Pastoralism of the high puna of Bolivia: local perceptions of climate change and the challenges of maintaining tradition. Presented by Rosa Isela Meneses at the "Perth II: Global Change and the World's Mountains" conference in Perth, Scotland in September 2010.

1. Pastoralism of the high puna of
Bolivia: local perceptions of climate
change and the challenges of
maintaining tradition
Meneses, R. I., Yager, K., Canqui, F. & Beck S.
Instituto de
Ecología UMSA

2. • In Andean culture, nature is considered to be an
organism, in which all its components are inter-
connected (Grillo, 1990; Valladolid, 1990)
• It is a continual transformation—the domestication
of landscape that benefits, in a reciprocal manner,
society and nature.
• In Andean communities there exists a great interest
to know about the occurence and probability of
rains, frosts, hail, and other climatic and weather
events. They refer to their ancestral cultural
knowledge, which consists of the observations of
different phenological processes of natural plants,
behaivor of insects and animals, and astrological
phenomena.

3. In the Andes, pastoralism (of llamas and alpacas) is a strategy
(of cultural development) that is vital to Andean civilization
(and communities/ayllus). Pastoralism is characterized by:
• A livelihood strategy in arid environments
• Limited means for agricultural production in “extreme”
environments (freezing temperatures, steep slopes, high
altitude)
• Domestication of animals that are well adapted to
mountain environments, and fulfill multiple economic and
social needs
• Characterized by exchanges with other communities in
order to obtain necessary agricultural products to ensure
well being

4. • The camelid (llama and alpaca) has been a part of Andean
cosmology since antiquity, its image is reflected in the stars and
milky way, that announces years of drought and intense rains, and
in many cases in an object of veneration, as evinced in many
worked stones and other cultural objects.
• In prehispanic times (and into the present), camelids served many
functions including economic savings or banks during drought years
or other calamities. Also of course, they are valued for their use for
transportation, wool for textiles, and food production (charki).
• In Andean cultre, many sacred sites, which are natural landscape
features (such as mountains or outcrops) often reflect some kind of
sacred animal and are considered guardians ans spirits that protect
the herds.
El Qoto (Constellation of Pleides) Representation of Karwa nayra (Alfa and
Beta Centauro) Mother Llama and the
Southern Cross

5. Apolobamba and Sajama
The region of Apolobamba and Sajama have
deep historic cultural roots, and the
communities have a rich knowledge passed on
through oral tradition.
Along with conducting research on climate
change in these regions, we felt it important to
work closely with the communities in order to
share knowledge on the theme of “climate”.

6. Apolobamba
Puyo Puyo C`añuhuma

7. Workshops on climate change

8. Participatory mapping
Puyo Puyo C`añuhuma

9. Local perspectives of climate
C’añuhuma Puyo Puyo
• Rainy or wet season
• Rainy or wet season
Oct- Mar (hasta 5 hrs lluvia)
Dec – Apr
• Dry season
• Dry season
Apr- Sep
May-Oct
• Snow
• Snow
Sep-Oct
Any month of the year
• Hail
• Hail
Aug-Dec (May fall any day)
Inter-annual variability
• Winds
• Winds Aug - Oct
Aug- Sep

10. Identification of indicators of climate change

11. Plants
Month Observation Community
Aug If it flowers only in the upper part of C’añuhuma (Municipio
the plant, it will be a good year for de Curva)
dry pastures.
If it flowers only in the middle part,
it will be an average year, there may
not be much dry pasture.
If it flowers only in the lower part, it
will be a below average year for
pastures and animals.
Cylindropuntia floccosa (Cact) Nov If it flowers during this month, it will Ayllu de Puyo Puyo
be a great year for pastures. (Municipio de
Pelechuco)
Dec If there are no flowers by this time,
there will be a bad year

12. • However, traditional knowledge
of climate is not as useful as it
once was.
• Traditional herding rotations
(including divisions in labor and
pasture rotation) are being
challenged
• Water levels are diminishing
(including streams)
• Temperatures are more
extremes (hot and cold)
• New illnesses exist for people
and animals
• Climate events causing greater
stress on production than before

13. Testimonies from local
community members
“When our grandparents
and elders were alive there
were more jalsus (natural
springs) coming from the
slopes, water was constant
all year-round, and there
were green pastures. Now, all
this has disappeared from
many places”. -Sra. Luisa
Barrera de 66 years of age.
“Forty years ago, Moraroni and other mountains were covered in glaciers, till
the foot of the mountains. During trueque travels to the valleys, our fathers had
to cross these glaciers with their llamas. Many times they said that they would
slip on the ice, heading to the community of Curva and to other valley areas;
And now we see that the ice has disappeared from Moraroni and other
mountains” - Mallku de Puyo Puyo).

14. Additional reflections
• Elders consider that climate change is related to the
abadonment of traditional practices.
• They consider that if people practice traditions and
rituals, all may return to normal.
• Mother earth is ill and needs to be cured
• Current generations are uninterested in learning
traditional knowledge
• Current religious practices (evangelism) prohibit
traditional practices in many cases
• The young believe that those who contaminate, must
pay their environmental debt (reflection of current
political frameworks)

15. Climate Change: Local Perceptions and Adaptation in Sajama National Park
• Identify and discuss the
local perspectives of
climate change experienced
by local community
members.
• Present to the communities
in PNS current scientific
and climate change related
research, including local
and regional studies
• Identify possible strategies
of adaptation to climate
change and to other social
and environmental changes
• Raise youth awareness on
subject of environmental
change

16. Participants (Total of 75)
Age Place of Residence
No answer
Other
No answer
Oruro
20 to 30
11.9% Sajama
61 to 75
26.2%
11.9% 35.4%
7.1% 39.1%
51 to 60
La Paz
16.7% 26.2%
C aripe
41 to 50 31 to 40
Lagunas
Papelpampa
Gender 53% M and 47% F 56% of the participants live in
Sajama National Park

17. Workshop activities
1) Focus Groups
2) Presentations
3) Timeline
4) Maps and Models
5) Field Activity
6) School Activity
7) Discussion Groups on
Adaptation

18. 1) Focus groups
• Rain
• Pastures (i.e. bofedales)
• Sun
• Snow and Glacier
• Wind
• Plants
• Animals
• Seasons

19. Focus Group Discussion
• Climate- Since the 1950’s the climate has changed: more wind, more freezes, heat
has increased. The temperatures and seasons are more intense and less predictable
• Sun- It is warmer than before, the sun has dried the waters and the pastures. The sun
causes more skin burns and hurts the eyes.
• Wind-The wind patterns have changed. The dominant current from west to east is
now more often north to south. There are more dustwhirls than before, even inside
the homes. These are features that we have never seen before.
• Seasons- Before the seasons changed every 2-3 months, now all the seasons can
occur in one day and the changes are abrupt. The freezes are more frequent and
stronger. The grazing animals are gravely affected by the cold.
• Rain and Drought- It rains less than before, especially within the last five years.
Before, the rain came according to its season (nov. through march), now there are
prolonged periods of drought.
• Pastures (Bofedales)- Before there was plenty of pastures and kora because it rained
during its time. Now the bofedales are not growing and some sectors are seasonally
drying. There is not enough pasture for the animals. There are more collpares than
before.
• Snow-In the last five years, the peaks have lost much of their snow. There are less
snow storms and this year there was no snow.
• Plants-There are less pasture plants in the summer (rainy season), less seasonal
plants such as kora or llapa, they do not grow in abundance as before, there are less
tholas. Some plants have changed such as the paja and kachu.
• Animals-The intense snows of 1993 and 1994 caused death of many animals
including the extinction of the canejo, death of vicuñas and herding animals, a bird
(tiki tiki) and lizards and frogs. The population of puma, fox, suri, condor and Andean
cat have all decreased. The herd animals are thinner and more susceptible to illness.

20. 3) Timeline Activity:
Social Memory of Climate Events
•1953- Blizzard -Recollection of:
•1955- Blizzard 1) Year
•1975- Blizzard 2) Intensity and estimates
•1981- Drought
3) Duration
•1983- Drought
•1993- Blizzard -Event Associations:
•1994- Blizzard 1) Flora and Fauna changes
•1999- Drought 2) Spatial distribution
•2000-2001- Flooding
3) Impacts on production
• 2002- Blizzard
•2005- Warmest year ever
•2007- Drought- Coldest year
ever

21. 4) Maps and Models
• Past, present and future changes

22. Comparative Changes over time
• 1960’s- Glacier descended to base camp nearer to the upper of limit of the polylepis forest.
The bofedales were greener.
• 1970’s- Tatay Sajama was whiter. Today, near Comisario and el Mirador (on the southwest
face) the glacier has retreated substantially (especially seasonally). Near Huincurata it is drier
and there is less water. No longer grows the paco (Distichia muscoides) nor pork’e (Deyuexia
curvula) and is now only pajonal. The collpares (salt flats) have expanded.
• 1980’s- Glacier descended to base camp seasonally. The rivers were “thicker”. The map
shows that some pastures have been maintained, while others have dried.
• 1990’s- Glacier descended to high camp. There are more Polylepis as a positive result of
conservation efforts. The map shows collpares that have formed from lack of water. It also
identifies three rivers that are not used for irrigation but could be used to optimize bofedales
• 2002- (5 years ago)- In 2002 there was a storm and the snow reached base camp again. But it
did not maintain and it melted from the intense heat. Many bofedales on the map are shown
as “in danger” because rivers and springs are drying.
• 2012- (in 5+ years)- Sajama will be with little snow. The strong heat will diminish the
thickness of it’s head, only ice pinnacles will remain but will not be thick, the snows will no
longer come; there will be avalanches and the mountain will be deformed.
• All of these changes will impact the plants and animals so that in a few years when the
grazing population increases there will be less pastures.
• The tholares will turn to pajonales, and the pajonales to arenales. The bofedales to collpares.
• Within thirty years, Sajama will be a mountain without snow, the springs and rivers will be
dry.

23. Youth and
School
Activity

24. Evaluation of workshop and future steps in PNS
• Survey
• Booklet
• Reflections
• Future steps

25. Institutional participants and support
Ministry of Rural Institute of Ecology,
Development, Agriculture and UMSA (University
Environment, (Viceministry of Mayor San Andres)
Biodiversity, Forestry and
Environment) Ministry of Rural
Conservation International, Development
Bolivia (Viceministry of
Territorial and
Resource Planning)
National Herbarium
of Bolivia
SERNAP (National
Park Service of
Sajama National Park Bolivia)
PNCC (National Program on
Climate Change) (Ministry for
Development Planning)

26. • “It is in our hands, the well-being of our family
and our community; the teachings of our elders
permit us to be aware of climate conditions and
to forsee severe events. Motherearth advises us
constantly, the animals communicate with us,
telling us of what is to come. We only need to
listen to what they tell us, to know to pay
attention in order to not be subject to adverse
conditions” (Policarpio Flores Apaza (Amauta de
Tiawanacu in 1999))