March Madness

HabibaAbudu 1
March Madness : Basketball
I am studying basketball in order to find out how basketball transitioned from its roots in
amateurism and Muscular Christianity to the professionalized sport we now know today. The
time frame of this paper will be from 1891 (the creation of basketball) to approximately 1950
(the creation of the National Basketball Association). With the early beginnings of basketball in
a Young Men Christian Association (YMCA) training school at Springfield, Massachusetts
emphasis was placed on one's morale. At the time, the style of play is largely stagnant.
Basketball was able to increase in popularity through the proliferation of amateur leagues such as
the National College Collegiate Association (NCAA) and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU).
Through these leagues, basketball intensifies in competition and subsequently allures a larger
fanbase domestically and internationally. As a result of the increasing popularity with basketball,
there is corporate involvement. After World War II, there was the establishment of the NBA
which provided opportunity for collegiate players to continue their careers after university. From
this, I can say that James Naismith's original intentions of discipline and morale in basketball
was able to remain in basketball for a couple of decades in the early twentieth century due to
groups such as the YMCA, AAU and the NCAA. However, the shift in basketball started around
the 1920's as basketball became more popular and there was an opportunity to make a lucrative
career, causing the tenets of amateurism and Muscular Christianity to become secondary or non-
existent.
In order to understand the origins of basketball, it is important to understand the concept
of Muscular Christianity. By the late nineteenth century, the concept of Muscular Christianity

HabibaAbudu 2
was prevalent in North America. 1 Literature such as Tom Brown's School Days which advocates
for "discipline and reliance" 2 amongst teammates provided early templates which to model
Muscular Christianity after. Muscular Christianity was also a response to sports that were
perceived as immoral in nature due to the presence of gambling and physical harm associated
with sports such as boxing or bear baiting. 3 Eventually the development of the Young Men's
Christian Association was geared towards reaching the "...white, middle class culture". 4 The
YMCA used sports as a means to instill values through games and used athletes to share
testimonies of triumph and success. By providing spiritual enlightenment and development, it
was the organization's desire that young men would carry the message to streets or in any place
in which they could gather an audience. 5 YMCA recreational centers were known for their
expansive gymnasium which would host a variety of sports such as swimming, rowing and
bicycles. 6
One devotee of the YMCA movement was James Naismith who had a "...passionate
devotion to education". 7 Naismith was spurred with a personal desire to help human beings. 8 As
a result, Naismith was led to leave his studies in ministry to go teach.9 In Naismith's
autobiography it seems that his inspiration behind basketball is similar to the Master in Tom
1 Tony Ladd and James A. Mathisen, Muscular Christianity: Evangelical Protestants and the Development of
American Sport (Grand Rapids :BridgePoint Books, 1999) , 25.
2 Thomas Hughes, Tom Brown's School Days ( New York : Putnam, 1913), 304
3 Tony Ladd and James. A Mathisen Muscular Christianity:Evangelical Protestants and the Development of
American Sport, (Grand Rapids, 1999), 25.
4 Ladd and Mathisen, Muscular Christianity, 43.
5 C.Howard Hopkins,History of the Y.M.C.A. in North America (New York : Association Press,1951),26.
6 Hopkins,Y .M.C.A., 259.
7 Hopkins,Y .M.C.A., 258.
8 James Naismith,Basketball: Its Origin and Development (Michigan:University MicrofilmsInternational ,1977) ,
20 .
9 Naismith,Basketball , 28 .

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Brown's School Days. For example, Naismith is bestowed with the task of dealing with a
"troublesome" class at the YMCA. Training school in Springfield, Massachusetts. 10 December
1891, was when Naismith created the sport of basketball which was to instill values that would
properly develop the boys that Naismith was teaching. The pace of the game was very slow since
players were not allowed to run with the ball. 11 Furthermore, "Shouldering, holding, pushing,
tripping or striking" was prohibited in basketball". 12 This rule advocates a sense of "proper"
behaviour that boys should strive to emulate. Additionally, the sport did not have a stop clock
and coaches "...assumed a defensive mentality". 13
Furthermore, a humility was brought with the game, since uniforms were simply "...any
suit that was used in the gymnasium".14 It was only ten years after the creation of basketball that
Spalding started featuring advertisements for uniforms as well shoes with special soles in the
Spalding Catalogue. 15 The fact that Spalding started showing advertisements for basketball
indicated that there was a potential for a profit to be made in basketball. Similar to evangelism,
basketball was promoted amongst various YMCA. papers. Basketball was further disseminated
throughout the United States, by expanding YMCA gymnasium and having more classes to teach
young boys. 16 As a result, Naismith largely credits the expansion of basketball to the YMCA.
Initially, it seems that amateur organizations had reinforce the ideals associated with
basketball. For example, the Amateur Athletic Union was formed in 1888 to conduct games and
10 Naismith,Basketball , 42.
13 Adolph H. Grundman, The Golden Age of Amateur Basketball: The AAU Tournament, 1921-1968 (London:
University of Nebraska Press,2004), 4.
16Naismith,Basketball , 114.

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reinforce the "amateur" code.17 The AAU began to sponsor national tournaments for basketball.
Basketball was seen a tool of assimilation for new immigrants.18 Similarly, The NCAA was
formed in 1906 as a result of a "response to public outcry about the increasing violence, injury
and professionalism in college football." 19 This quote indicates a resistance to the
professionalization of sport. NCAA starting holding tournaments for basketball, with the first
one in 1939.20 The AAU and the NCAA both valued competition for the "sheer love of sport
rather than its financial awards" and "...promoting values such as teamwork and discipline". 21
Additionally. John Naismith emphasized the manly ideals and discipline in his speech for the
eighth annual convention of the N.C.A.A :
Therefore, while the immediate responsibility of this organization is primarily with
intercollegiate contests, yet it should use every means to put basketball, as well as every
other sport, on such a basis that it will be a factor in the molding of character, as well as to
encourage it as a recreative and competitive sport. This organization should take such
measures as will result in a rigid enforcement of the rules as formulated, and encourage a
manly respect for the right of others. So much stress is laid to-day on the winning of games
that practically all else is lost sight of, and the fine elements of manliness and true
sportsmanship are accorded to a secondary place. 22
17 Grundman, The Golden Age: The AAU Tournament, 1.
19 E. Woodrow Eckard, “The NCAA Cartel and Competitive Balancein CollegeFootball”
Review of Industrial Organization 13 (1998): 348
20 Alan Minsky, March to the Finals: The History of College Basketball's Illustrious Finale (New York : Metro Books,
1997),6.
22 Ladd and Mathisen, Muscular Christianity, 69-70.

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In his speech Naismith emphasized, manliness, moulding character, and respect for others. This
quote indicates an idealism where men would lay aside their pride and put others before
themselves while hosting friendly competition. The quote also indicates Naismith's adamancy to
adhering to the rules to maintain the proper competitive environment. Nonetheless, corruption is
seems to be an issue as early as the 1890s with "...the lure of gate receipts, and the "under-the-
table" payments to athletes that permeated collegiate and AAU competition". 23 It is through
association such as the NCAA and the AAU that the style of play became more innovative and
fast-pace. 24 An example of this is Indiana's "...fast break offense that boggled opponents and
became the prototype for generations to come".25
Basketball's popularity led to the sport being featured in the 1936 Olympics. From there,
there was a power struggle in terms of who would oversee the US national sports team between
the NCAA and the AAU. The NCAA believed that the AAU, who represented sports in the
international realm could not properly govern the Olympic program. 26 We also see that there is a
sense of nationalism due to people believing that basketball should be strictly an American sport.
27 At this point of time we can see how AAU leagues and NCAA teams are more revered than
YMCA teams. This is because in order to decide the team for the 1936 Olympics' basketball team
a tournament was held and more spots were given to AAU and NCAA teams. 28
1997),8.
1997),12.

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Being apart of the AAU not only provided an opportunity to be in the Olympics, but it also
provided job opportunities. Prior to 1921, the AAU was an athletic club. 29 The 1921-1934 period
saw the rise of businesses and sponsorships. Incidentally, job offers were made to the most
successful teams. 30 An example of this was Kenneth Stanley "Boots" Adams, a Kansas high school
athlete who dropped out of Kansas University in order to take a 125 dollars a month with Phillips.
31 Additionally, "Phillips, like many other American Corporations, saw its teams as part of an
employee relations and advertising program."32 When the Phillips' team won the national
championship in 1940 it provided the means for further advertisement at the Ohrbach Athletic
tournament.33 Incidentally, corporations saw the public relations merit of having teams sponsored
since key players and teams were sponsored by companies mentioned in newspapers. Additional
company teams at time included General Electric, Firestone and Goodyear. 34
Not all opportunities were of good merit. The NCAA faced some controversy in the 1940s
and 1950s. It was discovered that bookies at Madison Square Garden would place bets on the
outcome of the games. 35 An investigation led to the discovery that gamblers had bribed teams
from points spread. 36 " In other words, if a team was favoured by 8 points, gamblers would pay
players on the favoured team to prevent their team from winning by 8 or more points. "37 The
stories of gambling caused a stir with the AAU, however thorough investigation shown that there
34 Eric Leifer, Making the Majors: The Transformation of Team Sports in America ( England:
Harvard University Press, 1995), 111.
35 Alan Minsky, March to the Finals: The History of College Basketball's Illustrious Finale, 10.

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was no controlled outcome in AAU games. 38 As a result, the NCAA banned all schools from
playing at the Madison Square Garden. 39
Despite controversies, there was a "...potentially strong demand for a chance to watch well-
known college stars continue their playing careers". 40 Also, it was the perfect environment in the
mid 1940's to place basketball on a larger platform due to the conclusion of the second world war.
During World War 2, many players were drafted or enlisted. 41 As a result many teams cancelled
games and schedules. 42 Professional basketball also suffered. 43 After World War II, the level of
competition was elevated as many were training whilst overseas. Also, Ned Irish, a proponent of
professional basketball stated that after the second world war "...almost any show we present was
an automatic sellout...Money was freer and there were not as many television sets in operation. "
44 Furthermore, after the second world war individuals were allured by the prospect of making a
profit by being an owner of the NBA team. One did not have to be rich or have knowledge of
basketball in order to be an owner. 45 It is also evident that owners wanted to capitalize on
television as well. Television provided the new means of gaining access to millions of people
whose marginal interest culmitatively could provide a large return to owners. 46 Incidentally, the
Madison Square Garden scandals shown how college basketball has become too large to be
controlled by a few number of people. 47
40David George Surdam, The Rise of the National Basketball Association (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,2012),
20.
41Minsky,March to the Finals, 14.
42 Minsky,March to the Finals, 14.
44 Joseph M. Sheehan, "Garden Figures Indicates a Haltin Downward Attendance Trend," The New York Times,
January 14, 1955.
45 Surdam, The Rise of the National Basketball Association, 61.
47Minsky,March to the Finals, 25.

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There were two professional leagues in the 1930s and 1940s that were to meet the
increasing demand of basketball. These were the Basketball Association of America and the
National Basketball League. 48 To the BAA, basketball was a product to be marketed and the BAA
tried to distinguished themselves from college basketball. 49 Early team salaries were $ 40, 000
and included territorial protection within a fifty mile radius. 50 Nonetheless the BAA, actively
recruited college players and the salaries did appeal to many college players. The NBL also had
"the best known players" . 51 By 1949, both the BAA and the NBL were doing dismal. As a result,
both leagues merged on August 3, 1949 in order to form the National Basketball Association
(NBA).52 With the merger, top players were able to negotiate higher salaries such as Max
Zaslofsky who requested for 14,000 per season for five seasons. 53 Salaries ranged from 2,700 to
17,500 dollars during the 1949-1950 season.54 The intensity of competition was increased with
dominating teams such as the Boston Celtics, Chicago Bulls, and the New York Knickerbockers.
55 The NBA also introduced the twenty-four-second rule which meant a team had to make a goal
within 24 seconds of possession. 56 Also, there was the integration of black players a concept not
foreign to NCAA players who featured black players, but nonetheless change the way in which
basketball was played and drew large crowds. 57
In conclusion, this paper shows James Naismith's original intentions of discipline and
morale in basketball was able to remain in basketball for a couple of decades in the early
48Surdam, The Rise of the National Basketball Association, 21.

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twentieth century as the principles Naismith intended for basketball were reinforced by the likes
of the YMCA, AAU and the NCAA. The shift in basketball started around the 1920's as
basketball became increasingly popular with amateur leagues and there was an opportunity to
make a lucrative career through corporate intervention, subsequently causing the tenets of
amateurism and Muscular Christianity to have less value in basketball. It is interesting to see
how there always was the allure of making a profit through gambling or swindlers. The tenets of
amateurism and Muscular Christianity in basketball had a strong foundation since it was created
by a member of the YMCA movement, James Naismith. The early beginnings of basketball was
a stark contrast to what basketball was by 1950. The style of play became more advanced, there
was the integration of black players and also the salaries largely increased. In amateurism one
was to play out of the sheer love of the game. However, members in university saw the potential
to make an income either by acquiring a job with a corporate team or joining a professional
league such as the NBA. With these changes the principles of camaraderie, gentleman behavior
and other ideals associated with amateurism and Muscular Christianity was seldom mentioned.
Not to say that that those ideals were completely gone it just seems that greater emphasis was
placed on "making a buck".

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Works Cited
Ladd, Tony and A. Mathisen, James. Muscular Christianity: Evangelical Protestants and the
Development of American Sport. Grand Rapids : BridgePoint Books, 1999.
Hughes, Thomas. Tom Brown's School Days. New York : Putnam, 1913.
Hopkins, C.Howard, History of the Y.M.C.A. in North America. New York : Association Press,
1951.
Naismith, James. Basketball: Its Origin and Development. Michigan: University Microfilms
International , 1977.
H. Grundman, Adolph. The Golden Age of Amateur Basketball: The AAU Tournament, 1921-
1968. London: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.
Eckard, E. Woodrow. “The NCAA Cartel and Competitive Balance in College Football.”
Review of Industrial Organization 13 (1998): 347-369.
Minsky, Alan. March to the Finals: The History of College Basketball's Illustrious Finale. New
York : Metro Books, 1997.
Humphreys, Brad R. and E. Ruseski, Jane. “Financing Intercollegiate Athletics: The Role of
Monitoring and Enforcing NCAA Recruiting Regulations,” International Journal of
Sport Finance, 1 (2006): 151-161.
Surdam, David George. The Rise of the National Basketball Association. Urbana: University of
Illinois Press, 2012.
Leifer, Eric. Making the Majors: The Transformation of Team Sports in America ( England:
Harvard University Press, 1995), 111.
M. Sheehan, Joseph. "Garden Figures Indicates a Halt in Downward Attendance Trend," The
New York Times, January 14, 1955.

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