This document summarizes Sri Lanka's National Strategy and Action Plan (NSAP) for the Mangroves for the Future (MFF) programme. The NSAP was developed in response to extensive damage to Sri Lanka's coastal ecosystems from the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The plan establishes policies and a Strategic Action Plan to promote integrated coastal zone management and the sustainable development of coastal areas. The NSAP aims to address issues such as unsustainable development, conflicting uses of coastal resources, and gaps in coastal management capacity and knowledge. It outlines strategies for ecosystem restoration, stakeholder participation, and monitoring and adapting the plan over time based on learning. The overall goal is to develop healthier, more prosperous and secure coastal communities through long-

1. Mangroves for the Future
National Strategy and Action Plan
An Ecosystem-Based Integrated Coastal Management in Sri Lanka

3. Contents
Mangroves for the Future
National Strategy and Action Plan
An Ecosystem-Based Integrated Coastal Management in Sri Lanka

4. Contents
Published by: IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature),
Sri Lanka Office for the National Steering Committee of the
Mangroves for the Future Programme, Sri Lanka,
Copyright: © 2009 IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources.
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non
- commercial purposes is authorized without prior written
permission from the copyright holder provided the source is
fully acknowledged.
Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial
purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the
copyright holder.
Research, synthesis
and compilation: Dr J I Samarakoon
Photographs: Unless otherwise indicated, all still photographs are by Dr J I
Samarakoon
Citation: Sri Lanka National Strategy and Action Plan (2009) Mangroves
for the Future Programme, IUCN Sri Lanka Country Office,
Colombo. xxxii + 219pp.
ISBN: 978 - 955 - 8177 - 96 - 9
Cover Photograph: A hive of activity near the Fisheries Harbour in Tangalle;
Ranjith Mahindapala
Produced by: IUCN Sri Lanka Office
Designed and
layout by: K. Amila Tharanga
Printed by: Karunaratne Sons Ltd.
67, UDA Industrial Estate,
Katuwana Road,
Homagama.
Available from: IUCN Sri Lanka
Country Office,
53, Horton Place,
Colombo 07,
Sri Lanka.
ii

5. Contents
Contents
ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................. vi
FOREWORD............................................................................ ix
Executive Summary ....................................................... xi
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 1
1.1 Coastal Ecosystems Focus. .................................................1
1.2 Coastal Ecosystems in Sri Lanka.......................................4
1.3 How to Read The NSAP. ................................................ 13
1.3.1 Structure of the Report............................................... 14
1.4 Planning the NSAP – Starting Point.............................. 15
.
1.5 The Tragedy of the Commons........................................ 16
1.6 The Mangroves for the Future Programme (MFF)
– An Opportunity........................................................... 18
1.7 Integration with International Processes........................ 20
.
1.8 Terminology – a Clarification........................................ 20
.
1.9 Coastal Ecosystems: Bio-physical Reality and Need for
Ecosystem-based ICM. ..................................................... 21
1.9.1 Evolution of Estuaries, Lagoons and Deltas............... 24
1.9.2 A Micro-tidal regime................................................... 24
1.9.3 A Narrow Continental Shelf...................................... 25
1.9.4 Geological Base and Geomorphology
(Swan, 1983; Cooray 1982)......................................... 27
.
1.9.5 Impact of Technology................................................. 27
1.9.6 Coastal Processes. ....................................................... 29
.
1.10 The Developmental Setting............................................. 34
1.10.1 Development History and Poverty............................ 36
1.11 Planning Principles......................................................... 37
.
1.12 Management of Change in Ecosystems. ........................... 37
1.13 Causal Model Analysis of Coastal Ecosystems. ............... 39
1.14 Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) is
Development.................................................................... 39
1.15 Natural Hazards as Stimuli for Improved ICM. .............. 43
1.15.1 The Great Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004: An
Opportunity for Improved ICM................................ 43
1.16 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the Tsunami
2004: a Foundation for MFF NSAP. ........................... 43
1.17 An Asian Perspective on Ecosystem-based ICM............ 44 .
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6. Contents
1.18 Socio-ecological Systems (SES): The Human Face of
Coastal Ecosystems. ......................................................... 45
1.19 Adapting to Future Uncertainty. ..................................... 46
1.20 Issues in Sustainable Management of Socio-ecological
Systems........................................................................... 46
.
1.21 The National Strategy and Action Plan (NSAP). ............ 47
1.22 Towards 2030: MFF NSAP............................................ 48
.
2. COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS – EXISTING
SITUATION AND TRENDS.................................................. 49
.
2.1 Preamble......................................................................... 49
.
2.2 Methodology: Information on Ecosystem Trends......... 53 .
2.3 Coastal Ecosystems – Definition, Regional Diversity,
and Use Patterns............................................................. 54
.
2.3.1 Definition.................................................................... 55
2.3.2 Structure and Functioning of the Seven
Coastal Ecosystems..................................................... 58
2.3.3 Regional Diversity – The Coasts of the Provincial
Councils...................................................................... 67
2.3.4 Distribution and Extents of Coastal Ecosystems........ 80
2.3.5 Coastal Ecosystems – Size Matters!. ........................... 81
.
2.3.6 Coastal Habitats: The Need to Reform Perceptions.. 82
2.4 Ecosystem - Catchment Relations: Defining the Wider
Environment. ................................................................... 88
2.5 Multiple Uses and Development Trends of Coastal
Ecosystems . ..................................................................... 89
2.5.1 Coastal Fisheries......................................................... 93
2.5.2 Special Area Management......................................... 105
3.5.3 Agriculture and Livestock........................................ 110
.
2.5.4 Industrial Development............................................ 115
2.5.5 Coastal Tourism Development................................. 118
2.5.6 Urbanization and Housing Development................ 120 .
2.5.7 Brackish Water and Shrimp Aquaculture................. 121
2.5.8 Mineral Mining......................................................... 125
2.5.9 Power and Energy. ................................................... 128
.
2.5.10 Anchorages, Fishery Harbours and Ports................ 128
2.6 Coastal Ecosystems and Natural Hazards:
Vulnerability, Exposure and Resilience. ........................ 129
2.6.1 Post-tsunami livelihood support............................... 133
2.6.2 Tsunami-2004 Post-tsunami Trends .................... 133
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7. Contents
2.6.3 Interpretation of Impacts on Coastal
Ecosystems and Lessons............................................ 134
2.7 Societal Dependence on Coastal Ecosystems and
Resources: Do Traditional Coastal
Communities Exist ?. ..................................................... 134
2.7.1 “Traditional” Coastal Populations............................ 137
2.7.2 Non-traditional Coastal Populations........................ 139
2.7.3 Open Access Resources and Common Property
Resources.................................................................. 140
2.7.4 Inferences.................................................................. 141
2.8 Ecosystem Change – Problem of Seeing and
Understanding.............................................................. 141
.
2.9 Global Change and Sea Level Rise. ................................ 146
2.10 Problems to be Addressed in the NSAP. ....................... 147
2.11 Coastal Ecosystem Change Trends - Synthesis. ............. 148
2.12 Future Research............................................................ 151
.
3. THE NATIONAL STRATEGIC ACTION
PLAN (NSAP). ..........................................................................153
3.1 The Structure of the National Strategic
Action Plan (NSAP)..................................................... 153
.
3.2 Policies.
.......................................................................... 153
3.3 Strategic Action Plan (SAP). .......................................... 156
3.4 Relationship between Planned Development and
Coastal Ecosystems. ....................................................... 167
3.4.1 Some Planning Questions and Answers................... 168
3.4.2 Validation. ................................................................ 169
.
3.5 Development Opportunities. ......................................... 169
3.5.1 Ecosystem Restoration Rehabilitation................. 171
3.6 Background to the SAP................................................ 172
.
3.6.1 National Studies........................................................ 176
3.6.2 National Workshop – 19 November 2007................ 177
3.7 Implementation. ............................................................. 177
3.7.1 Participation. ............................................................ 178
.
3.8 Monitoring Evaluation Strategy:
Learning and Adapting................................................. 179
.
3.9 Compatibility with CZMP 2004 ................................. 182
3.10 Conclusion. .................................................................... 183
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................. 187
ANNEXES ............................................................................. 205

8. Contents
ABBREVIATIONS
ABBREVIATIONS
ADB Asian Development Bnak
BP Before Present
CAS Complex Adaptive System
CBNRM Community Based Natural Resources Management
CBO Community-based Organization
CCD Coast Conservation Department
CEA Central Environmental Authority
CFHC Ceylon Fishery Harbours Corporation
CM Coastal Management
CPRU Coastal Planning Research Units
CRC Coastal Resources Center
CRMP Coastal Resources Management Programme
CSR Corporate Social responsibility
CVI Coastal Vulnerability Index
CZMP Coastal Zone Management Plan
CZM Coastal Zone Management
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DFAR Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
DNP Department of National Planning
DS Divisional Secretary
DSD Divisional Secretary Division
ECCDP Eastern Coastal Community Development Project
ExD Extensive and Scattered Distribution (reference to
regional coastal maps)
ED Education Department
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EPC Environment Protection Committee
FCC Fishing and Coastal Communities
FAO Food and Agricultual Organization
FCCISL Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry in
Sri Lanka
FRP Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic
FVP Finalized Village Plan
GCEC Greater Colombo Economic Commission
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GESAMP UN - Group of Experts on Scientific Aspects of Marine
Pollution
vi

9. ABBREVIATIONS
Contents
GIS Geographic Information System
GNP Gross National Product
GOSL Government of Sri Lanka
GPS Global Positioning System
GSMB Geological Surveys and Mines Bureau
HMS Her Majesty’s Service
ICM Integrated Coastal Management
ID Incipient Dune
iNGO International Non-Governmental Organization
IPCC Inter-government Panel on Climate Change
IRMP Integrated Resources Management Programme in Wetlands
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature, Sri Lanka
IWMI International Water Management Institute
LG Local Government
LGA Local Government Authority
LGF Large Grant Fund
M/Cons. I Ministry of Construction Industry
MCPA Marine Coastal Protected Area
MCZ Marine Coastal Zone
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
MENR Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources
MFF Mangroves for the Future
MFOR Ministry of Fisheries and Ocean Resources
MIOI Multiple Inter-Sectoral, Organized Intervention (see Table 13)
Mln Million
MOENR Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources
MOF Minsitry of Fisheries
MPA Marine Protected Area
MPPA Marine Pollution Prevention Authority
MSL Mean Sea Level
NAPA National Programme of Action
NAQDA National Aquaculture Development Authority
NARA National Aquatic Resources Development Agency
NARESA Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri
Lanka (now NSF)
NCB National Coordinating Body
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NSAP National Strategy and Action Plan (Mangroves for the Future)
vii

10. Contents
ABBREVIATIONS
NSC National Science Council
NSF National Science Foundation (now NSF)
OBM Outboard Motor
OMRN Ocean Management Research Network
PC Provincial Council
PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (US)
PoW Programme of Work
P-P Public – Private Partnership
P-P-C Public – Private – Community Partnership
RGA Rapid Green Assessment (Tsunami 2004 impact on
coastal ecosystems)
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SAM Special Area Management
SAMDC SAM Development Committees
SAREC Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with
Developing Countries
SGF Small Grants Fund
SIDA Swedish International Development Agency
SLRDC Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Board
SME Small and Medium Establishment
TB Ceylon Tourist Board
TURF Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries
UDA Urban Development Authority
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
Unis Universities
UoM University of Moratuwa
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WRB Water Resources Board
viii

11. FOREWORD
Contents
FOREWORD
The Mangroves for the Future programme is a partnership led initiative
aimed at promoting investments and action in ecosystem conservation
for sustainable coastal development. The initiative seeks to ensure ‘a
healthier, more prosperous and secure future for all Indian Ocean coastal
communities’.
Known as MFF, Mangroves for the Future programme takes a long-term
view which addresses the continuing challenges to coastal ecosystems and
livelihoods. MFF currently focusses on the countries most affected by the
2004 tsunami: India, Indonesia, Maldives, Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
In Sri Lanka, the destructive tsunami waves of 26 December, 2004 killed
around 40,000 people, displaced nearly half a million people and caused
enormous environmental damage to much of the country’s coastline,
excluding the north-western coastal area. A large area of natural ecosystems
including coastal vegetations, mangroves, sand dunes and lagoons had
been severely damaged. These valuable ecosystems have been known for
their significant ecosystem services, crucial for the long term livelihood
security of communities. MFF introduces a new paradigm for conservation
of coastal zones by positioning ecosystems and the services they provide as
a vital part of coastal development infrastructure. It addresses a number of
areas, including unsustainable development processes, poor coordination
and conflicting interests in coastal management between sectors, weak
governance at the national level, inadequate regional collaboration in
environmental matters, and gaps in capacity, knowledge and empowerment
among coastal ecosystem managers and users.
The Coast Conservation Department in its Coastal Zone Management Plan
– 2004 notes that “Sri Lanka’s coastal habitats have undergone degradation
in different degrees during the past resulting in the decline of their resources
as well as extents at an unprecedented rate”. The causes for this situation
are well documented, and it is now evident that a more cohesive and an
integrated approach is required to address these issues. This National
Strategy and Action Plan (NSAP) has provided an opportunity to examine
these matters in a more logical way by focussing on the respective parent
ecosystems as the units of management for human wellbeing by optimizing
their value as development infrastructure.
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12. FOREWORD
Contents
As the NSAP notes, Sri Lanka’s coastal ecosystems are relatively small in size in
their micro-tidal setting resulting in low carrying capacity and low resilience.
The coastal ecosystems are distributed in association with the 103 rivers
which influence their structure and functioning. The NSAP drew on the vast
experiences in the country, primarily of the Coast Conservation Department
and secondarily of the Central Environmental Authority, and seeks to support
inter-sectoral mechanisms for integrated coastal zone management. It also
complements the existing national policies.
The preparation of this NSAP has been intensely participatory, with the
involvement of the relevant Government Agencies and other stakeholders.
It has been reviewed and updated over the last year or so, with considerable
dialogue with the Coast Conservation Department, the Ministry of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources,
and a number of experts. The entire process was overseen by the National
Steering Committee (NSC) of MFF Sri Lanka.
We would like to thank Dr J I Samarakoon for his research and analysis
and for painstakingly compiling the NSAP. His commitment to ensure
regular updating of the draft NSAP during the last year was outstanding.
This would not have been possible if not for the efforts of the National
Steering Committee of MFF, which regularly reviewed the state of the NSAP.
We would also like to thank the previous Chair of the NSAP, Mr W R M S
Wickramasinghe, former Additional Secretary, Ministry of Environment
Natural Resources for his leadership during the formative years of the NSC.
We also thank Dr D T Wettasinghe for editorial assistance.
Ms Padmini Batuwitage Dr Ranjith Mahindapala
Chair, National Steering Country Representative
Committee, MFF Sri Lanka IUCN, International Union
Additional Secretary, for Conservation of Nature
Ministry of Environment Natural Resources, Sri Lanka
Natural Resources
November, 2009

13. Executive Summary
Executive Summary
1. The Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) – 2004, prepared by
the Coast Conservation Department (CCD), in accordance with
the Coast Conservation Act of 1981 notes that “Sri Lanka’s coastal
habitats have undergone degradation to different degrees during the
past, resulting in the decline of their resources as well as extents, at an
unprecedented rate”. Causal factors responsible for this degradation
are both natural and human-made. Since 1990, coastal habitats were
managed as per successive Coastal Zone Management Plans of the
Coast Conservation Department. However, in the disturbing
circumstances noted above, a more systemic approach is perceived
to be imperative. This could be achieved through the integrated
management of coastal habitats with their parent ecosystems as the
focus. The Mangroves for the Future National Strategy and Action
Plan (NSAP) provides an opportunity to initiate the shift to coastal
ecosystems as the unit of management for human wellbeing and
optimize their value as development infrastructure.
2. Sri Lanka’s 1,600-km coastline has seven classes of inter-related
coastal ecosystems: coastal marine zones (CMZ), bays, beaches,
dunes, estuaries, lagoons and tidal flats. Mangroves, seagrasses, coral
reefs and soft mud bottoms are habitats situated within these seven
parent ecosystems.
3. The technical definition of ‘ecosystem’ has been adapted to suit
practical integrated coastal management (ICM) recognizing their
fundamental attributes, namely (i) structural complexity – composed
of interacting parts; (ii) linkages to the wider environment; (iii)
dynamic stability - meaning predictable change without undergoing
irreversible transformation; (iv) resilience – the capacity to bounce
back after both natural and human-made shocks such as pollution;
(v) ecological ephemerality (temporariness in ecological time); (vi)
geomorphological ephemerality (temporariness in geological time);
and (vii) coupling of ecosystem processes with those in the wider
environment such as a watershed.
4. Sri Lanka’s coastal ecosystems, excepting the CMZs, are relatively
small in size in their micro-tidal setting (difference between high and
low tide never exceeds one meter). Therefore, their carrying capacity
as well as their resilience is inherently low.
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14. Executive Summary
5. The coastal ecosystems and the associated rivers and watersheds
of the wider environment, which influence their structure and
functioning, are distributed over five Provincial Councils. Land
use in these ecosytems comes under the jurisdiction of Northern,
Northwestern, Western, Southern and Eastern Provincial Councils.
6. The NSAP draws upon almost three decades of ICM experience
primarily of the CCD, and secondarily of the CEA. The MFF
Strategic Framework affirms that it seeks to: “… support the inter-
sectoral mechanisms for integrated coastal zone management through
the Coast Conservation Department”.
7. The NSAP consists of three chapters - Chapter 1: Introduction,
Chapter 2: Existing Situation and Trends and Chapter 3: The
Strategic Action Plan. The first two chapters set the foundation for
the priorities that have to be addressed in integrated management.
8. The more economically sensitive and productive ecosystems are
affected by the ‘tragedy of the commons’ - too many people competing
to extract a share of a diminishing resource base, since access is not
regulated (open access). Many laws exist, but enforcement is very
weak. The result is continuing ecosystem decline.
9. The MFF Programme’s vision, goal and objectives, in integrating
and collaborating with other international programmes, are:
Vision: a more healthy, prosperous and secure future for all coastal
populations in the Indian Ocean countries, where all ecosystems are
conserved and managed sustainably as development infrastructure;
Goal: to conserve and restore coastal ecosystems as key assets which
support human wellbeing and security; Objectives: (i) to strengthen
the environmental sustainability of coastal development, and (ii)
to promote investment of funds and effort in coastal ecosystem
management.
10. The NSAP is an exercise in strategic planning. It identifies priorities
for action based upon the analysis of the existing situation and use
trends pertaining to coastal ecosystems. The management priorities
identified require refinement in the context of situation-specific
geographic settings, taking into account both biophysical and socio-
economic diversity. Planning was guided by five caveats (see Box A).
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15. Executive Summary
Box A. Five planning caveats considered for critical assessment of material presented in
the NSAP
The following planning caveats are relevant in seeking to move from habitat-based CZM to
ecosystem-based ICM.
Caveat 1: “See and understand change, even where everything appears to remain the same”
Understanding ecosystem change is difficult. Change may be so slow that it cannot
be detected until appropriate time spans are considered (Diamond, 2002). This
is made possible by a combination of techniques, time series photography and
historical narratives of resource users.
Caveat 2: “Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a different
result”.
A wide range of unintended consequences of coastal management activities tell
their story. Repetition of similar actions without an ecosystem perspective cannot
produce a different result. Fishery livelihood in all ecosystems is seriously impeded.
Caveat 3: “Understand the power dynamics at the local level that make action possible”.
This is the challenge faced by a coastal manager. The issue is ‘distance management’
(Diamond, 2002). Decisions devoid of local participation make their implementation
impossible.
Caveat 4: “Repeated lies do not make a truth”.
The virtues of mangroves have been uncritically applied in Sri Lanka based upon the
false analogy of their structure and functioning in meso- and macro-tidal settings,
in other countries. Today, the mangrove invasion of estuaries has become a serious
problem. Similar situations need to be recognized generally to enable planning to
deal with ecological reality instead of myth.
Caveat 5: “A panacea or universal medicine does not exist for coastal ecosystem problems”.
Ostrom (2007) brings together the viewpoints of several leading scientists to
demonstrate the need to move beyond ‘… simple, predictive models of social-
ecological systems … and to develop through more comprehensive models a serious
capacity to diagnose problems before solutions can be identified …’.
11. The character of coastal ecosystems is diverse. Their diversity is
defined by geomorphology, coastal processes and socio-economic
demands. The three classes of geomorphological landforms, viz.
bedrock-related, depositional, and hydrologic and wind-generated
have evolved in combination with eustatic sea level changes and
land sinking during the past 10,000 years. These processes have
set limits on their potential for contribution to national economic
growth and to support local livelihoods. The micro-tidal hydrologic
environment (tidal amplitude less than 1 meter), the monsoons,
waves and sediment discharges combine to shape the behaviour of
xiii

16. Executive Summary
these physical landforms and their dynamic interactions at the coast.
The continental shelf is narrow, has little surface relief and supports
relatively low fishery stocks, except in the north where it widens
and provides scope for different forms of sea-bottom relief including
seagrass beds and corals.
12. Pressure on coastal ecosystems stemmed from population growth
as well as conflicting demands from un-integrated development
sectors. The population grew from 7 to 21 million, over the past six
decades, with one-fourth living near the coast. Stresses arising from
economic development have intensified. Coastal fisher-folk and
their dependents rank among the poorest in the country because
of depleting fishery resources, partially attributed to the impact
of modernization of craft and gear. Today, about a million people
derive their livelihood from coastal fishery despite the absence of
meaningful management.
13. The NSAP adheres to four planning principles in considering
management options directed at: (i) optimal utilization of
development opportunities, (ii) equitable distribution of benefits, (iii)
minimal damage to structure and functioning of coastal ecosystems,
and (iv) prevention of negative externalities. Management of coastal
ecosystems as development infrastructure hinges on understanding
and addressing natural and human-made change, within the ICM
framework.
14. ICM is a process that seeks to improve human wellbeing by
maintaining biodiversity and productivity of coastal ecosystems,
by integrating government with the community, science with
management, sectoral and public interests, and investment in
development with the conservation of environmental quality and
functions. Its principles and objectives have been refined by learning
from implementation in a range of countries and development
settings.
15. Recent experience with coastal hazards and the Indian Ocean
Tsunami of 2004 reveals that increased resilience of coastal
communities protects life and property. Resilience is an attribute of
socio-ecological systems which have adaptive capacity, i.e. learning
from experience to create conditions that enable bouncing back after
a disaster.
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17. Executive Summary
16. Change trends, pertaining to coastal ecosystems, define the strategic
options available for planners to address any mismatch between
‘goals and values’ germane to the existing situation and society
expectations. Ecosystem-human relationships, now subsumed under
the concept of socio-ecological system (SES), are drawn increasingly
into the globalization process. These human-driven relationships
are superimposed on bio-physical attributes that have set the
fundamental limits on coastal ecosystem structure and functioning.
17. Published ecological research on the structure and functioning of
coastal ecosystems of Sri Lanka is rare. Reminiscences of scientists
who were associated with research, planning and management of
selected coastal ecosystems over the past decades bridged the gaps
in information. Thus, ecosystems (and socio-ecological systems)
are recognized both as complex systems and possessed of emergent
attributes, which cannot be precisely predicted in the face of
continuous environmental change.
18. The coast refers broadly to the area of interaction between land and
the sea including all seven classes of coastal ecosystems, namely:
• The land belt with sand dunes, tidal flats, and water bodies
(estuaries and lagoons) where tidal seawater and freshwater from
land drainage mix to form brackish water; and
• The beach, the belt of contiguous sea (about 10 kilometers wide)
overlying the continental shelf to about 30 meters depth and
including the sea bed.
The coast in the NSAP differs from the legally defined Coastal Zone
of Sri Lanka for functional and operational ecological reasons. It
enables land use planning, the foundation of ICM, to be in harmony
with ecosystem structure and functioning. The seven defined coastal
ecosystems are:
Marine Coastal Zone (MCZ): The approximately 10-kilometer wide
belt of sea extending from the mean low-water level of the beach or
other landform (e.g. cliff) to a depth of 30 meters. This includes the
water column, and the seabed with its diverse physical features and
associated resident and migratory populations of plants and animals.
It is a definitional adaptation required in the Sri Lankan context.
xv

18. Executive Summary
The MCZ provides habitat for corals, seagrasses, seaweeds, algae,
micro-organisms, and communities of organisms that inhabit soft
muddy deposits. The majority of coastal fishers operate here.
Bay: Coastal indentation, generally situated in association with stable
headlands. A bay is connected with coastal marine processes in a
manner which maintains conditions somewhat similar to the MCZ,
but seasonally more influenced by land drainage. Beaches situated in
a bay are anchored by the headlands. Generally, a bay is shallower
and more productive than the open sea since it receives and traps
nutrients and sediment from land drainage. However, one of the
deepest bays in the world, Trincomalee Bay, also characterizes the
Sri Lankan coastline.
Beach: Beaches are accumulations of unconsolidated material on the
shore. The material consists of various mixtures, among others, of
mainly silica sand, coral sand, pebbles, mud and mineral sand. The
appearance and quality of beach sand varies with the proportion of
silica sand (from land drainage) to biogenic sand (shells and coral
fragments) in the mixture.
Sand dune: Dunes are wind blown accumulations of sand which are
distinctive from adjacent landforms such as beaches and tidal flats.
Estuary: Estuaries exist in many forms ranging from a simple
funnel shaped opening of a river to the sea where freshwater from
land drainage and tidal seawater mix to form brackish water, to the
more extreme form of an estuarine delta (rare in Sri Lanka). Barrier-
built estuaries rank high as the most productive coastal ecosystems
since they receive and retain nutrients from land drainage. Estuaries
and the MCZ are coupled ecosystems that are significant for fisher
livelihood. The fate of a barrier-built estuary is sealed at the time
it is born as the outcome of complex geomorphology. Longevity
is determined by its own dimensions, the size and nature of the
catchment, and land use.
Lagoon: A lagoon is a late evolutionary stage of smaller estuaries
where the tidal inlet is blocked by a sand bar, which is relatively
stable and has to be breached forcibly to enable tidal exchange.
xvi

19. Executive Summary
Tidal flat: Low-lying land contiguous with the sea and coastal
ecosystems such as estuaries and lagoons, affected by periodic
flooding by stream flow and tidal inundation, and subject to
persistent, desiccating wind. Such terrain develops characteristic
vegetation consisting of halophytes (salt-tolerant plants which resist
dehydration). The influence of salt is through periodic inundation or
by salt spray. Tidal flats occur where the dry season is prolonged and
strong winds prevail.
19. The National Strategy and Action Plan (NSAP) flows from the
analysis of the situation and use trends pertaining to the coastal
ecosystems. These are summarized in Table A below, under the
headings: geomorphology, demography, tourism, fishery, agriculture,
waste management, and global change.
Table A: Summary of trends pertaining to coastal ecosystems and relevant management
planning options.
Ecosystem -
Change Trend - Issue Planning Options
SES Attribute
Geomorphology
MCZ Open access competition intensifies among Multiple, inter-sectoral,
fishers using traditional and small mechanized organized interventions
boats. A period of respite and recovery ensued in (MIOI) including law
the Northern and Eastern MCZs because of civil enforcement, property
conflict. In 2003-2004 when a temporary peace rights, changeover from
prevailed and normal fishing resumed, before open access nature,
the tsunami, production in the North and East regulated land use by
bounced back to a level higher than during the way of processes such
pre-conflict level. Resilience of the MCZ thus was as ICM, etc. Research
demonstrated. By 1988 (FAO, 1988) the coastal modelling where causes
fishery had already reached the maximum are unclear. Interventions
sustainable level. Overcapacity in small scale require support from
fishing craft occurred following 2004 Tsunami. strengthened law
Consumer price escalation compensates for the enforcement
diminishing returns on the unit fishing effort.
Fishery management continues to lag. Some
form of common property resources use rights
are under discussion.
Bays Open access competition persists. Bays that As above.
serve as anchorages face pollution problems
from waste oil as well as material from land
drainage.
xvii

20. Executive Summary
Ecosystem -
Change Trend - Issue Planning Options
SES Attribute
Beach Erosion along the southern and southwestern MIOI. Consultation and
coasts increasingly under control (ADB, 2006). research to identify
Conflicts between fishers and tourism interests options for beach sharing
are increasing. Conflicts erupted at some for multiple uses. Better
locations such as Arugam Bay following the law enforcement.
2004 Tsunami.
Dune Illegal sand mining from better endowed Mapping and zoning of
and remote sand dunes reportedly on the dunes for optimal use
increase as in Kalpitiya. Sand mining in Ampan- without destabilizing e.g.
Manalkadu area increased during 2003/2004. Jaffna. Research.
Limits of extraction not known.
Estuary Hydrology increasingly threatened by MIOI. Research.
sedimentation, pollution, land fill and misplaced
mangrove planting. Diminishing fish catches.
Periodic spikes in shrimp productivity.
Lagoon As above, aggravated by closure of tidal inlet. MIOI, Research
Tidal Flats Unregulated expansion in shrimp cultivation MIOI. Implementation of
in Northwestern Province leading to serious existing strategies, law
pollution in linked water bodies (Mundel, enforcement.
Puttalam, Dutch Canal). Sensitive tidal flats
associated with brackish water bodies in the
Southern and Eastern Provinces require zoning
which harmonizes biodiversity concerns and
multiple uses.
Demography
Coastal The population directly and indirectly dependent Research – mainly
Fishers on coastal fishery resources has increased in cultural anthropology.
proportion with the three-fold increase in the The available studies
country population from 7 to 21 million in six (e.g. Stirrat, 1988)
decades. Catches have declined. Loss of income are limited and need
is compensated by rise in market prices. widened scope.
Migration Both male and female emigration for As above
employment has increased mainly to Europe
(especially Italy) and Gulf countries. Significance
in relation to MCZ carrying capacity unclear.
Poverty, Poverty among estuarine and lagoon fishers, As above coupled with
Vulnerability and traditional coastal fishers has increased urgent measures to
owing to depleted catches. Decline in wellbeing promote employment
has been mitigated by remittances from female and income generation.
family members employed abroad.
Tourism
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21. Executive Summary
Ecosystem -
Change Trend - Issue Planning Options
SES Attribute
Land use and Potential for win-win coexistence between MIOI, consultation
conflict traditional coastal land use and tourism exists. with private sector
Appropriate models have not been developed. on modalities of P-P
partnerships. Research.
Fishery
Food security, Increasing emphasis on the export-oriented MIOI. Research
income sub-sectors including deep sea fishing (multiday
boats), shrimp aquaculture and ornamental
fishery. Too little attention to integrated
ecosystem-based fishery management.
Agriculture
Food security, Abandoning of low-lying coastal lands, MIOI. Research.
income consequent to inappropriate development
efforts, continues. Optimization of land use
including P-P partnerships little explored.
Waste Management
Pollution and Decline in coastal fishery and deteriorating MIOI, research,
health health trend linked to water pollution, improper modelling
sanitation, excessive groundwater extraction,
depleted catchment
Global change: climate aberration sea level rise
Adaptation Impacts will aggravate over decadal and longer Application of techniques
periods. Prioritization of hazard impact sites developed during 2004
not initiated. Mapping based on risk factors and Tsunami assessment.
vulnerability indices is required supported by Research.
mathematical modelling. Aggravation of chronic
disasters - an uncharted territory.
20. In order to facilitate learning effective ecosystem-based management,
the common mistakes that lead to environmental harm are described
in Section 2.8.
21. The NSAP is based upon the fourteen policies listed below.
Special Area Management (SAM)
Policy 1. Support implementation of existing and future
ecosystem-based ICM processes at SAM sites,
designated in the CZMP 2004, through the
xix

22. Executive Summary
Mangroves for the Future Small Grant Fund
(SGF) and Large Grant Fund (LGF) programmes,
in collaboration with the Coast Conservation
Department.
Sedimentation and Pollution
Policy 2. Stop, discourage and penalize all land uses and
activities in estuaries, lagoons and their watersheds
that facilitate accelerated sedimentation.
Policy 3. Encourage and provide incentives to individuals and
groups that undertake physical removal of sediment
from estuaries and lagoons, including vegetation
that contributes to sediment stabilization.
Policy 4. Stop, discourage and penalize the discharge of
sewage, municipal waste and industrial effluent,
directly and indirectly, into estuaries, lagoons,
bays and the MCZ, and generally in the wider
environment of coastal ecosystems.
Policy 5. Encourage and promote incentives for sanitation
and waste treatment in the wider environment of
all coastal ecosystems.
Fishing
Policy 6. Switchover from open-access fishing in the MCZ,
bays, estuaries and lagoons to ‘closed fishing’
based upon combinations of licensing and tenure
rights, supported by meaningful incentives for
co-management (closure implicitly recognizes
that ‘tradeable licensing’ cannot work in an
environment where alternative employment is not
readily available).
Policy 7. Stop, discourage and penalize the use of mechanized
trawls in the MCZ (10 kilometers) to a depth of
30 meters – to enable meaningful enforcement of
existing laws and regulations.
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23. Executive Summary
Policy 8. Stop, discourage and penalize methods of ‘artificial
aggregative’ fishing within 10 kilometers of shore,
e.g. ‘light course fishing’ – to enable meaningful
enforcement of existing laws and regulations.
Land development
Policy 9. Progressively zone and demarcate all coastal land
with the goal of enrolling coastal communities, who
are losing economic opportunities in ‘traditional
practices’, to benefit from new opportunities
based upon community tenure rights to common
property resources (CPRs).
Participation in Development
Policy 10. Promote participation of coastal communities
in development decisions based upon their own
economic interests, and sharing of coastal resources
by way of political advocacy and lobbying, without
becoming dependent upon political and corporate
patronage that fragment coastal ecosystems.
Education and Awareness
Policy 11. Educate and create awareness at all levels about
coastal ecosystems based upon their actual
geographic character and vulnerability, and
potential contribution to local and national
economic growth.
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
Policy 12. Promote commitment to achievement of the
MDGs at the level of Provincial Councils with
particular focus on MDG 7: Ensure environmental
sustainability.
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24. Executive Summary
Disaster Management and Hazard Mitigation
Policy 13. ‘Vulnerability’ and ‘risk’ assessments and maps must
set the foundation for land use interventions related
to hazard mitigation and adaptation to impacts
of global climate change, and clearly directed at
enhanced resilience of local communities.
Policy 14. All interventions that seek to mitigate hazards
must receive certification by the CDM and local
authorities that ‘risk’ will not be increased as an
unintended consequence (negative externality).
22. The NSAP is presented in Table B, in the format developed by the
Regional MFF Programme, organized under 15 Programmes of Work
(PoWs).
Table B: Summary programmes of work and actions/outputs constituting the NSAP of the
MFF Strategic Framework
Programme of Work Actions/Outputs
ACTIONS TO BUILD KNOWLEDGE
1. Improving the 1.1 Redefine and map coastal ecosystems
knowledge base for coastal
planning, policy and 1.1.1 Prepare an ‘Atlas of Coastal Ecosystems’ linked to a GIS
management database by way of inter-disciplinary study, including:
Sri Lankan reality: 1.2 Establishment of an interactive website linked to the GIS
Limited knowledge about database of the ‘Atlas of Coastal Ecosystems’ for participatory
the actual state of the acquisition of information, discussion of development topics,
ecosystem and trends. promoting awareness on land assets and development
opportunities, and building community awareness on the
Problems: burden of unintended consequences.
A. Misconception of 1.3 Establishment of a website supported with up-to-date
ecosystem development photos for interaction with the media to maintain a flow of
and evolution. ICM information on relevant problems and issues to generate
practiced more for sustained national attention. This would enable management
conservation rather of coastal ecosystems to be perceived as a ‘national problem’
than as a development since Sri Lanka is a ‘large island nation’ in which coastal
process. Livelihood aspects processes have implications for entire catchments.
discounted.
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25. Executive Summary
Programme of Work Actions/Outputs
B. A heavy burden of 1.4 Development of animated models (descriptive and
unintended consequences mathematical) for key coastal ecosystems supported by
(negative externalities) of research. The models will demonstrate progressive change
fragmented development in structure, functioning and economic value (e.g. topo-
undermining ecosystem chronological models, see Action 2.1). Such modelling may
structure and functioning. be feasible immediately for Puttalam Lagoon, Negombo
Lagoon and Batticaloa Lagoon which now display persistent
C. Mismatch between actual and serious signs of decline (eutrophication). These models
structure and functioning are also required for Programme of Work 3 (Reef-to-ridge
of coastal ecosystems and decision making).
popular perception resulting
from confusion with coastal 1.5 Lobby for establishment of a ‘political committee’ (or
habitats. Lack of integrated and some other mechanism) which would have power to guide
a unifying technical foundation policy based upon knowledge transferred to the legislature
for ICM based on a definition from Actions 1.1 to 1.4
of ecosystems
1.6 Initiate an ‘adult education’ short course in a university/
universities to disseminate knowledge on ecosystem-
based ICM using Sri Lankan case histories (including local
language) supported by visual models to
demonstrate long term trends.
2. Designing ecologically 2.1 Review all development and restoration work
and socio-economically completed or underway in order to:
sound coastal ecosystem
rehabilitation and - assess their impacts on the definitive characteristics
management. and productivity of the ecosystem. e.g. in the case of
estuaries and lagoons the assessment must focus on
Problems: the long-term impact on the hydrological volume, tidal
prism, tidal inlet width, surface area, depths, cross
A. Gap between community sections, etc;
perception of significance - relate actual costs e.g. Lunawa Lagoon restoration to
of coastal ecosystems for potential costs for other estuarine ecosystems such as
livelihood and that of national Negombo, Puttalam, Batticaloa, Kokkilai, Nanthikadal,
coastal managers/planners. Jaffna, and integrate them with national plans.
Ecosystem rehabilitation for
whom? 2.2 Conduct research (3 months) that can link to Action
1.1.1 and to 1.4 and provide analytical case histories for
B. Lack of models reflecting selected coastal ecosystems deserving of rehabilitation.
trends in critical drivers The case histories would reflect topographical change with
(natural and socio-economic) time (topo-chronological models) and causes of change.
of adverse change in coastal
ecosystems. What part/s 2.3 Develop topographical-chronological models supported
of an ecosystem are to be by descriptive and mathematical interpretations that
rehabilitated? enable predictions in the long-term (see Action 1.4) of
demand for economic goods and services.
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26. Executive Summary
Programme of Work Actions/Outputs
C. Planting of mangroves in 2.4 Provide comprehensive training and guidelines for
highly sensitive estuaries community leaders, and parties engaged especially in
and lagoons resulting in estuarine and lagoon rehabilitation work, on ecosystem
accelerating the reduction relations with a focus on long-term impact on the
in hydrological volume and hydrological volume and tidal prism (including unintended
aggravation of eutrophication. consequences of interventions that contribute to sediment
build-up, especially ‘cut-and-run’ mangrove planting.
D. Coastal community
perception that improvement 2.5 Mobilization of women through ‘cash-for-work’
in wellbeing flows from programmes to remove haphazardly planted mangroves,
severance of dependence on restore depth and replant as sediment filters and boundary
natural resources. markers in a manner that will not diminish the hydrological
volume and tidal prism in reference to models developed
under Action 1.4.
2.6 Promote cultural anthropology research targeted
at defining ‘coastal communities’ to determine trans-
generational perpetuation of coastal livelihood, particularly
inheritance of ‘rights’
3. Provide decision support for 3.1 Establish a GIS database for coastal water bodies and
ridge-to-reef approaches to their catchments in the Eastern Province, similar to that
land resources management. described at 1.1.1
Problems: 3.2 Inventorize, map and classify all coastal management
(rehabilitation) projects within particular catchments and
A. Increasing frequency sub-catchments based on implications for hydrological
of flooding in the Eastern volumes of associated estuaries and lagoons.
Province (perhaps linked to
climate change?), impeded 3.3 Promote and implement diverse interventions
drainage and crop damage, for enhancing coral reefs as recreational viewing and
increased social conflict ornamental fish collection sites in bays along the
predicted to aggravate as Southwestern and Southern coastline while engaging in
post-conflict investment in land use planning in the catchments to mitigate negative
development escalates. externalities that threaten coral health and to add value.
3.4 Develop land zoning and mitigating measures for
reducing immediate land use impacts from e.g. coastal
tourism on coral reef habitats.
4. Integrating coastal 4.1 Develop ecosystem valuation models for diverse
ecosystem economic values ecosystems. An appropriate model is urgently required for
in development planning and a large estuarine system which accounts for impacts on
appraisal. linkages within a catchment as well as long-term impacts
of ecosystem processes such as sedimentation, flooding,
property development.
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27. Executive Summary
Programme of Work Actions/Outputs
Problems: 4.2 Land titling, land identification, and land allocation for
landless coastal communities is ‘regarded’ as a necessary
A. The coastal ecosystem planning intervention to address poverty. Valuation of
goods and services are given land zoning in the context of up market urbanization may
relatively marginal importance reveal the manner in which economic drivers may be used
in national economic planning to address poverty.
since impacts of negative
externalities are not included.
5. Learning from evaluation 5.1 Evaluate development consequences of:
of the environmental effects
of coastal management i. Beach ecosystem management (CCD/DANIDA; CCD/
initiatives, including post- ADB/Dutch Aid);
tsunami response. ii. Special area management (CCD/USAID; CCD/ADB/
DutchAid)
Problems: iii. Muthurajawela Marsh-Negombo Lagoon IRMP (CEA/
Dutch Aid)
A. The official CCD outlook
on CZM during the past two A key requirement in this evaluation of coastal
decades was confined to a management, implemented over three decades, is a more
narrow coastal belt which precise understanding of the relationships to sustainable
excluded consideration livelihood benefits, stemming from the management
of causes of ecosystem of coastal ecosystems, with particular regard to: (i)
consequences. The ‘big picture’ empowering institutions; (ii) participation in development
continues to be missed. decisions – governance; (iii) integrated land use; (iv)
entrainment of corporate social responsibility (CSR).
5.2 Develop guidelines for planning and formulating
ecosystem-based ICM projects, which target contributions
to livelihood enhancement with clearly quantified baseline
socio-economic indicators and predicted outcome from
the project.
5.3 Develop measures for integration of coast protection
and other engineering works implemented by CCD and
other executing agencies of the MOF into ecosystem-
based EIA.
ACTIONS TO STRENGTHEN EMPOWERMENT
6. Promoting civil society 6.1 Promote a nationwide media campaign on regional
awareness and participation in development opportunities linked with coastal ecosystems
coastal decision making and potential for economic growth supported by the
MDGs and the accelerated restoration of the 2004
tsunami destruction. The campaign would highlight land
use problems in sensitive watersheds, inappropriate land
use and impeded drainage.
xxv

28. Executive Summary
Programme of Work Actions/Outputs
Sri Lankan reality: The media campaign may promote a systematic long-
term study of flooding risk based on probabilities and
Unorganized coastal consequences associated with climate change to build
communities whose relatively security confidence. This would link with Action 1.5 to
small numbers are ignored demonstrate the need for integration among national,
within the existing political provincial, LG authorities and the relevant bureaucracies
power structure except in focusing on policy.
urban settings.
6.2 Studies on flooding risk for the most sensitive
Problems: catchments in the Eastern Province to highlight long-term
adaptation measures associated with increased flooding
A. Development planning frequency linked to climate change, identification of the
based on inadequate weakest links, safeguarding food security and the role of
understanding of diversity, women.
constraints and opportunities
- hence failing to enlist public 6.3 Studies on integration of the labour force and land
participation. reform (to mitigate land fragmentation) to service
economic activities generated by ecosystem-based ICM.
B. Inadequate recognition of Study feasibility of land reforms based on collectively
the relative smallness of some owned property rights. Existing national policy promotes
of Sri Lanka’s watersheds and labour migration (e.g. temporary foreign employment)
coastal linkages leading to a while the civil conflict stimulates emigration of Tamils.
fragmented national outlook
on coastal management. 6.4 Promote public awareness campaigns, among coastal
communities, on development opportunities to enable
C. Lack of predictive studies group organization, activism and lobbying to establish
and guidance on management dialogue with LG authorities and national agencies.
of flooding risk in sensitive
catchments. 6.5 Generate a process of advocacy and activism related to
multiple uses of coastal ecosystems.
D. Diminishing labour force
6.6 Explore ways and means of promoting gender rights
to man economic activities
especially in high risk (hazard vulnerability) areas – learn
generated through ecosystem-
from the marginalization of women in relief, reconstruction
based ICM.
and rehabilitation
6.7 Promote learning from ‘best practices’ in ecosystem
utilization, by way of study tours.
7. Building the capacity of 7.1 Initiate university-based training programmes for
professional coastal managers imparting skills in ecosystem-based planning and adaptive
for integrated coastal management. This would include mainly ‘training of
management with the focus on trainers’ with the support of regional expertise.
ecosystems (not habitats).
7.2 Establish Coastal Planning Research Units (CPRUs)
Sri Lanka has a substantial at Eastern, Southeastern, Ruhuna, Colombo, Sri
number of internationally Jayawardenapura, Kelaniya and Jaffna University to assist
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29. Executive Summary
Programme of Work Actions/Outputs
trained coastal managers, in collaborative training and as the sources (public domain
especially in the CCD for repositories) of technical information for central and
training of trainers regional planning.
7.3 Building capacity of coastal community leaders to
access public domain information and professional coastal
managers in promoting sustainable development through
lobbying and political activism.
8. Supporting environmentally 8.1 Initiate an awareness and motivation campaign to re-
sustainable livelihoods for orient career expectations and stem urban migration of
coastal communities coastal community youth; generate sustainable livelihoods
based on effective management of coastal ecosystems.
Problems:
8.2 Promote research through the CPRUs to fill information
A. Careers for coastal gaps (see Action 7.2).
community youth - there
is a mismatch between the 8.3 Inventorize regional examples and case histories
expectations of parents, their on policies and measures that have reversed the
children and coastal planners exiting emigration trend from coastal (rural) settings
(national and international). seeking lucrative employment elsewhere. How may
economic choices be reversed in a globalized economic
B. Lack of research and environment.
information on career
expectations of coastal 8.4 Formulate a process of licensing fishing, closing access
community members. to the MCV and transferring collective property rights to
coastal fishers, despite interventions that have resulted
C. Lack of reliable information in drastic increase in coastal fishing effort through post-
on land opportunities, tsunami relief and rehabilitation.
investment requirements,
infrastructure, policies and 8.5 Establish land use zoning, collective property rights to
labour force expectations tidal flats and investment in infrastructure for development
to enable sound planning of of coastal aquaculture by way of P-P partnerships, in
sustainable livelihoods. keeping with corporate social responsibility (CSR).
9. Improving community 9.1 Complete the analysis of data collected during the
resilience to natural disasters MOENR/UNEP ‘Rapid assessment of the impact of the 2004
tsunami on coastal ecosystems’ and prepare a preliminary
Problems: ‘Atlas of Coastal Vulnerability – Negombo to Keerimalai’.
This would provide a scientific basis for constructing
A. Lack of scientific information Coastal Vulnerability Indices (CVIs).
on the relative exposure
of coastal communities to 9.1.1 Communities located at sites with higher CVIs may
multiple hazards. then be trained to explore the four factors that contribute
to resilience:
B. The lack of self-confidence - robustness of infrastructure;
within an ‘at risk’ coastal - resourcefulness;
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30. Executive Summary
Programme of Work Actions/Outputs
community to bounce back - rapid recovery – doing things quickly to get back on
through organized self-help their feet;
- absorb lessons learnt, including shifting to safer
locations.
10. Identifying sustainable 10.1 Implement land titling and other property rights
financing mechanisms for programmes that would prevent expropriation of coastal
coastal ecosystem conservation common property resources (CPRs).
Problems: 10.2 Establish a legal assistance entity to enable public
interest litigation to safeguard common property resources
A. Coastal communities and to prevent land expropriation.
lack assets to enter into P-P
partnerships to implement 10.3 Support land survey for identification and demarcation
sustainable financing of common property resources for inclusion in the Finalized
mechanisms as (e.g. eco- Village Plans (FVPs).
tourism)
10.4 Train coastal communities in preparation of bankable
B. Coastal land use decisions business plans for sustainable development of coastal
are predominantly with the resources based upon property rights to ‘open access
state although the constitution resources’.
provides for ‘traditional use’
community rights of common
property resources (CPRs).
ACTIONS TO ENHANCE GOVERNANCE
11. Supporting national ICZM 11.1 Assessment of regulatory institutional relationships to
identify the ‘weak links’ in law enforcement supported by
Sri Lankan reality: actual case histories to demonstrate positive and negative
consequences.
Exclusion of coastal
communities from meaningful 11.2 Raise awareness at the coastal community level on
developmental decision making the consequences of weak law enforcement, and steps to
coupled with biased law be taken, individually and collectively, to safeguard against
enforcement. negative externalities on coastal ecosystems.
Problems: 11.3 Support for media campaigns based on the technical
aspects of ecosystem decline stemming from weak law
A. Regulatory and law enforcement and improper land use.
enforcement mandates
fragmented among separate
government agencies;
inappropriate for ecosystem
management.
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31. Executive Summary
Programme of Work Actions/Outputs
12. Strengthening the 12.1 Land reform to provide collective property rights to
integration and enforcement coastal communities for the allocation/alienation of tidal
of environmental and social flats for coastal aquaculture.
safeguards in coastal land use
planning
13. Building national systems of 13.1 Regional study is in progress and is mainly beyond the
marine and coastal protected scope of national specialists except in collaboration with
areas that contribute to a regional partners.
regional network
14. Promoting adaptive coastal 14.1 Comprehensive participatory assessment of all
management that includes past projects (Irrigation Department’s salt exclusion and
ongoing ecological and socio- drainage projects, CCD/SAM processes, CEA/IRMP, NGO/
economic assessment and iNGO interventions, ongoing ADB/ECCDP, post-tsunami
monitoring rehabilitation projects) in order to identify best practices.
15. Encouraging 15.1 Inventorize, map, identify ownership and classify
environmentally sustainable all private sector entities (SMEs), located in proximity to
business practices in coastal coastal ecosystems, to monitor their adherence to the
areas ‘triple bottom line’ and application of corporate social
responsibility. This would reveal the financial, technological
Problem: and investment obstacles to compliance.
Inability of majority of SMEs 15.2 Establish a funding mechanism to support business
to adhere to environmental entities to comply with environmental standards, in
standards and remain collaboration with the respective business chambers.
profitable since much of
plant and machinery were 15.3 Organize coastal communities to lobby against non-
installed prior to enactment of compliance by SMEs on the basis of scientifically testable
environmental regulations. evidence such as soil/water quality tests.
23. The planning questions and answers relevant to the NSAP are:
Question 1: What can the country gain from the investment to switch
from management of coastal habitats to management of
coastal ecosystems, when there are other priorities?
Answer: It will safeguard future development opportunities that
are directly linked to the health of coastal ecosystems,
which otherwise would be lost forever.
Question 2. Can the country afford it, especially ecosystem
restoration?
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32. Executive Summary
Answer: The country cannot invest on the scale required for
comprehensive restoration and rehabilitation of coastal
ecosystems. But it can afford the investment to stop their
decline and retain present and future developmental
opportunities.
Question 3. Will investing in coastal ecosystems prevent another
‘Tsunami 2004’ disaster in particular and natural hazards
in general?
Answer: Sri Lanka cannot prevent natural hazards by investing in
coastal ecosystems. But it can certainly minimize the loss
of life and property by integrating useful interventions
such as exposure, vulnerability and risk-based measures
into coastal ecosystem management. However, planning
with the next tsunami in mind is impractical since
internationally renowned experts consider it to be over
400 years away (Sieh, 2006).
Validation based upon actual experience is provided for each of the
answers to the planning questions. Coastal tourism and aquaculture
offer scope for development in well- functioning coastal ecosystems.
Private sector participation in public-private-community (P-P-C)
investment programmes are feasible with appropriate incentives and
environmental safeguards against the downward spiral associated
with global markets. Under prevailing conditions massive investment
in restoration and rehabilitation of coastal ecosystems in Sri Lanka is
not a feasible option. However, numerous well planned, site-specific,
interventions are feasible to slow down the existing decline trends
until favourable conditions return for increased investment.
24. The NSAP evolved through: (i) National study and consultation,
focused mainly on situation analysis and trends, and workshop
consultation, (ii) Regional studies and consultation, focused on gaps
in knowledge required for coastal management; simple ecosystem
valuation tools; training needs; sustainable funding mechanisms;
institutional mechanisms required for sustainable governance; and
role of and expansion of protected areas, (iii) Integration: combining
findings from (i) and (ii) in consultation with the NSC.
xxx

33. Executive Summary
25. Participation and transparent decision making are the most
important factors that contribute towards meaningful ecosystem-
based ICM. The guiding principles, at the tactical level, are:
• Do no harm;
• Ensure there are no losers; and
• Adhere to ‘subsidiarity principle’
Slow and steady progression based upon awareness and education
is desirable. Ecosystem-based development must be made the
responsibility of stakeholders. A carefully planned process of
stakeholder identification is a practical first step for implementing
agencies, to enable future transfer of long-term responsibility based
on shared benefits.
26. Monitoring and evaluating the outcome of the ecosystem-based
management of coastal ecosystems, and how decision makers and
coastal managers use that information, will determine the success or
failure of the NSAP. The information may be used as an opportunity
to extract lessons from actual experience in SGF and LGF projects,
to improve development of adaptive capacity and future endeavour.
The latter constitutes a tribute to the continuing effort of human
beings to enhance their wellbeing. Carefully selected and measured
indicators will reveal the manner in which coastal ecosystems
contribute as development infrastructure for human wellbeing.
Identification of project-specific indicators for monitoring shall be
the responsibility of both SGF and LGF project proponents and the
NSC.
27. In keeping with Policy 1, every effort shall be made to consolidate the
ongoing and envisaged ecosystem-based SAM efforts of the CCD, as
embodied in the CZMP 2004. A framework to identify monitoring
indicators has been developed. The goals and actual indicators should
be arrived at in consultation with the on-site primary stakeholders,
using logical framework analysis.
xxxi

34. xxxii
Executive Summary
(Photo: Kumudini Ekaratne) (Photo: Dr Ranjith Mahindapala)
(Photo: Kumudini Ekaratne)

35. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Coastal Ecosystems Focus
Sri Lanka is the first South Asian Country to have a comprehensive
Coastal Management Law which came into force in 1981. Accordingly
the Coast Conservation Department (CCD), established for the purpose,
has discharged responsibility in keeping with Coastal Zone Management
Plans (CZMPs) using environmental impact assessment (EIA) as a
tool. However progressive degradation of coastal habitats could not be
avoided. Both natural causes and human interventions associated with
population growth have contributed. The inherent complexity and
fragility of coastal habitats and their susceptibility to many dynamic
processes occurring both on land and the sea have to be addressed
together in order to arrest, retard and reverse degradation. Persisting
with the same management actions as during the past three decades
may not produce a different result. Now is the time to shift focus from
coastal habitats as units of management to the complexity of coastal
ecosystems which include human communities (CCD, 2006).
The Mangroves for the Future (MFF) National Strategy and Action Plan
(NSAP) focuses on:
• coastal ecosystems (which include human communities as
interacting components)
• coastal communities (interacting with the biophysical
components)
• trends in the conservation and management of coastal ecosystems
(cultural aspects)
• mission and vision of the Coast Conservation Department
(CCD) charged with the sustainable development of coastal
ecosystems and dependent communities in keeping with the
Coast Conservation Act No. 57 of 1981

36. INTRODUCTION
The ecosystem focus deviates from the ‘coastal habitats’ foundation of
three decades of coastal zone management embodied in national Coastal
Zone Management Plans - CZMPs (CCD, 1990; CCD, 1997; CCD,
2006). The CZMPs are prepared by the Coast Conservation Department
(CCD) in keeping with its statutory mandate. An assessment of
critical coastal habitats in mid-1980s provided the foundation for the
habitat approach (Samarakoon and Pinto, 1988). Persuasive technical
justification is now required to enable adopting the ecosystem approach
in the next revision of the CZMP. The first step here is to realize that the
ecosystem approach entails dealing with ‘complex systems’ and requires
‘systems thinking’ (Box 1).
Box 1. Planning for Complex Systems and Applying Systems Thinking
Complex systems: Systems can be understood as being simple, complicated, or complex.
Simple problems, such as following a recipe may encompass some basic issues of
technique and terminology, but once these are mastered, following the “recipe” carries
with it a very high assurance of success. Complicated problems, like sending a rocket to
the moon, are different. Their complicated nature is related to the scale of a problem
(cf. simple systems), but also to issues of coordination or specialised expertise. However,
rockets are similar to each other and because of this following one success there can be
a relatively high degree of certainty of outcome repetition. In contrast complex systems
are based on relationships, and their properties of self-organisation, interconnectedness
and evolution. Therefore they cannot be understood solely by simple or complicated
approaches to evidence, policy, planning and management. Also complex systems
differ one from another. Therefore a single recipe does not provide a solution. Each and
every complex system has to be addressed as a unique situation requiring an adaptive
response.
Systems thinking: Systems thinking is an approach based on the belief that the
component parts of a system will act differently when isolated from the system’s
environment or other parts of the system. It sets out to view systems in a holistic
manner. Consistent with systems philosophy, systems thinking concerns an
understanding of a system by examining the linkages and interactions between the
elements that comprise the whole of the system. This helps us to see the big picture
- from which we may identify multiple leverage points that can be addressed to support
constructive change. It also helps us see the connectivity between elements in the
situation, so as to support joined-up actions (integration).
http://learningforsustainability.net/tools/complex.php

37. INTRODUCTION
Coastal ecosystems are complex systems which include human
communities (Box 2; Figure 1). Even where the biophysical components
change slowly, the processes in the human component grow, organize
and diversify relatively more rapidly. Therefore ecosystem-based
planning carries many uncertainties. Planning may be simplified to
some extent by using change trends (ecological history) to map futures.
Two questions arise:
1. Do change trends in ‘coastal habitats’ reveal deviation from
planning goals and societal values?
2. If deviaition exists, what can be done to reduce, and where
necessary, to restore balance?
The CZMP 2004 (CCD, 2006) provides the answer to the first question.
It asserts:
“Most of Sri Lanka’s coastal habitats have undergone degradation to
different degrees during the past resulting in the decline of their resources
as well as extents at an unprecedented rate”.
The NSAP provides an opportunity to search for an answer to the
second question.
Numerous studies of coastal diversity worldwide reveal that an
appropriate land (spatial) unit possessed of ‘representational identity’
must be selected for natural resources management to achieve replicable
and sustainable results (Darby, 2000). This is the geographic space with
which people interact causing change as well as being changed by its
attributes. That unit for coastal resources management is the ‘coastal
ecosystem’, more appropriately represented as a ‘socio-ecological system’
- SES (Gallopin, 2006), which possesses emergent attributes (Box 1).
The coastal area, where the land and sea interact, is the most dynamic
component of a country’s landscape. In this context, the ever changing
nature of a coastal ecosystem, properly defined and understood, enables
both internal and external drivers (forces) that cause change to be
identified and managed (UN Earth Summit 1992, Chapter 17; UNEP,
2002). Figure 1 shows the diverse variables that influence change in a
complex coastal ecosystem – some manageable by human intervention,
others beyond any form of human control.

38. INTRODUCTION
Box 2. A socio-ecological system (SES) has emergent attributes
An SES is a complex
adaptive system (CAS)
that is constantly
changing in the face of
new circumstances in
order to sustain itself. This
process of change is only
partially open to explicit
human direction, e.g.
as influenced by policies
and national plans.
Importantly, change
cannot be predetermined.
From this perspective,
capacity development
(skills, organization,
learning, adaptation)
are emergent properties
characterized over time by coherence, collapse and re-emergence. Emergence is
an unplanned and uncontrollable process in which properties such as capacity
emerge from the complex interactions among the actors (the social process
component of the SES) in the system and produce characteristics not found in any
of the elements of the system. The power and influence of emergence grows as
complexity and uncertainty increase, and feedback occurs
www.ecdpm.org/pmb22
Meaningful coastal ecosystem management is primarily local. Therefore,
the ecosystem approach to conservation and management of coastal
resources requires careful and precise recognition of diversity within
classes of coastal ecosystems, namely:
• bio-physical character
• resource demands from society
• attributes of dependent coastal communities
1.2 Coastal Ecosystems in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka has seven classes of interrelated coastal ecosystems, explained
in greater detail in Chapter 2, which are made up of combinations of
coastal habitats (Figure 2):

39. INTRODUCTION
• marine coastal zone (MCZ)
• bays
• beaches
• dunes
• estuaries
• lagoons
• tidal flats
These ecosystems are operationally defined in Chapter 2. Mangroves,
seagrasses, coral reefs, soft mud bottoms, etc are not included as
ecosystems. These are habitats which constitute parts of the MCZ,
estuaries and lagoons. As habitats they contribute to the structure and
functioning of the ‘parent’ ecosystems, but by themselves, they are not
ecosystems in Sri Lanka’s geomorphological setting.
Figure 1. Ecosystems change is influenced by people and institutions within the
wider environment, including development drivers and external drivers
such as globalization and climate change. Ecosystems change under the
influence of dependent social systems, which are themselves complex.
Where the latter influence is regulated, some balance may be achieved.
Without regulation the ecosystem passes into a state of ‘lesser’
usefulness, if it cannot support socio-economic demand.
Development Drivers External Drivers
Development vision, employ- Climate change,
ment, infrastructure, education, Where dependent population increas- Sea level rise,
empowerment, property rights es and imposes increasing demand on Hazards
(CPRs), gender, health, law and natural productivity, livelihood secu-
order, removal of stress on rity diminishes as individual share of
nature resources depletes.
Equitable Use Regulation
Livelihood Security (Sustainability) COASTAL
POPULATION SOCIAL Policy, investment, law enforce- ECOSYSTEM
GROWTH SYSTEM ment, participation, stable institu-
tions, governance, knowledge
Persistent stress on the ecosystem
diminishes productivity. With intensi-
External Factors fied stress the ecosystem undergoes
National policies, corruption, transition to a changed ecological
unregulated markets, technol- state. Social system loses benefits. NATURAL
SYSTEM
ogy, positives and negatives, - state shift-
impede development