. Zeus went on to mate with several partners and father more prominent deities like Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, and others. The twelve primary Olympians
The Theogony by Hesiod describes the origins and genealogies of the Greek gods. It begins by invoking the Muses, daughters of Zeus, to sing of the earliest beings - first came Chaos, then Gaia (Earth), Tartarus, Eros and others. Gaia bore Uranus (Sky) who covered her, and they produced the Titans including Kronos. Kronos overthrew his father Uranus with the help of his mother Gaia and her sickle. From Uranus' blood came Aphrodite. Night produced other offspring including Death. The poem continues recounting the origins and relationships between the major Greek divine figures.
Cells are the basic units of all living things, containing the necessary proteins, organelles and equipment to sustain life. They organize into tissues, systems and whole organisms. A cell's main purpose is to organize an organism's various parts, with each cell type performing different functions to allow organisms to grow, survive and develop complex structures like nervous systems and muscles.
This document provides a vocabulary lesson on nouns, adjectives, and verbs in Latin. It lists 6 nouns including "family", "fortune", and "earth". It also lists 4 adjectives such as "good" and "small". Finally, it presents 2 verbs like "they love/like" and "they carry".
1) The document discusses the connection between static electricity and cone-bearing trees. Cone-bearing trees secrete resin when their bark is broken, which hardens and seals wounds. This resin can fossilize over time to form amber.
2) Ancient Greeks noticed that amber could attract small bits of straw or ash when rubbed with wool or fur. They believed amber had magical properties related to this. The name they gave amber, "elektron", means "substance of the Sun".
3) By the 17th century, scientists had sparked curiosity about amber's properties. It was finally explained that amber produces static electricity when rubbed, transferring electrons between the objects.
1. Elijah McCoy developed the first automatic lubricating device in the 1870s to automatically oil train engines while running, avoiding the need to frequently stop trains to manually oil parts.
2. Modern automobiles have oil pumps that automatically circulate engine oil, allowing cars to travel long distances without stopping.
3. The document discusses how McCoy's invention helped connect train schedules to oil pumps by enabling trains to stay on schedule without frequent stops for oiling, paving the way for modern automatic lubrication systems in vehicles.
1. A 1600 Italian cobbler discovered a rock that glowed in the dark, leading to the discovery of fluorescent and phosphorescent substances that emit light when exposed to certain forms of energy.
2. In the 1850s, a scientist realized the fluorescent properties of substances could be used to create a new type of lighting, creating the first fluorescent light bulb by placing a fluorescent material inside a glass tube with an electric current.
3. Today, fluorescent light bulbs are widely used in places like offices, schools, and factories.
This document provides a vocabulary lesson on basic Latin words including nouns for water, island, forest, and road. It also lists verbs for "is" and "are" as well as the adverb for "not" and conjunctions for "and" and "but".
The Phoenicians were merchants and traders from an ancient civilization located in what is now Lebanon. They produced a purple-red dye and colonized areas throughout the Mediterranean for trade, including Syria, Cyprus, Libya, Tunisia, Italy, Algeria, Morocco and Spain. The Phoenicians developed one of the first alphabets, consisting of 22 letters, which was adopted in Babylon by the 15th century BCE and formed the basis for many modern scripts.
The document summarizes key information about Earth's atmosphere:
1) Earth's atmosphere is composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and trace amounts of other gases like carbon dioxide and argon. It also contains water vapor, solid particles, and liquid droplets.
2) The atmosphere is divided into five main layers - troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere - with varying temperature and air pressure profiles.
3) Air pressure decreases with increasing altitude as there are fewer gas molecules above Earth's surface to exert pressure downward. Atmospheric pressure is greater in the troposphere near Earth than in the exosphere.
This document provides information about the connections between beverages, bottles, cans, and wildlife. It discusses:
1) How containers for beverages have evolved from clay jars and animal skins to glass bottles to metal cans. Cans became popular because they were stackable, non-breakable, and cooled drinks quickly.
2) The plastic six-pack yoke was invented to bind cans together for transport but unfortunately also bound and entangled thousands of birds, fish, and marine animals when released into the environment.
3) Today animals are still being harmed and sometimes killed by discarded plastic six-pack yokes and other plastic waste in the environment.
Protists and animals share some characteristics. Protists are classified into three main groups - plantlike, animal-like, and funguslike - based on their traits. Plantlike protists, called algae, contain chlorophyll and can photosynthesize. They include diverse organisms like diatoms, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, red algae, green algae, and brown algae. Algae are a primary food source in aquatic ecosystems and are important in producing oxygen.
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The Code of Hammurabi was carved on an eight foot tall black diorite monument that was found in 1901 in the Persian Mountains and is currently located in the Louvre Museum in Paris. It begins and ends with addresses to gods and contains laws numbered 1-282, though some sections are missing.
1. Bulls and Bull-leaping
in the Minoan World
by jeremy mcinerney
6 v olu me 53 , n umber 3 expedi ti o n
2. I
n cretan culture, the bull is everywhere. Horns of
consecration adorned the top of Minoan shrines and
may have decorated palaces at Knossos, Mallia, and
Phaistos. Great ceremonial axes of bronze, perhaps
suggesting the sacrificial slaughter of bulls, were recov-
ered from palatial contexts. Objects such as the Hagia Triada
sarcophagus, dated to the early 14th century BC, show cattle
trussed in preparation for sacrifice.
In every medium imaginable, from gold rings to terracotta
figurines, from stone seals to frescoes in relief, the image of the of exceptional size and beauty. Vessels like the Bull’s Head
bull permeates the Minoan world. Furthermore, depictions of rhyton from Knossos—carved out of serpentinite (sometimes
bulls and bull-leaping figure prominently in the pictorial dec- referred to as steatite) and decorated with shell, rock crystal,
oration of Neopalatial Knossos. Major entrances leading to the jasper, and gold—were too heavy to be used in anything but
center of the palace complex were adorned with wall paintings ritual settings. The Boxer rhyton from Hagia Triada, carved
of bulls and bull-leaping. Bulls also figure on rhyta (plural of in relief with scenes of boxing and bull-leaping, weighs 1 kg
rhyton), or more properly, as rhyta. The Cretan rhyta—pour- (2.2 pounds) empty and 3 kg when full. These rhyta are perfo-
ing vessels with two openings—were probably derived from rated at the bottom and could only hold liquid as long as they
Syrian antecedents, but the Cretan vessels evolved into objects were plugged, so they must have been ceremonial containers.
Archaeological Museum of Heraklion–Hellenic Ministry of Culture–TAP Service (page 6 and 7), Jennifer McAuley (map)
Above, this Late Bronze Age sarcophagus was found in a funerary
chamber at Hagia Triada in Crete. It was made of limestone, covered
with a thin layer of lime plaster, and then painted. On one side of the
sarcophagus (left), we see the sacrifice of a bull, accompanied by
music and a procession of women. On the reverse side (above) another
procession is depicted including women carrying buckets of blood to an
altar and men presenting animals and a boat model to what may be a
deceased man.
w w w .p e nn.m us e um /e xp e d it io n 7
3. This terracotta figurine of a bull dates to
the Mycenaean period, ca. 1300 BC. It
was excavated from Ialysus on Rhodes.
One possibility is that they dispensed wine and were used in a BM Image #1870,1008.127.
banquet setting. Nanno Marinatos, however, has persuasively
argued that they were used to hold blood from sacrificial
animals, which was collected and then poured onto the
ground as a libation. The Hagia Triada sarcophagus shows
women pouring what may be blood from the sacrificial bull
into a large krater.
A religious function is also suggested by the portrait-like
quality of some rhyta. In contrast to the stylized depictions
of priestesses, princes, and even deities, the Bull’s Head rhyta
are remarkable for their vividness and their individuality. The
lyre shape of the horns and the ring of white around the nos-
trils have suggested to some that the animals may be examples
of the Greek steppe breed still to be found today in northern
Greece. The portraits would have been the centerpiece of any gathering at which they were used. If such a gathering were the
feast following a sacrifice at which the bull was consumed or
its meat distributed, a formal libation from a vessel imitating
the bull’s head would have constituted a ritual re-enactment
of the bloodletting that began the sacrifice. The savagery of
the animal’s slaughter was replaced with the formal dignity
of libation. The disposal of the rhyton after the ceremony
amounted to a second killing.
A deep-rooted tension between the wildness of the bull
Trustees of the British Museum (top), Archaeological Museum of Heraklion–Hellenic Ministry of Culture–TAP Service (bottom)
The famous Bull’s Head rhyton and the need to master it also appears to underlie the most
from the Little Palace at Knossos famous Minoan institution involving bulls: bull-leaping. The
was made from serpentinite.
details of this practice are much contested. At one extreme are
It has been reconstructed with
inlays of shell, rock crystal, and those who deny such performances ever took place, while at
jasper in the muzzle and eyes. the other are those who offer a detailed breakdown of how the
The gilt wooden horns have also
ritual was performed. The latter base their conclusions on the
been reconstructed. This rhyton
was dated to the Final Palace various depictions of bull-leaping shown on ceramics, seals,
period, ca. 1450–1400 BC. rings, ivory figurines, and frescoes. Based on these artistic rep-
resentations, Sir Arthur Evans, excavator at Knossos, believed
Gold necklace attachments in the shape of bulls’ heads, dated to the Final Palatial
period, ca. 1350–1300 BC, were recovered from Hagia Triada.
8 v olu me 53 , n umber 3 expedi ti o n
4. that the process consisted of four clearly defined phases as the a celestial drama. “Orion confronts Taurus, composed of the
leaper approached, grasped the bull by the horns, vaulted over Hyades and Pleiades (the seven sisters), while Perseus somer-
onto the animal’s back, and then sprang onto the ground. saults with both arms extended over the bull’s back to rescue
Subsequent studies by A. Sakellariou and John Younger Andromeda.” Thornhill’s illustrations for John Flamsteed’s
assembled evidence for variations on Evans’ schema until a 1729 Atlas Coelestis show how easily constellations can be seen
range of styles was identified and associated with specific as snapshots of mythical episodes.
periods in Late Minoan culture. These changes in style make Yet a cosmological reading need not preclude a ritual
Archaeological Museum of Heraklion–Hellenic Ministry of Culture–TAP Service (left and bottom images), Sir Arthur Evans, 1921 (top right)
little sense divorced from an actual practice; they are therefore performance, and certainly does not disprove its existence
taken as evidence that a “sport” of bull-leaping did occur. The altogether. Moreover, the lack of any Minoan liturgical text
conclusion of Younger’s 1976 study sums up the connection comparable, for example, to the Epic of Gilgamesh makes
between artistic representations and the performances they it hazardous to speculate about Minoan cosmology
recall: “In conclusion, bull-leaping begins to appear in artistic in anything but the broadest terms. We can read the
representations toward the beginning of the Late Bronze Age Assyrian seals with some degree of confidence
in Crete and on the Mainland. The main system of perfor- because we have a textual narrative that explains
mance probably followed that of the Diving Leaper Schema. the scenes depicted, but we do not have
When bull-leaping itself was discontinued, perhaps towards
the close of the LB IIIA or the beginning of the LB IIIB period,
ca. 1340 BC, later representations depicted the leaper in
the floating pose (Type III), a pose not copied directly
from the sport.” The ceremonial courts characteristic
of Minoan palaces are often taken to be the locations Above, an ivory figurine of a
for the sport, serving as Minoan bull-rings. bull leaper was probably part of
a three-dimensional composition
Despite the assurance of Evans’ reconstruction,
depicting bull-leaping. Recovered from
or perhaps in reaction to it, there are those who Knossos, it dates to the New Palace
seriously doubt whether it is at all possible to leap period, ca. 1600–1500 BC. Top left, this clay
vessel was recovered from a tomb at Koumasa
a charging bull, particularly when, as in most of the
in southern Crete. It dates to the late Prepalatial
scenes depicted in Minoan art, the bull has its head up, period, ca. 2000–1900 BC. Three human figures are
with its horns vertical. J. Alexander MacGillivray, for clinging to the horns, with the central figure flattened
example, asserts that no person ever jumped over a bull’s against the head of the bull. It may depict bull-leaping or
the capture of a bull. Top right, Sir Arthur Evans, excavator
back on Crete or anywhere else. He suggests instead that at Knossos, provided this “diagrammatic sketch of [an]
the artistic depictions of bull- leaping are representations of acrobat’s course” to show the sequence of movements in
bull-leaping. From The Palace of Minos, page 223, fig. 156.
w w w .p e nn.m us e um /e xp e d it io n 9
5. The variety and specificity of the scenes, in fact, point
towards actual performances. Why else would assistants be
shown holding the horns? Why in some cases would two ani-
mals be shown? In most depictions the bull is charging but
in at least one instance the great beast is calmly seated on the
ground with its legs folded neatly beneath it. In another nota-
An agate lentoid seal, ble case the bull has begun to mount what looks like an altar,
dated ca. 1500–1300 his forelegs raised above the ground and awkwardly hooked
BC, is from Minoan
Crete. It depicts a man onto the stone blocks. These variations make no sense if all the
leading a bull. BM artistic renderings refer to the same single cosmic drama. If on
Image #1892,0720.2. the other hand they commemorate specific performances, the
differences between various depictions are intelligible. As with
anything comparable for Crete, unless we rely on later stories the realistic rendering of individual animals on bull’s head
regarding Minos, Pasiphae, and the Minotaur—stories which rhyta, the scenes of bull-leaping suggest an interest in com-
were not written until after Crete had come under Greek con- memorating actual events rather than representing a cosmo-
trol. If there were Bronze Age myths accompanying the sto- logical story.
ries of Pasiphae and Minos, they certainly were contaminated The only compelling objection to the existence of real bull-
Trustees of the British Museum (left images), From Atlas Coelestis by John Flamsteed (1729), Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology (right)
in the process of transmission. Here we come up against an leaping, in fact, is the assertion that it is physically impossible,
abiding difficulty in recreating the particulars of Bronze Age a claim often made in discussions of contemporary bull sports.
religion: interpretation without textual support must remain Yet in the southwest of France, a version of bull-jumping is
tentative. Since we do not have the Cretans’ stories about the still practiced regularly in a form that is an almost exact par-
stars, we cannot assume that they identified Orion, Taurus, allel of the Minoan version: the course landaise. The animals
Andromeda, and the rest in the same way as the later Greeks employed are not attacked, stabbed, or slaughtered by the par-
or their own contemporaries in the Near East. Even if we were ticipants. Instead, the emphasis is on athleticism. In one event,
to suppose, reasonably, that the astrological traditions of the for example, the leaper vaults over the body of the charging
Near East were familiar to the Cretans, their existence alone cow. In a variation of this, the saut de l’ange (translated as
would not be enough to dismiss bull-leaping as modern inven- “the angel’s leap”), the jumper leaps straight along the same
tion, or to read the scenes of bull-leaping as purely symbolic. axis as the charging animal. It looks exactly like the flying leap
This cast bronze group shows
an acrobat somersaulting
over a bull’s head. Dated
to ca. 1700–1450 BC, it
measures 11.4 cm in
height. BM Image
#1966,0328.1.
A 1729 illustration by Sir James Thornhill depicts the Taurus
Constellation.
10 v olu me 53, n umber 3 expedi ti o n
6. Archaeological Museum of Heraklion–Hellenic Ministry of Culture–TAP Service (top), Fédération Française de la Course Landaise (bottom)
depicted in Minoan glyptics. Other leaps include a somersault
over the cow’s back, the saut á pieds joints (“jump with feet
tied together”), in which the leaper thrusts his legs forward
while leaping vertically, and the most difficult of all, the saut
vrillé (“twisting jump”), in which the sauteur performs a pike
while leaping. I watched the youth championships held in the
small French town of Le Houga in November of 2010 and can
personally attest to the grace and skill of the young athletes, as
well as the speed and aggression of the animals. One popular
animal or vache landaise, called Manolita, managed to knock
two boys over and scared another one clear out of the ring!
Comparisons with the course landaise raise some intrigu-
ing possibilities for our understanding of Minoan ritual. For
example, depictions of Minoan bull-leaping involving the kill-
ing of animals are rare, and it is possible that the point of the
Above, a modern French sauteur or jumper leaps in the air as a vache
exercise was not to kill the animal but to demonstrate superior
landaise or cow rushes toward him. Top, the famous Bull-leaping fresco,
from the palace at Knossos, depicts a critical moment in the event. Two skill. The organization of the course landaise also raises ques-
female figures (in white) are positioned at each end of the bull, while a tions regarding bull-leaping as an institution. Senta German
male figure (in brown) throws himself into a somersault off of the bull’s
has recently proposed that Minoan bull-leaping should be
back. Although this fresco has been reconstructed—the darker fragments
are the recovered pieces—the sport or ritual of bull-leaping is clearly seen as a performance carried out by young men of high sta-
depicted. The fresco dates to the Final Palace period, ca. 1450–1400 BC. tus. This is a plausible interpretation, but there is another pos-
w w w .p e nn.m us e um /e xp e dit io n 11
7. Wall paintings dating to the 16th century BC
from Tell el-Dabca (ancient Avaris) in Egypt
show scenes of bull-leaping. The painting
was recovered in fragments and has been
reconstructed, with the detail on the left showing
a close-up of the bull-leaper and bull on the far
right in the larger composition. From Taureador
Scenes in Tell el-Dabca (Avaris) and Knossos,
by Manfred Bietak, Nannó Marinatos, and Clairy
Palivou, 2007.
reflects an institutionalized source, perhaps the elite who con-
trolled the Knossos palace.” Depictions of bull-leaping, though
popular at Knossos, are uncommon at the other Minoan pal-
aces, although actual performances surely took place in the
great courts of these palaces. Bull-leaping elevated the pal-
sibility. In the modern version of the sport, the performance is aces as ceremonial centers, since only palaces were designed
only one part of a larger system of both cattle production and for spectacle, but the institution required more than priests
M. Bietak, N. Marinatos, C. Palyvou, Austrian Academy of Sciences
specialized training, consisting of sixteen ganaderias, which and hieratic processions. It depended on skilled athletes and
function as breeding farms for the 1,200 vaches landaises, the suitable animals. By monopolizing the stock and the special-
breed specifically raised for the sport, and as ecoles taurines, ized personnel on which the institution was based, Knossos
training schools for the toreros. The same may have applied asserted its cultural dominance of Crete.
in Crete, so that rather than high-status youths engaging in Bull-leaping was thus a centerpiece of Minoan life. It may
acts that functioned to advertise and reinforce social hierar- have been viewed as a sacred re-enactment of a cosmic drama
chy across Minoan society, these Cretan bull-jumpers were with roots going back to earlier Near Eastern religious systems.
specialists from the place that was the home of bull-leaping: Such connections with Egyptian and Near Eastern cosmol-
Knossos. In 1995, commenting on the distribution of bull ogy helped make the Cretan bull cult exportable: excavations
imagery in Minoan art, Paul Rehak noted, “So prominent within the last 20 years in Egypt at the Hyksos capital of Avaris
is this bull imagery that one suspects that its dissemination (Tell el-Dabca) have brought to light wall paintings dating
12 v olu me 53, n umber 3 expedi ti o n
8. to the 16th century BC showing scenes of bull-leaping, sug- used these rings from the fact that very similar sealings
gesting that the practice was already known outside of Crete from the rings have come to light at various sites in Crete,
well before the end of the Bronze Age. Similarly, Canaanite from Chania to Zakros, and even from the Cycladic island
seals reflect an awareness of the practice, as do seals found of Thera. Fifty-three sealings from ten so-called Knossos
at Alalakh in Syria dating to the 17th century BC. The exact replica rings have been found so far, and of these ten, six
details of the cult, especially the narrative that complemented depict bull-leaping. The ideological significance of the ritual
the ritual, are probably irrecoverable, but the existence of such was paramount.
a dangerous performance shows that Cretan religion reflected
the same legacy of pastoralism witnessed throughout the jeremy mcinerney is Davidson Kennedy Professor of
stratified states of the Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean: the Classical Studies and Chair of the Department of Classical
compulsion to demonstrate in myth and ritual man’s control Studies at the University of Pennsylvania.
of nature through mastery of the bull.
As in Egyptian and Near Eastern bull cults, Minoan bull-
leaping gave expression to a tension that underlies man’s For Further Reading
somewhat tenuous mastery of nature, reaffirmed each time Evans, A. The Palace of Minos: A Comparative Account of the
human triumphs over animal. Not coincidentally such cults Successive Stages of Early Cretan Civilization as Illustrated by the
flourish in societies as they become increasingly stratified, Discoveries at Knossos. London: Macmillan and Co., 1921.
as the affirmation of human prowess serves by analogy as an German, S.C. Performance, Power and the Art of the Aegean Bronze
affirmation of social order. For this reason bull-leaping was Age. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2005.
a public performance, displaying the theatrical quality that is Koehl, R. B. Aegean Bronze Age Rhyta. Philadelphia: INSTAP
a distinctive feature of Late Minoan society. Recent studies Academic Press, 2006.
of Knossos have emphasized this aspect of Minoan culture. MacGillivray, J. Alexander. “Labyrinths and Bull-Leapers.”
Neopalatial Knossos may have been as much a ceremonial Archaeology 53 (2000): 53-55.
as an administrative center, which would help to explain the McCormick, J. Bullfighting: Art, Technique and Spanish Society.
prominence of theatral areas here and at the other palaces. London: Transaction Publishers, 2000.
The carefully designed entryways leading to the central court McInerney, J. The Cattle of the Sun: Cows and Culture in the World
were decorated with reliefs that repeated certain topoi or tra- of the Ancient Greeks. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010.
ditional themes such as processions and bull-leaping, suggest- Rehak, P. “The Use and Destruction of Minoan Stone Bull’s Head
ing the very rituals which one would witness upon entering. Rhyta.” In Politeia: Society and State in the Aegean Bronze Age
(Aegaeum 12), edited by Robert Laffineur and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier,
If the frescoes throughout the complex can be read as guides to
pp. 435-460. Liège and Austin: Université de Liège and University of
the performances that occurred there then there is every reason Texas at Austin, 1995.
to believe that the palaces were the focal points for an increas-
Sakellariou, A. Les Cachets Minoens. Paris: P. Geuthner, 1958.
ingly hieratic society, in which religious celebrations such as
Younger, J. G. “Bronze Age Representations of Aegean Bull-leaping.”
harvest festivals were the major social events. There is also evi-
American Journal of Archaeology 80.2 (1976):125-137.
dence for the use of complex proportional schemes, such as
the Fibonacci sequence in the articulation of units of ashlar
masonry in the west façades at Knossos, Mallia, and Phaistos Websites
during the Second Palatial period, suggesting that the design
Video clips of the course landaise can be viewed on the website of
of the public space, like the decoration of the palaces, was the Fédération Française de la Course Landaise at www.courselanda-
meant to evoke the importance of the activities that occurred ise.org/. Also, visit www.toropasion.net for bull-leaping in Spain.
here. Like any rituals, these performances were ephemeral, A lively thread on the discussion list Aegeanet, conducted in late
but carved gold rings depicting bull-leaping commemorated February 2009, illustrates the continuing fascination with this topic
the events. These rings were popular among Minoan officials, and will lead the reader to many parallels from Hittite and other
Bronze Age cultures. For the Aegeanet archives: http://lsv.uky.edu/
members of the Minoan elite, who favored scenes of bull- archives/aegeanet.html. Click on “2009, February week 4”: http://lsv.
leaping. We can infer the high status of the individuals who uky.edu/scripts/wa.exe?A1=ind0902d&L=aegeanet.
w w w .p e nn.m us e um /e xp e dit io n 13