McGill| 1 McGill| 2 Attentional Blink Cognitive Psychology Stimuli are a type of motivation that causes a response in humans or animals. The purpose of this research paper is to examine the attention blink, identify alternative targets for focus, identify occupations that attention blink causes mistakes, and consider that effect of vehicle design in relation to attention blink. The next section discusses attention blink in relation to attention. Attention blink (AB) is a phenomenon that occurs with rapid serial visual presentations (Dux & Marois, 2009). In simpler terms when a set of objects is viewed by the eye in rapid succession only one set of objects will grab the attention of the brain and be processed, while the other objects are ignored. According to Dux & Marois (2009), the key to attention is that the second object shows up 200-500 miliseconds after the first object. This short timeframe makes the second object invisible to some viewers. It stands to reason that if all the targets were at an interval that the brain can perceive such as 199 or 501 miliseconds then all targets will be visible. This discovery is important when discussing the limitations of human attention during a series of distractions during a set time period (Dux & Marois, 2009). “We conclude that the AB arises from attentional demands of T1 for selection, working memory encoding, episodic registration, and response selection, which prevents this high-level central resource from being applied to T2 at short T1-T2 lags (Dux & Marois, 2009).” Another discovery was made concerning redeployment of attentional resources. When the primary target is the individual’s focus the ability to redirect the attentional resources is extremely limited. In fact the attentional resources will be redeployed on the third target because it takes longer to appear after the first target. There is another theory that could account for the limited attentional resources present for the second target. It is possible that the brain has been conditioned to pay attention to the most important objects or targets. This is an interesting factor because what is important to one person may not be important to another person. Alternative targets that can hold a person’s attention longer is the focus of the next section. It was proposed previously by Dux and Marois (2009) that the importance of the target can cause the individual to pay closer attention regardless of the time frame constraints. Signs and personal/familiar photos should be added as targets to the study. People are conditioned to pay attention to signs because they provide helpful information and even prevent death. The shape, the color, and the symbols on the signs are also important in the prolonged attention of the viewer. For example: the biohazard sign as the second target would definitely be seen by the viewer. First, this sign signals a warning to the viewer that something may be wrong. Obviousl ...

1. McGill| 1
McGill| 2
Attentional Blink
Cognitive Psychology
Stimuli are a type of motivation that causes a response in
humans or animals. The purpose of this research paper is to
examine the attention blink, identify alternative targets for
focus, identify occupations that attention blink causes mistakes,
and consider that effect of vehicle design in relation to attention
blink. The next section discusses attention blink in relation to
attention.
Attention blink (AB) is a phenomenon that occurs with
rapid serial visual presentations (Dux & Marois, 2009). In
simpler terms when a set of objects is viewed by the eye in
rapid succession only one set of objects will grab the attention
of the brain and be processed, while the other objects are
ignored. According to Dux & Marois (2009), the key to
attention is that the second object shows up 200-500
miliseconds after the first object. This short timeframe makes
the second object invisible to some viewers. It stands to reason
that if all the targets were at an interval that the brain can

2. perceive such as 199 or 501 miliseconds then all targets will be
visible.
This discovery is important when discussing the
limitations of human attention during a series of distractions
during a set time period (Dux & Marois, 2009). “We conclude
that the AB arises from attentional demands of T1 for selection,
working memory encoding, episodic registration, and response
selection, which prevents this high-level central resource from
being applied to T2 at short T1-T2 lags (Dux & Marois, 2009).”
Another discovery was made concerning redeployment of
attentional resources.
When the primary target is the individual’s focus the
ability to redirect the attentional resources is extremely limited.
In fact the attentional resources will be redeployed on the third
target because it takes longer to appear after the first target.
There is another theory that could account for the limited
attentional resources present for the second target.
It is possible that the brain has been conditioned to pay
attention to the most important objects or targets. This is an
interesting factor because what is important to one person may
not be important to another person. Alternative targets that can
hold a person’s attention longer is the focus of the next section.
It was proposed previously by Dux and Marois (2009) that
the importance of the target can cause the individual to pay
closer attention regardless of the time frame constraints. Signs
and personal/familiar photos should be added as targets to the
study. People are conditioned to pay attention to signs because
they provide helpful information and even prevent death. The
shape, the color, and the symbols on the signs are also
important in the prolonged attention of the viewer.
For example: the biohazard sign as the second target would
definitely be seen by the viewer. First, this sign signals a
warning to the viewer that something may be wrong.
Obviously, taking this test at school or at home this warning
may be unfounded. However, the basis for the signs still
triggers a response in the individual’s brain to be alert for

3. danger even when no danger exists. The same is true for the
stop sign.
The shape and the color of this sign represent halting
before moving into traffic. Even if the words are not present
the other two factors would demand the same response and same
level of attention. All humans have a set of basis needs and
self-preservation is one of them (Huitt, 2007). To ignore these
signs when they manifest is to willingly admit that personal
safety and survival are no longer important. It is safe to assume
that these types of targets will cause immediate focus for a
prolonged period of time.
It is hypothesized that the second suggested target will
cause an even longer and more immediate focal response:
personal or familiar photos. The brain associates pictures with
memories and events that the individual has experienced. For
example: the picture of a baby will cause a mother to spend
more time focused on it. The baby picture can either be of the
mother’s baby or a general picture of a baby. The strong
prolonged response will be the same.
An interesting proposed drawback concerning the personal
or familiar photos comes from the emotional state of the viewer.
If the pictures evoke a negative memory the response from the
brain could be to ignore the photos or forget them as quickly as
possible? The negative event could be a car accident,
witnessing a murder, or experiencing a relationship breakup. It
is almost a fifty-fifty possibility for the viewer to either accept
or reject the photographs. The next section focuses on
occupations where attention blink could cause problems.
Attention blink is all about paying attention and possibly
missing the next target or object that appears after the first one.
AB would be detrimental in jobs that are fast paced and require
focus on various objects or targets. Bank teller, military
personnel, and factory worker are the occupations that would be
adversely affected by AB.
Bank tellers work in a fast paced environment with other
people’s money. It is important to keep track of the currency

4. types, quantities, and numerical values. It is possible that bank
tellers counting at high speeds can miss at least one bill per
stack of money that is counted in a given day. Think about it, if
20 stacks were counted in one day than twenty bills have been
missed in the counting process.
Military personnel specifically air force are required to
take out targets on the ground or in the air while they are flying.
Flying is not a static situation but rather a fluid one that deals
with turbulence, changing weather conditions, and the hazard of
birds. Because there are tracking systems and the new predator
unmanned aircrafts these mistakes becomes less and less likely.
The same cannot be said for factory workers.
Factory workers deal with the responsibility of assembling,
checking, and accepting or rejecting products. This takes a
matter of seconds when dealing with a moving conveyor belt
and several different products to look over and then handle.
The implications in missing defective parts or misaligning a
product during production includes: loss of life, lawsuits, and
reduced funds for the company. There are also recalls that may
be issues because of the lack of attention given to certain
products. The next section focuses on the placement of devices
within a vehicle.
Attention blink is not the only attention problem; humans
also deal with divided attention. Divided attention can be
described as an individual that is trying to focus on two things
at one time. Another way to look at it would be associated with
those individuals who claim to be multi-tasker and they
accomplish multiple goals during specific time periods.
When operating a vehicle the driver already has divided
attention in the form of watching other drivers, answering the
cell phone (if applicable), and interacting with passengers in the
vehicle. Typically, individuals look down more easily than up
when driving a vehicle so having the vital systems in the regular
place would seem more useful. In terms of attentional blink
there is the likelihood of an accident occurring.
The driver would need to shift his or her attention from the

5. road to the overhead displays. This means quickly focusing on
a certain gauge and then putting his or her eyes back on the
road. It is possible to miss warnings signs or miss traffic
behaviors while performing this action.
Attentional blink is a means for the brain to process a
primary target or a target that is perceived to be more important
than other targets. Identifying target importance can be a
gained experience. Alternative targets such as signs and photos
(personal/familiar) can be a main influence in the length of time
an individual pays attention during the study. There are some
occupations that are adversely affected by attentional blink such
as factory workers.
The product passes in seconds who only gives the workers
seconds for correct assembly and then inspection. Lastly,
divided attention or multitasking seems to be better than AB. In
a test with vehicles it is better to have divided attention and a
low panel of instruments. AB through further study has the
potential to review the limitations of mankind concerning time
and distractions.
References
Dux, P.E. and Marois, R. (2009). The attentional blink: A
review of data and theory. Attention, Perception, &
Psychophysics 71(8): 1683-1700. DOI: 10.3758/APP.71.8.1683
Huitt, W. (2007). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Educational
Psychology Interactive.
Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/regsys/maslow.html
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (WITS). (2014).
Divided Attention.
http://www.wits.ac.za/academic/humanities/umthombo/psycholo
gy/ergonomics/sections/attention/7482/dividedattention.html

6. McGill | 1
Mozart Effect
Cognitive Psychology
Research and conducting experiments is the most effective
way possible to gain an answer. The type of research is based
on the situation, the hypothesis, and the resources the individual
or group has on hand. The purpose of this research paper is to
examine the Mozart
Effect from two different journals and answer questions based
on the research materials. The first article for examination is
Music and spatial task performance.
The Mozart Effect is essentially a study to determine if
music helps individuals to accomplish tasks better. Memory is
definitely a factor in this study. Rauscher, Shaw, Levine, and
Ky, hypothesized that a model of the brain and its pathways for
neurons would prove that music and the ability to orient oneself
with their environment can be seen using the same neural paths
and they cover a large portion of the same areas in the brain.
A much simpler picture would be two cars driving down
the same highway to get to similar locations. The actual
terminology used is spatial task performance. A quick
explanation of spatial ability is necessary to understand the

7. important of the study. Spatial skill deals with comprehension
and memory related to spaces among objects. This ability can be
classified as an intelligence that is set apart from others such as
verbal or reasoning. It can be considered a fluid type of trait
that evolves over time as people have different life experiences.
The significance of spatial ability is two-fold: in application
and also in occupation. In terms of application it is related to a
person's ability to perform at least two tasks at the same time.
For example: people who can eat and drive at the same time
have developed this ability through spatial skill. Just like
experience work has its spatial skill requirements. Occupations
such as mathematics, natural sciences, and meteorology are
included in the spatial skill classification. Notice that these
types of occupations often require research. Two important
components of research are the independent variable and the
dependent variable. In this study the independent variables are:
Mozart's sonata, college students, and three year olds. The
dependent variable in the study was memory of the participants.
The researchers focused on Mozart's sonata which was a
controlled variable because it was the only type of music they
used. This was necessary because the study itself was music
specific i.e. Mozart's sonata. There were two other controlled
variables college students and three year olds.
Controlling age ranges was important to see how memory
was affected in children and adults, namely to see who
remembered the most information for the longest period of time.
The researchers presented data from two different studies:
college students with improved short-term memory due to
Mozart's sonata, and three year olds with long-term
advancements specifically in nonverbal cognitive abilities based
on listening to Mozart's sonata.
The evidence from this study was observable and valid.
The researchers explained that infants possess the highest level
of ability concerning memorization and the development of
nonverbal cognitive skills. As a person ages brain elasticity
lessens and it becomes harder for a person to grasp new material

8. specifically memory recall and implementation. The evidence
presented did justify the explanation and proved that music does
travel along the same neural pathways as spatial ability. The
following is another study based on the Mozart Effect.
A researcher named Jenkins analyzed the work that was
done by Rauscher et al concerning the Mozart effect and how it
helped to improve memory and spatial skills. There was an
initial argument that “enjoyment arousal” was the only reason
that participants did so well in the previous study. The two
specific factors were the specific type of music and the
participants’ appreciation for the music. For example if the
participants consisted of teenagers with an urban background
most likely they would respond more positively to rap music.
In order to adequately test the challenge hypothesis animal
experiments were conducted on pregnant rats. The specified
time frame was 60 days. The types of music the rats were
exposed to consisted of: Mozart's piano sonata K448, limited
music by Philip Glass, white noise, and silence. After the
exposure was complete and the rats were born they were put to
another test through maze navigation.
Interestingly, enough the findings from the maze
navigation revealed that the rats exposed to the Mozart sonata
were the quickest and most accurate of the three groups. This
was very significant because it proves that Mozart's sonata or
the Mozart Effect was real, provable, and provided a positive
effect on memory. Another study was conducted that was not
related to spatial skill performance or maze navigation; it
involved individuals suffering from epilepsy. The study was
conducted with 29 patients, 23 suffered from focal discharges
and bursts/spikes. When the epileptic patients listened to
Mozart's piano sonata K448 there was a noticeable decrease in
epileptic activity recorded on the electroencephalogram. The
study was then narrowed down to one male who was
unconscious. Listening to the selected music it was visible that
his actual patterns went from 62% to 21% a definite
improvement. Mozart K.448 was also effective in reducing the

9. effects of epilepsy in children. Specifically, the result was a
reduction in the frequency of the epileptic episode. This study
has merit for these three reasons it proves the Mozart Effect is
real, it proves the Mozart Effect is not based on appreciation of
the music per the unborn rats' performance in the maze after 60
day exposure, and the Mozart Effect is not limited to spatial
skill performance or memory it can also reduce the effects of
epilepsy in some patients. The study did not take into account
an individual's spatial ability. In this particular case it appeared
that all the rats had the ability to navigate the maze. There was
no indication that any of the rats were either physically or
mentally impaired. The only different encountered was the type
of music or lack thereof that they were exposed to Mozart's
sonata, Philip Glass, white noise and silence. The study
conducted with the epileptic patients was not about their spatial
ability but rather about the reduction in their episodes. This
study can be generalized in two ways: using different types of
rats and using different types of classical music. The first study
only dealt with seemingly healthy rats. In order to generalize
this study all types of rats should be used in order to test their
spatial skills.
These are the types of rats in particular that should be used
for the study’s generalization: mentally unstable/deficient rats,
physically deformed rats, rats that have suffered some type of
injury, rats that are blind/partially blind, deaf/partially deaf,
and lastly healthy rats. Another set of rats that could be used in
the study would be malnourished rats as well as obese rats.
With this many rats listening to the three musical selections
plus silence a broader inference can be made concerning
Mozart’s sonata and its effects on rats’ negotiation a maze. The
study concerning the epileptic patients would include additional
types of classical music not just Mozart’s sonata.
The classical music can come from any composer Bach,
Brahms, Chopin, and even consist of different types of Mozart’s
music. The idea is to find out if epileptic episodes can be

10. decreased with all types of classical music or simply Mozart’s
sonata. Even then would different types of Mozart’s music make
a difference in the epileptic episodes? Taking the situation
further the types of instruments in used in the classical music
may have an effect as well.
It was previously stated that the Mozart piece was piano. It
could be inferred that all classical pieces that use piano can
decrease epileptic episodes. Another generalization is that any
type of piano music in the soothing category lacking words
could have a positive effect on epileptic episode reduction. The
type of epileptic just like the rats could be a defining factor.
Does the effect only work on patients with server epilepsy or
does it work on all types of epileptic patients?
The conclusion of this study is that the Mozart Effect is
real, attestable, and it creates positive results in the
participants. The first study was based on college students and
three year olds in relation to spatial skill. It was proven that the
younger the individual the easier it is to remember information
in association with listening to Mozart’s sonata. The college
students on the other hand only retain increased memory in the
short-term. It was also proven that music itself and spatial skill
travel along the same neurological pathways in the brain. The
concept of the study was later challenged with the express
argument that any piece of music can be used to make people
smarter if they only appreciate the piece. In other words
individuals who like jazz would be able to remember things
more frequently because they listen to jazz and like it.
Reference
Jenkins, J.S. (2001). The Mozart effect. Journal of the Royal
Society of Medicine, 94, 170-172
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1281386/
JHU. (n.d.). What is spatial ability? Retrieved September 9,
2014 from
http://web.jhu.edu/cty/STBguide.pdf
Lin, L.C., Lee, W. T., Wu, H. C., Tsai, C. L., Wei, R.C., Mok,

11. H.K., Weng, C. F., Lee, M. W., &
Yang, R.C. (2011). The long-term effect of listening to Mozart
K.448 decreases epileptiform discharges in children with
epilepsy. Epilepsy Behavior 21(4): 420-450. DOI:
10.1016/j.yebeh.2011.05.015
Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1993). Music and
spatial task performance. Nature,
365. 6447: 611. (October 14, 1993). (ProQuest Document ID
76004658).
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED390733.pdf