Lecture 4 Outline:
Plate Tectonics – Mechanisms and Margins
Learning Objectives:
What are the types of plate boundaries?
What processes occur at different types of plate boundaries?
What are hotspots?
How does tectonics build continents and ocean basins?
What Happens at Plate Boundaries?
Plate interiors stable - geologic activity limited to surface processes
But interactions between plates at plate boundaries results in
Magma and volcanism
Faulting and earthquakes
Mountain building
Production of new crust
Recycling of old crust
What are the Types of Plate Boundaries?
Divergent
plates pulled apart
Convergent
plates collide
Transform
plates sheared
Each plate surrounded by different types of boundaries
What are the Types of Plate Boundaries?
What are Divergent Plate Boundaries?
Ridges
Crust pulled apart
Magma by decompression melting in asthenosphere
Cools to make new oceanic crust
Oceanic crust
lithosphere
asthenosphere
magma
central rift valley
faults
North Atlantic Ridge
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
East Pacific Ridge
Indian Ridge
Antarctic Ridge
Where are Divergent Plate Boundaries Found?
Ocean ridge above sea level in Iceland
Where are Divergent Plate Boundaries Found?
What are the Major Geologic Features of the Ocean Ridge?
Shield Volcano
Edge of North American Plate
Fault
Down-dropped fault block
Central rift valley
Filled by lava flows
What are Convergent Plate Boundaries?
Two plates collide with each other – two types
Subduction zone
Between two plates of different density - denser plate subducted
melting in mantle by addition of water from subducted plate
Trench and volcanic arc - chain of volcanoes on overriding plate
Earthquakes
What are Convergent Plate Boundaries?
Collision zone
between plates too buoyant to subduct
Crust thickened and mountains raised instead
Earthquakes but no volcanoes
Indian Plate
Eurasian Plate
Younger and weaker
Older and stronger
deformed
Which Plate gets Subducted?
If both plates composed of oceanic crust
older and denser crust subducted by younger and lighter crust
Overriding plate
Plate boundary
Where Can We Find an Example of an Oceanic Plate Subducted by Another Oceanic Plate?
Pacific Plate subducted by Philippine Plate at Mariana Trench
Pacific Plate
(older)
Philippine Plate
(younger)
Japan Trench
Mariana Trench
Challenger Deep
Eurasian Plate
Which Plate gets Subducted?
If one plate of continental crust and one of oceanic crust
denser oceanic crust subducted by lighter continental crust
Material too light to subduct added to continent as accreted terranes
sediments, volcanic islands, fragments of continental crust
Where Can We Find an Example of a Collision Zone?
Indian and Eurasian Plates
Collision began 45 mya when subduction completely closed ocean basin
Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau
Recent or continuing collisions produce Earth’s tallest mountains
50 mya
today
Closing Ocean
Spreading Ocean
14
Oblique motion betw ...
Lecture 4 Outline Plate Tectonics – Mechanisms and MarginsL.docx
1. Lecture 4 Outline:
Plate Tectonics – Mechanisms and Margins
Learning Objectives:
What are the types of plate boundaries?
What processes occur at different types of plate boundaries?
What are hotspots?
How does tectonics build continents and ocean basins?
What Happens at Plate Boundaries?
Plate interiors stable - geologic activity limited to surface
processes
But interactions between plates at plate boundaries results in
Magma and volcanism
Faulting and earthquakes
Mountain building
Production of new crust
Recycling of old crust
What are the Types of Plate Boundaries?
Divergent
plates pulled apart
Convergent
plates collide
2. Transform
plates sheared
Each plate surrounded by different types of boundaries
What are the Types of Plate Boundaries?
What are Divergent Plate Boundaries?
Ridges
Crust pulled apart
Magma by decompression melting in asthenosphere
Cools to make new oceanic crust
Oceanic crust
lithosphere
asthenosphere
magma
central rift valley
faults
North Atlantic Ridge
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
3. East Pacific Ridge
Indian Ridge
Antarctic Ridge
Where are Divergent Plate Boundaries Found?
Ocean ridge above sea level in Iceland
Where are Divergent Plate Boundaries Found?
What are the Major Geologic Features of the Ocean Ridge?
Shield Volcano
Edge of North American Plate
Fault
Down-dropped fault block
Central rift valley
Filled by lava flows
What are Convergent Plate Boundaries?
Two plates collide with each other – two types
Subduction zone
Between two plates of different density - denser plate subducted
melting in mantle by addition of water from subducted plate
Trench and volcanic arc - chain of volcanoes on overriding
plate
Earthquakes
4. What are Convergent Plate Boundaries?
Collision zone
between plates too buoyant to subduct
Crust thickened and mountains raised instead
Earthquakes but no volcanoes
Indian Plate
Eurasian Plate
Younger and weaker
Older and stronger
deformed
Which Plate gets Subducted?
If both plates composed of oceanic crust
older and denser crust subducted by younger and lighter crust
Overriding plate
Plate boundary
Where Can We Find an Example of an Oceanic Plate Subducted
by Another Oceanic Plate?
5. Pacific Plate subducted by Philippine Plate at Mariana Trench
Pacific Plate
(older)
Philippine Plate
(younger)
Japan Trench
Mariana Trench
Challenger Deep
Eurasian Plate
Which Plate gets Subducted?
If one plate of continental crust and one of oceanic crust
denser oceanic crust subducted by lighter continental crust
Material too light to subduct added to continent as accreted
terranes
sediments, volcanic islands, fragments of continental crust
Where Can We Find an Example of a Collision Zone?
Indian and Eurasian Plates
Collision began 45 mya when subduction completely closed
ocean basin
Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau
6. Recent or continuing collisions produce Earth’s tallest
mountains
50 mya
today
Closing Ocean
Spreading Ocean
14
Oblique motion between plates – without convergence or
divergence
Faulting and earthquakes - no volcanism
What are Transform Plate Boundaries?
Where Can We Find an Example of a Transform Plate
Boundary?
San Andreas Fault
Transform boundary between Pacific and North American plates
N. American
plate
Pacific
plate
7. What are Hotspots?
Volcanism normally at divergent or convergent plate boundaries
Melting of mantle by decompression or addition of water
But some volcanoes located in middle of plates!
What’s the explanation?
Hotspot: plume of hot rock rising from deep mantle
What are Hotspots?
Source of magma well below lithosphere
Doesn’t move with plate – rather plate passes over magma
source
Results in age progression to volcanism - hotspot track
Example: Hawaiian Islands
What is a Tectonic Setting?
Geologic environment of area relative to any nearby plate
boundaries or hotspots
Each setting associated with specific geologic processes
types of volcanoes, earthquakes, etc
Japan
Hawaii
8. Oregon
Nevada
Divergent
Plates pulled apart
lithosphere created
Convergent
Plates move together
lithosphere recycled
What are the Different Tectonic Settings?
Transform
Plates slide past one another
Lithosphere neither created nor recycled
Hotspot
Plate passes over deep mantle plume
What are the Different Tectonic Settings?
What is the Tectonic Setting of Oregon?
Convergent - between North America and Juan de Fuca plates
Subduction, terrane accretion, earthquakes, volcanic arc
9. 22
Accretion
buoyant material from subducting plate
Coast Range
Volcanism partial melting in mantle due to addition of water
Cascades
Coast Ranges and Cascades both result of subduction
Specific processes are different
What is the Tectonic Setting of Oregon?
Continents assembled from pieces of crust too light to subduct
How Does Plate Tectonics Build Continents?
By accretion and collision
Subduction removes intervening oceanic crust
Accretion and volcanism adds buoyant material to overriding
plate
Intervening oceanic crust removed - continents collide
How is Continental Crust Made?
strongly enriched in silica relative to oceanic crust/mantle
Subduction zones: recycling centers that sort out continental
crust
10. Mantle (peridotite)
45% SiO2
Oceanic crust (basalt)
50-55% SiO2
Continental crust (granite)
60-75% SiO2
Degree of Silica Enrichment
How do Subduction Zones Make Continental Crust?
1. Accretion of buoyant materials as ocean crust subducts
Builds continent outward over time
Buoyant materials often added as terranes - block of crust with
different geologic origin and history from adjacent areas
Volcanic island arcs, marine sediments, thick oceanic crust,
fragments of continental crust
Moved great distances on subducting plate
How do Subduction Zones Make Continental Crust?
2. melting of subducted plate and mantle and fractional
crystallization
Makes magmas richer in silica than oceanic crust
Erupted at surface volcanoes
11. Cascades
Emplaced within crust
intrusions
Sierra Nevada
Rifting of continent to create new divergent boundary
Caused by mantle upwelling beneath continent
Example: East African Rift Valley
Active rifts grow over time to become new oceans
How does Plate Tectonics Make Ocean Basins?
African Rift Valley
Red Sea advanced rift
Rift Valley lakes
rifts
How do Rifts Start and Grow into Ocean Basins?
Crust heated by upwelling mantle causing uplift
Uplift collapses with continued stretching to form rift valley
Rift floods to form narrow sea
12. Widens by seafloor spreading into new ocean basin
Processes of continent assembly, breakup, and re-assembly
Continental rifting, seafloor spreading, subduction and
accretion, collision
Rift breaks continent apart
New divergent boundary/ridge forms
Grows into mature ocean basin
Subduction begins as oceanic crust becomes older, colder, and
denser
Terranes accreted to continent
Continents collide when intervening oceanic crust completely
subducted
Stages in Tectonic Cycle with modern-day examples of each
stage
What is the Tectonic Cycle?
1. Continental rifting
2. Spreading center develops
3. Ocean basin
4. Subduction
5. Terrane Accretion
6. Continental collision
What are the three types of plate boundaries? Describe the
geologic processes occurring at each boundary.
Provide a modern-day example of each type of plate boundary.
How does plate tectonic activity build continents and make
continental crust?
How does plate tectonic activity break continents apart and
make oceanic crust?
13. Describe the tectonic setting of the Pacific Northwest.
Questions for Review
Lecture 4: Plate Tectonics: Mechanisms and Margins
Reading: Chapter 2, pages 42-61
Topics:
· Divergent Plate Boundaries
· Convergent Plate Boundaries
· Transform Plate Boundaries
· Hot Spots and Hot Spot Tracks
· Plate Tectonics and the Building of Continents
· Continental Rifting and the Development of Ocean Basins
· Tectonic Settings
· Significance of Plate Tectonics
Next lecture: Mineral Composition and Properties
4.1 Plate Boundaries
The interior of tectonic plates are usually geologically stable.
The main geologic processes operating in the middle of plates
are erosion and sedimentation. However, along plate boundaries
dynamic interactions between plates are responsible for
volcanic activity, faulting and earthquakes; the building of
mountain ranges, the creation of new crust, and the recycling of
old crust.
14. There are three types of plate boundaries:
1. Divergent plate boundaries occur where plates are being
pulled apart.
2. Convergent plate boundaries occur where plates are moving
together or colliding.
3. Transform plate boundaries occur where two plates are
sliding past each other in different directions.
4.2. Divergent Plate Boundaries
New oceanic crust is created at divergent plate boundaries as
two plates pull away from each other. Divergent plate
boundaries are associated with extensional stress, shallow
earthquakes, and basaltic volcanism. Examples include the mid-
ocean ridges such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
At divergent plate boundaries, extensional stresses pull two
plates apart, allowing magma to rise from the asthenosphere
towards the surface and create new oceanic crust. The
extension is accommodated by normal faults in the crust,
creating a rift valley.
The Mid-Atlantic ridge rises above sea level in Iceland,
allowing easy observation of its features.
The central rift valley of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in southwest
Iceland. The photographer is standing at the edge of the North
American Plate, looking across the rift valley towards the
Eurasian Plate. The broad mountains in the distance are shield
volcanoes, the characteristic style of volcanism in a divergent
tectonic setting.
Where a continent is being pulled apart a new divergent
boundary called a continental rift valley is created. The East
15. African Rift Valley is an example of a continental rift.
Continental rift valleys represent the earliest stage in the
development of a new ocean basin as a single continental plate
splits into two fragments as new oceanic crust grows between
them.
Development of a rift in continental crust by mantle upwelling
Various stages of rifting are present in East Africa. The East
African Rift Valley represents a very young rift not yet flooded
by seawater. The Red Sea is a more advanced rift that is
continuing to grow into a new ocean basin by seafloor
spreading.
4.3 Convergent Plate Boundaries
Convergent plate boundaries occur when two plates collide with
each other. There are three types of convergent boundaries:
1. Ocean-Ocean: collision between two plates composed of
oceanic crust; older denser oceanic crust is subducted and
destroyed.
2. Ocean-Continent: collision between oceanic and continental
crust; oceanic crust is subducted by the continent and destroyed.
3. Continent-Continent: collision between two plates composed
of continental crust; both are too light to be subducted.
4.3.1. Ocean-Ocean Convergence
In a collision between two plates of oceanic crust, the older and
denser crust gets subducted beneath the younger and lighter
crust. A deep-sea trench marks the subduction zone at the
surface. As subducted slab descends into the mantle, it partially
melts. The rising magma produces a chain of volcanoes on the
overriding, younger oceanic plate called a volcanic island arc.
16. A convergent plate boundary between two oceanic plates. The
older, denser plate is subducted by the younger, more buoyant
plate. A trench marks the subduction zone at the surface. As the
subducted plate descends into the mantle and melts, rising
magma creates a volcanic island arc.
The subduction of the Pacific Plate by the Philippine plate is an
example of an ocean-ocean convergent boundary. The
subduction zone is marked by the Mariana Trench. Challenger
Deep, its deepest point, is 10,911 meters (35,798 ft) deep and is
the deepest place in the ocean.
4.3.2. Ocean-Continent Convergence
When a plate composed of oceanic crust collides with one made
of continental crust, the denser oceanic crust is subducted
beneath the lighter continental crust. As in the case of ocean-
ocean subduction, there is a trench and volcanic arc, with the
volcanic arc on the continent. Compression crumples the edge
of the continent, producing mountains. Ocean sediments and
anything else too light to subduct such as a volcanic island arc
or fragment of continental crust is scraped off and added to
edge of continent as accreted terranes. Both types of
subduction zones (ocean-ocean and ocean-continent) are
associated with compressional stress, deep earthquakes, and
andesitic volcanism.
At a convergent boundary between an oceanic plate and a
continental plate, the denser oceanic plate is subducted by the
lighter continental plate. A volcanic arc is built on the
overriding continental plate as the subducted oceanic plate
melts.
4.3.3. Continent-Continent Convergence
Continental crust is too light to be subducted. So when two
continents collide, thickening, thrust faulting, and uplift
17. produces mountain ranges and high plateaus. A suture zone
marks the boundary where two formerly separate continents are
joined.
When two continents collide, neither is subducted. Instead, the
compressional stress produces thickening and thrust faulting,
which uplifts mountain ranges and high plateaus along and
behind the collision zone.
The collision of India and Asia is an example of an ongoing
continental collision and is raising the Himalaya and Tibetan
Plateau. The collision zone between India and Asia is marked
by the abrupt Himalayan front and the world’s highest
mountains. Behind the collision zone, an area of thickened
continental crust supports the extensive Tibetan plateau, the
largest high plateau in the world.
The collision of India with Asia began about 20 million years
ago when a subduction zone completely destroyed the ocean
basin that formerly separated the two continents. This same
process is closing the Mediterranean Sea and bringing Africa
into a collision with Europe. The ancient collision between
North America and Africa during the formation of Pangaea is
marked today by the heavily eroded Appalachian Mountains.
4.4. Transform Plate Boundaries
A transform plate boundary occurs where two plates are sliding
past each other. The boundary is marked by a system of faults.
Motion between the plates is not always smooth due to friction;
instead the plates periodically lurch past each other, resulting in
earthquakes. Shear stresses crumple the edges of the plates and
rocks on either side of the faults.
A transform plate boundary occurs where two plates slip past
18. each other in different directions.
California’s San Andreas Fault is an excellent example of a
transform plate boundary between the Pacific and North
American plates. The fault marks the plate boundary and runs
through the center of the photo from top to bottom. Note how
the edges of the two plates are crumpled due to friction along
the fault.
4.4.1 Evolution of the San Andreas Fault
As we saw in the example of India and Asia, plate boundaries
do not remain static, instead they evolve over time. The San
Andreas Fault is another example. The San Andreas Fault
originated when the subduction zone off the west coast of North
America caught up to and swallowed the seafloor spreading
center that separated two oceanic plates: the Pacific Plate and
the Farallon Plate. The Farallon Plate and spreading center
was split into two smaller pieces connected by a transform fault
that we call the San Andreas Fault.
The San Andreas Fault originated when the subduction zone off
central and southern California caught up with and swallowed
the offshore spreading center. This severed the oceanic Farallon
Plate into two smaller oceanic plates; connected by a transform
fault we call the San Andreas Fault. Seafloor spreading and
subduction still occurs further north off the Pacific Northwest
and further south off Central America.
4.5. Hot Spots
Volcanism is usually associated with plate boundaries.
However, some volcanic centers are located in the middle of a
plate. Such centers are called hot spots and have a magma
source in the deep mantle, perhaps extending all the way to the
core boundary. Because the magma source is below the
lithosphere, it does not move with the plate. Instead a chain of
volcanoes called a hot spot track is produced as the plate moves
19. over the stationary hot spot. The Hawaiian Islands are an
excellent example of a hot spot track. The big island of Hawaii
is currently located over the hot spot.
The Hawaiian Islands were produced as the Pacific Plate moved
northwestwards over a fixed hot spot in the deep mantle,
producing a chain of volcanic islands that get younger to the
southeast. All of the Hawaiian Islands are volcanic, but the
volcanoes become extinct as the plate carries the island off the
hot spot. The big island of Hawaii is currently over the hot spot
and is the only Hawaiian island with active volcanoes.
4.5.1. Hot Spot Tracks
The hot spot responsible for the Hawaiian Islands has existed
for more than 70 million years. A chain of extinct volcanic
islands and underwater seamounts extends west and north from
the currently active island of Hawaii all the way to the Aleutian
trench. Southeast of the island of Hawaii a new volcanic island
is growing beneath the sea as the big island moves away from
the hot spot. Hot spot tracks are good indicators of plate
motion. Note the bend in the Hawaiian hot spot track, where the
Hawaiian Ridge meets the Emperor Seamounts. This bend
indicates a change in the direction of the Pacific plate from
northerly to northwesterly about 40 million years ago.
The Hawaiian hot spot track extends from the big island of
Hawaii, which is currently over the hot spot, all the way to the
western Aleutian Trench. The bend in the track of extinct
volcanic islands and submerged seamounts indicates a change in
the direction of the Pacific Plate about 40 million years ago.
4.5.2. Continental Hot Spot Tracks
The Yellowstone hotspot is the world’s only hot spot beneath a
continent and is responsible for Yellowstone National park’s
20. famous geysers and hot springs as well as three enormous
volcanic eruptions in the last two million years. The hot spot
track is marked by a chain of progressively older volcanic
centers that extends southwest across Idaho’s Snake River Plain
to north-central Nevada. The origin of the hot spot is unknown,
but is probably related to the extensive Columbia Flood Basalts
of eastern Washington and Oregon that were erupted about 18
million years ago.
The Columbia Plateau flood basalts were erupted about 18
million years ago. The flood basalts were followed by
progression of volcanic calderas from the oldest in north central
Nevada to the youngest in Yellowstone National Park. The flood
basalts are believed to mark the first appearance of a mantle hot
spot beneath the North American plate, which then produced a
chain of volcanic calderas as the North American plate moves
southwestwards over the hot spot. The hot spot is currently
located beneath Yellowstone National Park. Note that the hot
spot track does not line up with its presumed origin in the
Columbia flood basalts; instead there is a pronounced offset to
the south. This has not yet been satisfactorily explained, but
may result from interactions in the mantle between the hot spot
plume and the oceanic plate being subducted beneath North
America.
It is well established that the hot spot currently beneath
Yellowstone has left a track of progressively older calderas
across southern Idaho to an earliest location beneath north
central Nevada (16 million years ago). This is a good match for
the age of the Columbia plateau flood basalts (18-16 million
years old), however the caldera track does not quite line up
geographically with the eruption points of the Columbia basalts.
Geologists continue to debate the exact relationship between the
Yellowstone hot spot and the Columbia flood basalts.
21. The very large volume of the Columbia basalts (several
thousand cubic kilometers), their geologically short eruption
time (less than 1.5 million years), and trace element
compositions of the lavas themselves all suggest a deep mantle
(hot spot) source. The Columbia basalts were erupted from three
locations: the Chief Joseph dike swarm near Hells Canyon in
Northeast Oregon; the Monument dike swarm near John Day,
Oregon, and the Steens Mountain dikes south of Burns, Oregon.
There is an age progression from north (older) to south
(younger) within the Columbia basalts, so that also points to the
hot spot (which next manifested itself as a caldera in north
central Nevada).
The geography of the hot spot eruptions is likely also
complicated by interactions between the rising mantle plume
and the subducted oceanic plate. Remember, the subducting
plate is not instantaneously destroyed at the trench, but instead
slowly sinks into the mantle, gradually re-assimilating into the
mantle by melting. So the oceanic plate being subducted by the
Cascadia Subduction Zone extends into the mantle beneath
western North America. This means that a rising mantle plume
will have to get past the subducted slab. The hot spot plume
also appears to be inclined, rather than exactly vertical, and
may even wiggle around a bit, instead of being fixed as
portrayed in textbooks. So the connection between the
Yellowstone hot spot and the Columbia flood basalts is quite
complicated.
What happens when a hot spot forms?
Imagine a container filled with hot wax and oil. As the wax
(deep mantle) is heated from below (Earth’s core), it becomes
buoyant and begins to rise through the oil (mantle). The
viscosity of the oil provides resistance, causing the rising wax
to form a large glob, or head, followed by a narrow tail, or
stem.
22. A mantle hot spot consists of leading glob, or head, followed by
a narrower stem, or tail, because of the high viscosity of the
mantle.
The hot spot forms a large glob (head) followed by a narrow tail
(stem) because of the resistance of the mantle to getting out of
its way (viscosity). When the head reaches the lithosphere, it
flattens out and erupts a huge volume of magma onto the
surface. This type of eruption is known as a flood basalt. As
the plate moves away from the hot spot, it is dragged over the
narrower stem of the hot spot. This creates a chain of smaller,
but still very large, eruptions called a hot spot track.
A mantle hot spot plume has a wide head followed by a narrow
stem. As the head reaches the surface, it erupts massive flood
basalts. As the plate passes over the narrower stem, a hot spot
track is produced leading away from the flood basalt.
The flowing sequence of figures illustrates the events marking
the passage of the North American plate over the Yellowstone
hot spot.
The head created the massive flood basalts that cover eastern
Washington and Oregon.
The tail, or stem, has produced a chain of progressively younger
volcanic calderas from north-central Nevada to the present
location of the hot spot beneath northwest Wyoming.
As the calderas move away from the hot spot stem, they are
buried by younger basalt lava flows fed by remnant pockets of
magma in the lithosphere. This is typical of the style of
volcanism on Idaho’s Snake River Plain.
23. The location of hotspots worldwide. The red dots mark the
present location of a plate over a hot spot. The blue dots mark
their earliest known location. The Hawaiian hot spot has no
point of origin because its track disappears into the Aleutian
subduction zone, meaning all earlier traces of the hot spot have
been destroyed by subduction. Note that some hotspots first
appeared at locations that have been divergent plate boundaries
or mid ocean ridges, so the earliest evidence of these hotspots is
now found on the coastlines of continents now separated by
oceans, for example in the North Atlantic (Iceland) and South
Atlantic.
4.6. Plate Tectonics and the Building of Continents
Over hundreds of millions of years the modern continents have
been assembled by plate tectonics from smaller fragments of
material too light to be subducted. The pieces that make up a
continent include:
1. Cratons: very ancient rock that make up the cores of
continents. Exactly how cratons formed is still debated.
2. Orogens: belts of deformed rocks representing mountain
building episodes during collisions between continental cratons.
Only the youngest orogens still stand as mountain ranges. Most
orogens are eroded roots of ancient mountain ranges.
The collision of two cratons, for example India and Asia
a. Subduction of oceanic crust crumples the edge of the
overriding plate and creates a volcanic arc
b. As collision begins, sediments along subducting plate are
deformed and welded onto overriding plate
c. As collision ends, subducted oceanic crust breaks off and
24. continues its descent into mantle
The two continents are now joined along a high mountain range
(the orogen)
4.6.1. Continental Shields
Continental shields are assemblages of ancient cratons and their
associated orogens sutured together by tectonic collisions. The
North American continental shield is also called the Canadian
Shield because glacial erosion has exposed the ancient rocks of
the shield at the surface throughout much of central and eastern
Canada, as well as the upper Midwest of the United States.
Further south the shield is covered by younger sedimentary
rocks. The shield is surrounded by five younger orogenic belts:
the Grenville, Innuitian, Caledonian, Appalachian, and
Cordilleran Orogens marking younger episodes of tectonic
collision and uplift.
The North American continental shield consists of several very
ancient cratons joined by belts of deformed rocks called orogens
that mark collisions between cratons. Note that the different
parts of the shield are all older than 1.6 billion years. The shield
is surrounded by younger orogens, the Grenville, Appalachian,
and Cordilleran orogenies.
4.6.2. Accreted Terranes
Accreted terranes are small pieces of crust too buoyant to be
subducted that are carried along by oceanic plates and added to
the edge of a continent. Accreted terranes may include old
volcanic island arcs, small pieces of continental crust called
micro continents, or margins of continents sliced off by
transform faults. Accreted terranes can be rafted great
distances by plate motions and get added to the edge of
continent as the oceanic crust is subducted. The entire west
coast of North America is complex jumble of more than 40
25. accreted terranes added to North America by 200 million years
of oceanic subduction in this location. This has gradually
shifted the plate boundary further west.
Accreted terranes added to the western margin of the North
American plate by more than 200 million years of subduction
along the west coast.
4.7. Continental Rifting and the Development of New Ocean
Basins
In addition to building continents, plate motions also tear
continents apart. This process is called continental rifting.
1. The process begins when crust is heated by rising magma
from the mantle, causing uplift of a broad area
2. As rising magma continues to push the crust aside, the uplift
collapses to form a rift valley
3. New oceanic crust is created as the rift spreads. The area is
flooded to form a narrow sea such as the Red Sea
4. The narrow sea may grow to become a new ocean basin with
a mid-ocean ridge and seafloor spreading center.
Rifting can end at any point, not all rifts develop into a new
ocean basin.
The four stages of continental rifting and development of a new
ocean basin, with modern day examples of each stage
Two active spreading centers, the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden,
have rifted the Arabian Plate from the African Plate. The East
Africa Rift is less active and appears to be a failing rift that
does not develop into an ocean basin. The more active part of
26. the rift extends through the Red Sea.
At the north end of the Red Sea, the direction of rifting is
changing again. Instead of continuing into the Mediterranean,
the active rift turns northeast and is separating Sinai and Israel
from Jordan. Only the southern portion is flooded by the sea,
the remainder stands as much as 1000 feet below sea level and
is partly filled by the Dead Sea, a salt lake.
4.7.1. Passive Continental Margins
As a continental rift develops into a new ocean basin, the edges
of the continent become a passive continental margin. A passive
continental margin is a transition between oceanic and
continental crust that does not coincide with an active plate
boundary. Instead the plate boundary is at the mid-ocean ridge.
Passive continental margins are characterized by cooling and
subsidence of the crust as it moves away from rising magma at
the mid-ocean ridge and the development of thick sequences of
sediments eroded from the continent. The east coast of North
America is an example of a passive continental margin
Passive continental margins are transitions between continental
and oceanic crust without an active plate boundary. The major
features of a passive continental margin are a broad continental
shelf followed by the abrupt continental slope which drops to
the ocean floor. A thick sequence of sediments buries the
ancient faults that mark the episode of rifting. The active plate
boundary is out at the active spreading center at the mid-ocean
ridge.
4.7.2. Tectonics and Ocean Basins
The Atlantic Ocean is an example of a maturing ocean basin
with passive continental margins. Its major topographic
features such as the mid-ocean ridge, abyssal plain, and
27. continental shelf are explained by plate tectonics. The mid-
ocean ridge is the site of seafloor spreading and the active plate
boundary. The abyssal plain is underlain by older oceanic
crust that has moved away from the ridge, cooled, and subsided.
The abyssal plains end abruptly at the continental slope where
the crust transitions to lighter and more buoyant continental
crust. The continental shelf is the low-lying portion of the
continent flooded by shallow seas.
Tectonic features of a mature ocean basin, such as the Atlantic
Ocean
4.7.3. The Wilson Cycle
Eventually, a passive continental margin develops into a new
subduction zone as the adjacent oceanic crust becomes older,
colder, and denser. The ocean basin, while still spreading at the
mid-ocean ridge, starts to grow smaller as oceanic crust is
subducted. As the intervening ocean basin disappears the
continents are drawn into a new round of collision, albeit in a
new place. This cycle of continent formation, breakup, and re-
assembly is called the Wilson Cycle.
Stages in the Wilson Cycle with modern-day examples of each
stage
The Wilson Cycle and Drifting Continents
Most of the continents were joined as the supercontinent
Pangaea 200 million years ago (A). The continents became
fragmented as first the Atlantic Ocean, between North America
and Africa (B) and then the Indian Ocean, between Antarctica
and India, (C) opened and grew (D). A new round of
continental collision began as the Tethys Ocean separating India
and Asia closed (E). The Atlantic and Indian continue to grow
as the Pacific Ocean, ringed by subduction zones, continues to
28. close (F). Eventually a new supercontinent may be formed.
4.7.4. Active vs. Passive Continental Margins
Active continental margins are found where subduction occurs
between an oceanic and a continental plate. Active continental
margins coincide with plate boundaries. Passive continental
margins are found where there is a transition between oceanic
and continental crust that is still moving as one plate. In this
case the plate boundary is out at the mid-ocean ridge.
Active continental margins are plate boundaries marked by
subduction zones with earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain
building. Passive continental margins are transitions between
oceanic and continental crust that do not coincide with a plate
boundary.
The western U.S. is an active continental margin with all four
tectonic settings we have discussed:
1. Divergent: Gulf of California spreading center and extension
in the Basin and Range and Rio Grande Rift (a failing
continental rift)
2. Transform: the San Andreas and related fault systems
3. Convergent: the Cascadia Subduction Zone
4. Hot Spot: the Yellowstone hot spot
4.8. Tectonic Settings
Tectonic setting describes the geologic environment of an area
relative to any nearby plate boundaries or hot spots. This figure
summarizes the different tectonic settings we have talked about.
Each tectonic setting is associated with a particular style of
volcanism as we will see in a future lecture.
29. Tectonic settings include divergent, convergent, and transform
plate boundaries as well as hot spots. Each tectonic setting
produces a characteristic style of volcanism.
Summary of Tectonic Settings
4.8.1. Tectonic Setting of the Pacific Northwest
The tectonic setting of the Pacific Northwest is an active plate
boundary where small oceanic plates, the Gorda (south) Juan de
Fuca (central), and Explorer (north) plates are colliding with
and being subducted by the continental North American Plate.
The active plate boundary lies just offshore and is called the
Cascadia Subduction Zone. As the oceanic plates are
subducted, materials too light to be subducted are scraped off
the oceanic plate and accreted to the western margin of North
America to form the Costal Ranges of Vancouver Island,
Washington, Oregon, and Northern California. Further inland, a
volcanic arc, the Cascade Range, is formed on the overriding
plate above the depth where the subducted oceanic plates begin
to melt and produce magma, which rises to the surface. The
coastal and Cascade ranges are separated by a fore-arc basin, a
topographic depression produced by down-warping of the
continental plate like a rug due to the tremendous stresses from
the subduction zone. This depression is occupied by Puget
Sound and the Williamette Valley.
SHAPE * MERGEFORMAT
The tectonic setting of the Pacific Northwest in map view (left)
and in cross section (right), showing the major tectonic features
of western and central Oregon.
30. Cross section of the Cascadia subduction zone with major
geologic processes and topographic features
Although the Coastal Ranges and Cascades are both a product of
subduction, the specific processes responsible for their
formation are very different. Coastal Ranges like the Olympics
of Washington and the Coast Range and Siskiyous of Oregon
are a product of accretion and consist primarily of oceanic rocks
added to the western margin of the continent. The Cascades, in
contrast, are a volcanic range, and are a product of rising
magma produced by heating and melting of the subducted plate.
In Oregon, tectonic extension is occurring in the back arc basin
(east of the Cascades). Why? Two reasons: 1. The Pacific
Northwest is being rotated clockwise, creating extension in
southeastern Oregon and compression in northwestern
Washington. 2. The gradual ending of subduction with the
destruction of the last remnants of the Farallon Plate is
relieving compression on the western margin of North America,
allowing the edge of the plate to “rebound”
4.9. Significance of Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics explains the global distribution of earthquakes,
volcanoes, and mountain ranges. Plate tectonics is also
responsible for creating and destroying ocean basins as well as
building and rearranging the continents. Through the processes
of subduction and volcanism, plate tectonics recycles earth
materials. Our atmosphere is also maintained through volcanic
degassing and climate regulated by controlling the atmospheric
carbon dioxide content and the magnitude of the greenhouse
effect.
Plate Boundaries
31. Earthquakes
Volcanoes
SHAPE * MERGEFORMAT
SHAPE * MERGEFORMAT
Compare the map of plate boundaries to the global distribution
of earthquakes and volcanoes.
The locations of volcanoes do a pretty good job of outlining
plate boundaries. Earthquakes do an even better job of outlining
plate boundaries. Why? Not all types of plate boundaries are
associated with volcanism (there are no volcanoes at transform
plate boundaries), but all plate boundaries are associated with
earthquakes!
Terms to Know
Divergent plate boundary
32. Hot spot track
Continental rifting
Continental rift valley
Tectonic setting
Passive margin
Convergent plate boundary
Craton
Abyssal plain
Transform plate boundary
Orogen
Continental slope
Volcanic arc
Continental shield
Continental shelf
Hot spot
Accreted terrane
Wilson Cycle
Questions for Review
1. What are the three types of plate boundaries? Sketch simple
diagrams showing the geologic processes occurring at each
boundary.
2. Provide a modern-day example of each type of plate
boundary.
3. What are hot spots and hot spot tracks?
4. Why is plate tectonics important?
5. Describe the different parts of a continent and how they are
pieced together.
6. Contrast the processes and resulting features occurring along
active and passive continental margins.
33. 7. Describe the stages and features associated with continental
rifting and continental collision.
8. Describe the tectonic setting of the Pacific Northwest and the
major geologic features of this setting.
rifts
Iceland
faults
central rift valley
magma
extension
asthenosphere
lithosphere
34. Oceanic crust
Rift Valley lakes
The Red Sea is a more advanced rift
African Rift Valley
Ocean-Ocean Ocean-Continent
Continent-Continent
Overriding plate
Today
20 million years ago
Challenger Deep
35. Philippine Plate
Pacific Plate
40 million years ago
Divergent:
Plates move away from one another.
Lithosphere created.
Transform:
Plates slide past one another.
Lithosphere neither created nor destroyed.
Convergent:
Plates move toward one another.
37. 4. Subduction zone
3. Ocean basin with passive margins
2. Spreading center develops
1. Continental rifting
Cascade Range
Volatiles from heating of subducted slab
Coast Range
Sediment and Basalt Scraped off Subducting Plate
Lecture 3 Outline:
38. Plate Tectonics – from Hypothesis to Theory
Learning Objectives:
What is the evidence for continental drift?
What is the evidence for seafloor spreading?
What is the evidence for subduction?
How does plate tectonics explain this evidence?
How was Plate Tectonics Discovered?
Using scientific method
how researchers work collectively over time to develop accurate
and reliable explanations
By observing, hypothesizing, and testing
What is the Scientific Method?
Observe: gather information
Hypothesize: attempt to explain observations
Predict: use hypothesis to make testable predictions
Test: gather additional evidence from observations or
experiments to support or refute hypothesis
Modify: modify hypothesis in light of new evidence
Repeat steps 3-5 until hypothesis consistent with all available
evidence and conceivable tests
How does a Hypothesis become a Theory?
Hypothesis gradually gains widespread acceptance by
repeated testing and modification
39. Theory = hypothesis that withstands scrutiny over time
predictions tested and shown to be accurate
What is a Theory?
Everyday “theory”: possible explanation or educated guess
Scientific “theory”: explanation consistent with available
evidence
Example: Theory of Evolution
supported by large body of scientific evidence
succession of organisms in fossil record
genetic relationships among modern organisms
defined and observable mechanisms of variation and heredity
How was Plate Tectonics Discovered?
Plate tectonics too slow to directly observe
So how do we know plates move?
Three independent lines of evidence
Continental Drift
Seafloor Spreading
Subduction
What is Continental Drift?
Early geologists knew continents moved vertically
Fossil sea shells high above sea level
40. Uplift and subsidence following earthquakes
Can continents also move laterally?
Hypothesis proposed by Wegener (1920s)
Continents once joined as one land mass
Pangaea
Broke apart and fragments - modern continents - “drifted” to
current locations
What was Wegener’s Evidence for Continental Drift?
Fit of coastlines
Distribution of fossils
Similar types/ages of rocks on widely separated coastlines
Wegener could not explain how continents move through solid
rock of ocean floor
Why was Wegener’s Hypothesis of Continental Drift Rejected?
Discoveries about Earth’s magnetic field and mapping of ocean
floor in 1950s provide mechanism for continental drift
Seafloor spreading
What was Discovered when the Seafloor was Mapped?
Major topographic features
Ridges
41. huge underwater mountain ranges through all ocean basins
Trenches
narrow but very deep, mostly encircle Pacific Ocean
Mapping sea floor from ships
trenches
ridge
ridge
ridge
ridge
trench
trench
trench
What was Discovered when the Seafloor was Mapped?
Age of seafloor shows orderly distribution
Rocks youngest along ridges
Progressively older away from ridges
No old oceanic crust
Oldest rocks on continents (~4 billion yrs) nearly as old as
Earth
Nowhere on seafloor are rocks older than ~200 million years
42. Observations suggest ocean crust made at ridge
Proven by pattern of magnetism recorded in ocean crust
What was Discovered when the Seafloor was Mapped?
Youngest rock in red - oldest in blue
Symmetry in ages on either side of ridges
What was Discovered when the Seafloor was Mapped?
What is Earth’s Magnetic Field?
Generated by Earth’s rotation and molten iron in outer core
Two poles of opposite polarity
Magnetic poles near rotational (geographic) poles because field
generated by rotation
What are Magnetic Reversals?
Magnetic field flips polarity (direction)
Normal: magnetic north near geographic North Pole
Reverse: magnetic north near geographic South Pole
43. Importance of this discovery not realized until seafloor mapped
How do Rocks Record Changes in Earth’s Magnetic Field?
Iron minerals align parallel to ambient field as they crystallize
Indicates polarity - direction to magnetic north
Polarity locked in as rock cools
Preserves record of magnetic field polarity at time rock formed
High temperature: magnetic minerals randomly oriented
During cooling: magnetic minerals align with field
After cooling: magnetic orientation recorded in rock will not
change as long as rock remains cool – even if magnetic field
changes
How are Magnetic Polarity Reversals Recorded on the Seafloor?
Polarity along ridge south of Iceland
Red: rocks formed during current period of normal polarity
Other colors: rocks formed during earlier periods of normal
polarity
44. White: rocks with reversed polarity
Bands of alternating normal and reversed polarity
Symmetric on either side of ridge
Ridge axis
How Does Seafloor Spreading Explain these Observations?
Youngest rock at ridge formed during current period of normal
polarity (N)
Slightly older rock further from ridge formed during last time
field had reverse polarity (R)
Even older rock further from ridge formed during previous
period of normal polarity (N)
Produces magnetization pattern symmetric with respect to ridge
How Does Seafloor Spreading Explain these Observations?
Seafloor spreading results in
Crust older with distance from ridge
Stripes of normal and reverse magnetization symmetric to ridge
45. Provides mechanism for continental drift
Seafloor acts as conveyor belt to move continents
Amount of new oceanic crust produced at ridges must be
balanced by equal amount destroyed elsewhere
Where is oceanic crust destroyed?
How Does Seafloor Spreading Explain these Observations?
What is the Global Distribution of Earthquakes?
Not randomly distributed
Concentrated near trenches
Trench
Subduction = process that removes old oceanic crust
Discovered by relationship of deep earthquakes to trenches
Earthquakes deeper with distance from trench
How was Subduction Discovered?
Hot
Cold
How was Subduction Discovered?
Earthquakes along and “inland” of trench - deeper with distance
46. Mark descent of old oceanic crust into mantle
Process = subduction
Places where it occurs = subduction zones
Top left: Map view shows earthquakes become progressively
deeper to west of Tonga trench
Remaining panels: Vertical cross sections showing descending
earthquake belts
trench
T
T
T
What is the Global Distribution of Volcanoes?
Volcanoes not randomly distributed either
Concentrated in chains (arcs) inland of trenches
Occur above depth where subducting crust causes melting in
mantle
Pacific “Ring of Fire”
Earthquakes and volcanoes associated with subduction
How Does Plate Tectonics Explain Earthquakes and Volcanoes?
Compare location of plate boundaries to global distribution of
earthquakes and volcanoes
Earthquakes and volcanoes mostly at plate boundaries
47. convergence and divergence
Earthquakes
Plate Boundaries
Volcanoes
25
Ridge
new oceanic crust produced by upwelling of asthenosphere
seafloor spreading
What Happens Where Plates Diverge?
Trench
denser oceanic crust sinks beneath lighter continental crust
subduction
What Happens Where Plates Converge?
Average about 5 cm per year
Roughly rate fingernails grow
48. Not very fast, but over long periods of time plates move great
distances
50 km per 1,000,000 yr
Portland - Salem
5000 km per 100,000,000 yr
Portland - Boston
How Fast are Plate Motions?
How Fast are Plate Motions?
We can now directly measure plate motions using GPS
What is the scientific method? What is the difference between a
hypothesis and a scientific theory?
Explain the geologic evidence that led to the discovery of a)
continental drift, b) sea floor spreading, and c) subduction.
How does plate tectonics explain this evidence?
Why does Earth have a magnetic field? How do rocks provide a
record of the magnetic field back through time? What evidence
does this provide that shows seafloor spreading?
What causes plates to move?
Questions for Review
Lecture 3: Plate Tectonics: Hypothesis to TheoryReading:
Chapter 2, pages 30-41 Topics:
· The scientific method
· Evidence for continental drift
· Evidence for seafloor spreading
49. · Evidence for subduction
· Theory of Plate Tectonics
Next lecture: Plate Tectonics: Mechanisms and Margins
3.1. Introduction
The internal structure of the Earth is a result of two processes:
accretion and differentiation. Planetary accretion left the earth
in a near molten state as kinetic energy was converted to heat
during collision. Once molten the earth segregated into layers of
different densities and chemical composition. This left the earth
with a light crust, an intermediate mantle, and a dense core.
Continued additions of heat released by radioactive decay of
unstable elements in the earth have kept the Earth’s interior hot.
The distribution of pressure and temperature inside the earth
(which together control a material’s melting point) has left the
earth with layers of different physical properties. Layers below
the melting point are rigid and strong (i.e., the lithosphere),
while layers close to the melting point are plastic and weak
(i.e., the asthenosphere). The rigid lithosphere (crust and
uppermost mantle) is broken into pieces (plates) that float on
the softer, deeper mantle asthenosphere.
Today we will discuss the evidence that lithospheric plates
move. This is called plate tectonics.
3.2. Plate Tectonics and the Scientific Method
The development of plate tectonic theory is an excellent
example of the scientific method in action. The scientific
50. method is the way researchers work collectively over time to
develop an accurate, reliable, and unbiased explanation of the
world around us. This is accomplished by repeated observation,
testing, and modification.
The scientific method consists of the following steps:
1. Observe: gather information about some phenomenon
2. Hypothesize: attempt to explain the observations
3. Predict: use the hypothesis to make testable predictions
4. Test: gather additional evidence from observations or
experiments that may support or refute the hypothesis
5. Modify: modify the hypothesis in light of new evidence.
Repeat steps 3-5 until a hypothesis has been developed that is
consistent with all available evidence and conceivable tests.
Once a hypothesis has been accepted by most researchers in a
field, it is considered a scientific theory. Hypotheses gradually
gain acceptance over many years through repeated testing and
modification to become theories. A theory is a hypothesis that
has withstood repeated scrutiny over time. However, it is still
possible that a new observation will be made or a new
experiment devised that produces evidence contradictory to
theory. For example, future advances in technology might allow
experiments that are inconceivable or impossible today; the
results of which may or may not be consistent with established
theory. If they are not consistent, a new round of modification
and testing is required.
Be aware that the meaning of theory in everyday conversation is
vastly different from the meaning of theory in science. We often
51. use the word “theory” to refer to a possible explanation that
may be nothing more than an educated guess. But to scientists, a
theory is an explanation backed up by and consistent with a vast
body of evidence. For example, the theory of evolution is a
scientific explanation backed by evidence such as the
succession of organisms in the fossil record and genetic
relationships among modern organisms and includes defined and
observable mechanisms of genetic variation and heredity.
Despite the overwhelming evidence supporting evolution
(essentially as Darwin originally envisioned it), whether or not
evolution should even be taught in science classes is still
debated by public school boards.
3.2.1 Discovery of Plate Tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics states that Earth’s outermost layer
(crust) is broken into a number of large and small plates. The
plates move relative to one another because they rest on top of
hotter, more mobile material. The theory of plate tectonics is
the foundation for much of our understanding of how the earth
works, yet the processes of plate tectonics generally operate too
slowly for direct observation. So how do we know that
lithospheric plates move? We will discuss three independent
lines of evidence:
1. Evidence for Continental Drift
2. Evidence for Seafloor Spreading
3. Evidence for Subduction
Plate tectonics ties these observations together and explains
many related geologic phenomena, such as mid-ocean ridges,
deep-sea trenches, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
3.3. Continental Drift
52. Fossil sea shells high above sea level and vertical land
movements following earthquakes provided early scientists
convincing evidence that the continents can move vertically.
But could the continents move laterally as well?
Alfred Wegener first proposed the hypothesis of continental
drift in 1915. According to continental drift the modern
continents were once joined as parts of preexisting larger
supercontinents. Wegener’s hypothesis attempted to explain the
jig-saw fit between continents on either side of the Atlantic
Ocean. Wegner stated that the continents were once joined as
one land mass he called Pangaea which broke apart and the
fragments (today’s continents) slowly drifted to their present
positions.
This was not a new idea, but Wegner was the first to
systematically describe the evidence that the continents were
once joined. In addition to the fit of the coastlines, Wegener
also noted the distribution of fossils across the southern
continents. The same fossils of land animals (early reptiles) and
plants (such as ferns) are found on continents that today are
separated by vast oceans. This distribution could be explained if
the continents were joined at the time these plants and animals
lived.
Fossil evidence for continental drift from the southern
continents includes reptiles, freshwater crocodiles, and ferns
which are found on continents now widely separated by oceans.
Wegner was also aware that the ages and types of rocks along
the African and South American coastlines, as well as the
European and North American coastlines, were similar.
When the
53. continents were pieced back together, the different rock types
lined up nicely. This is illustrated by the distribution of 250
million-year old glacial deposits across the southern continents.
The glacial deposits also indicate the direction the ice was
moving, and suggest an ice cap centered in South Africa and
radiating across the adjoining continents.
Grooves carved by glaciers 250-300 million years ago (arrows)
provide evidence for continental drift. The left diagram assumes
the continents were in their present day locations. The
distribution of the glaciers can best be explained if the
continents were once joined as part of Pangaea.
The supercontinent Pangaea (meaning “all lands” in Greek)
started breaking up about 200 million years ago. When Pangaea
began breaking apart the continents Gondwanaland and Laurasia
formed. The Tethys Sea separated the two continents. By 65
million years ago the land masses looked like our modern-day
continents.
3.3.1. Rejection of Continental Drift
Wegener’s hypothesis of continental drift did not gain wide
acceptance at the time because of an unresolved problem: he
could not explain how the continents move through the solid
rock of the ocean floor. He thought continents moved through
Earth’s crust by tidal forces. Tidal forces are much too weak to
move continents! Wegener was wrong on one big point:
continents do not plow through ocean floor. Instead both
continents and ocean floor are rigid plates that “float” on the
asthenosphere.
3.4 Seafloor Spreading
54. Why was continental drift revisited? Discoveries about Earth’s
magnetism in the 1950s and mapping of the ocean floor made
possible by technologies developed during World War II
eventually provided a mechanism for continental drift called
seafloor spreading. Plate tectonics was widely accepted by the
late 1960’s.
Technology developed to track German U-boats allowed
detailed mapping of the seafloor in peacetime.
3.4.1. Origin of Earth’s Magnetic Field
The molten iron in the Earth’ outer core combined with the
Earth’s rotation generates a magnetic field. Molten iron in the
outer core flows around the solid inner core because of Earth’s
rotation. The flow generates an electrical current, in turn
creating a magnetic field. Earth’s magnetic field resembles that
of a simple bar magnetic with two poles of opposite polarity.
Because the magnetic field is generated by Earth’s rotation, the
magnetic poles are within a few degrees of the rotational
(geographic) poles.
Earth’s magnetic field resembles a bar magnet with two poles of
opposite polarity. The magnetic poles are inclined at
11.50 relative to the rotational (geographic) poles.
Magnetic fields are produced by the motion of electrical
charges. For example, the magnetic field of a bar magnet results
from the motion of negatively charged electrons in the magnet.
The origin of the Earth's magnetic field is not completely
understood, but is thought to be associated with electrical
currents produced by rotation in the spinning liquid outer core
55. made of iron and nickel. The liquid iron in the outer core is also
in motion due to convection, changes in convective currents
may account for the observed variability in the strength and
polarity of Earth’s magnetic field (Earth’s rotation changes only
very slowly over geologic time). Note that Venus does not have
a measurable magnetic field despite having a similar liquid iron
core because the rotation of Venus (243 Earth days) is too slow
to generate an electrical field.
3.4.2. Magnetic Inclination
The magnetic field at any point on the Earth’s surface can be
described in terms of its inclination. Inclination is the angle
(dip) of the magnetic field lines with respect to the surface of
the Earth and varies from 0o (horizontal) at the magnetic
equator to 90o (vertical) at the magnetic poles.
Magnetic field inclination varies as a function of magnetic
latitude across the Earth’s surface.
Iron-rich minerals align themselves parallel to the magnetic
field as they crystallize from molten lava. At temperatures
above 580°C the magnetic poles of individual atoms point in
random directions. When a magnetic field is present and
temperatures are below 580°C, the magnetic poles of individual
atoms align with the magnetic field. Now the minerals are
permanently magnetized. Therefore rocks containing iron
minerals preserve a record of the ambient magnetic field at their
time of formation (paleomagnetism) indicating both field
polarity (direction to magnetic north) and inclination.
At high temperatures magnetic mineral grains are randomly
56. oriented (left). During cooling the magnetic minerals align
themselves with the ambient field (right). Once the temperature
drops below the Curie temperature that orientation is locked in
place and will not change even if the ambient field changes (so
long as the rock is not re-heated).
3.4.3. Apparent Polar Wander
When the magnetic direction and inclination of rocks of
different ages from the same continent are plotted on the map,
they appear to indicate that the magnetic poles have wandered
great distances over time. Furthermore, rocks from different
continents appear to show the magnetic poles taking different
paths at the same time. This phenomenon is known as apparent
polar wander.
The apparent location of the magnetic pole follows vastly
different tracks over time when reconstructed using rocks from
different continents.
Wandering Pole or Drifting Continents?
The apparent polar wander curves for different continents
appear to show a chaotic magnetic pole moving all over the
place and even in different places at the same time! Although
the magnetic pole does move, it remains within a few degrees of
the geographic pole because the magnetic field is generated by
the earth’s rotation. This is known as true polar wander. The
apparent polar wander curves make more sense if the continents
are moving in different directions with respect to the magnetic
pole (and each other). This is another line of evidence for
continental drift that Wegner was unaware of, but a mechanism
for continental drift was still lacking.
57. 3.4.4. Magnetic Reversals
For reasons that are not understood, Earth’s magnetic field
occasionally reverses polarity. In other words, the magnetic
field flips direction (a magnetic reversal). The polarity or
direction of the magnetic field is recorded in rocks in same way
that inclination is. Rocks indicating a field direction the same
as today’s (magnetic north pole near the geographic North Pole)
are said to have normal polarity. Rocks indicating the opposite
field (magnetic north pole near the geographic South Pole) have
reversed polarity.
Earth’s magnetic field during periods of normal polarity (left)
and reversed polarity (right).
The geologic record provides evidence of 171 field reversals in
the last 71 million years. Time is divided into periods of
predominately normal polarity or predominately reverse
polarity. Periods are called magnetic chrons. Within each chron
there can be subchrons (times of opposite polarity). Today we
are in a period of normal polarity (the Brunhes chron). The
period from 730,000 years ago to 2.45 million years ago was
period of predominately reverse polarity called the Matuyama
chron. Within the Matuyama chron are three short periods of
normal polarity, these are subchrons. The importance of this
discovery in understanding continental drift was not realized
until the seafloor was mapped.
Polarity reversals dating back 20 million years.
58. 3.4.5 Evidence from the Seafloor
When the seafloor was mapped in the 1950s, several discoveries
were made that added to our understanding of continental drift
and led to the development of the theory of plate tectonics:
1. The topography of the seafloor was found to be dominated by
huge underwater mountain ranges called mid-ocean ridges
running through the ocean basins like seams on a baseball.
2. Another curious feature of the ocean basins is the narrow but
very deep trenches, most notably along the western margin of
the Pacific Ocean.
On this map, the shallower water over mid-ocean ridges is
shown in yellow green, the deeper parts of the ocean basins in
blue, and the very deep trenches in purple. The shallowest parts
pf the oceans, show in red, are actually the flooded, low- lying
parts of the continents called continental shelves.
3. The age of rocks on the seafloor shows an orderly
distribution. Rocks were youngest along the mid-ocean ridges
and progressively older away from the mid-ocean ridges.
4. The thickness of seafloor sediments also supports this age
distribution. Sediments are thinner toward the ridge because
they have had less time to accumulate.
5. Although the oldest rocks on the continents (4 billion years
old) are nearly as old as the earth itself, nowhere on the
seafloor are rocks found to be older than about 200 million
years.
In this map the youngest seafloor rocks are shown in red and the
oldest in blue. Note the symmetry in ages on either side of the
mid-ocean ridge system.
59. 3.4.6. Paleomagnetism and Seafloor Spreading
When the magnetic field direction recorded in the rocks of the
seafloor was mapped in detail, a striking pattern emerged.
Bands of rocks recording alternating periods of normal and
reversed polarity are symmetric on either side of the mid-ocean
ridge.
This figure shows the magnetic orientation of rocks along a
section of mid-ocean ridge south of Iceland. Rocks shown red
are rocks that formed during the current period of normal
polarity. Other colors show rocks formed during earlier periods
of normal polarity. White areas indicate rocks formed during
periods of reversed polarity. Note the symmetry with respect to
the ridge axis.
The Atlantic Ocean did not exist 250 million years ago! The
continents that now border it were joined into a single vast
continent that Alfred Wegener named Pangaea. About 200
million years ago, new spreading centers split the huge
continent. The Atlantic continues to widen today at 2-4 cm/yr.
If the spreading rate is fast, a larger amount of young warm
oceanic lithosphere is produced and the ridge will be wider. A
slow-spreading ridge will be narrower. The Atlantic Ocean
spreads slowly, growing wider at 2-4 cm/yr. The Pacific
spreading center is fast by comparison: 6-20 cm/yr. Note the
differences in widths of the mid-Atlantic and East Pacific ridges
(due to the differences in their spreading rates) on the maps
above.
Collectively, these observations of the age distribution and
magnetic symmetry of the sea floor led to the idea of seafloor
60. spreading. Seafloor spreading is a result of rising magma at the
mid-ocean ridges which cools to form new ocean crust. As new
crust is formed the older crust is pushed away from the ridge.
This explains both the age distribution of the seafloor and the
symmetry with respect to the ridge.
Rising magma creating new crust at the mid-ocean ridge during
a period of normal polarity while older crust is pushed away
from the ridge (a). Following a period of reversed polarity,
crust is once again being formed with normal polarity (b). The
resulting pattern of rocks formed during alternating periods of
normal and reversed polarity is symmetric about the mid-ocean
ridge (c).
3.5. Subduction
Seafloor spreading also provides a mechanism for continental
drift. The drifting continents do not plow through the seafloor,
instead the seafloor acts as a giant conveyor belt in which the
embedded continents are taken along for the ride. However,
seafloor spreading creates a new problem: the
amount of new ocean crust created by seafloor spreading must
be balanced by equal amount being destroyed elsewhere;
otherwise earth’s crust would swell like a balloon! Where is
ocean crust being destroyed?
The location of deep earthquakes near the deep-sea trenches
provided the answer. Earthquakes are not randomly distributed
globally. Adjacent to and inland from deep-sea trenches is one
place where earthquakes are concentrated. Earthquakes are also
concentrated along mid-ocean ridges.
Earthquakes are not randomly distributed globally. Adjacent to
61. and inland from deep-sea trenches in one place where
earthquakes are concentrated.
The origin of earthquakes becomes deeper along one side of
ocean trenches with increasing distance from the trench. This
marks the descent of old oceanic crust into the mantle as it is
destroyed. This process is known as subduction and the places
where it occurs are called subduction zones.
Top Left: Earthquakes get progressively deeper to the west of
the Tonga trench. Remaining panels: Progressively deeper
earthquakes away from the trench (arrow) mark the descent of
subducted crust.
3.6. Plate Tectonics: Tying it all Together
The theory of plate tectonics ties the observations of continental
drift, seafloor spreading, and subduction together while also
explaining related geologic phenomena (such as volcanoes and
earthquakes). The earth’s lithosphere is broken into about a
dozen major pieces and numerous smaller fragments called
plates. The lithospheric plates float on the denser but weaker
asthenosphere and move in different directions and speeds
relative to one another.
The major lithospheric plates
Where plates are moving away from each other, such as at mid-
ocean ridges, new oceanic crust is being created by magma
rising from the asthenosphere. Where plates collide with each
other, denser oceanic crust is forced under lighter continental
crust and is destroyed by subduction. As the subducted plate
melts, magma is generated, resulting in a chain of volcanoes on
62. the overriding plate. Through the processes of seafloor
spreading and subduction, oceanic crust is continuously
recycled. Continental crust is too buoyant to be subducted, so
the oldest rocks are found on the continents because continental
crust is not destroyed by subduction.
New oceanic crust is created by rising magma at mid ocean
ridges. As the crust moves away from the ridge and ages, it
eventually is forced back down into the mantle and destroyed by
subduction.
The movement of the lithospheric plates is driven by convection
currents in the mantle. This convection may overturn the entire
mantle (as pictured below) or may be broken into different
layers. Because each plate is a rigid body, two additional forces
keep the plates in motion:
1. Ridge Push: as new crust is created at the ridge, it pushes the
older crust aside.
2. Slab Pull: The weight of the subducted slab drags the rest of
the plate into the trench, until it melts.
Mechanisms of plate motion: mantle convection, ridge push, and
slab pull.
3.6.1. Satellite Observation of Plate Motions
Advancing technology continues to generate new evidence of
plate motions. For example, Global Positioning System
satellites are able to measure locations so accurately they are
able to resolve the direction and velocity of plate motions that
are no faster than about 8 cm per year (about the rate fingernails
63. grow).
Plate motions as resolved by GPS. The arrows indicate
direction, while length of the arrow indicates speed. Note that
all locations within one plate are moving in the same direction
and at the same speed. The Eurasian and North American plates
are also rotating.
Terms to Know
Scientific method
Magnetic field
True polar wander
Hypothesis Theory Continental drift Seafloor spreading
Subduction Pangaea
Polarity Inclination Magnetic reversal Normal polarity Reversed
polarity
Apparent polar wander
Mid-ocean ridge Trench Subduction zone Plate Tectonics Plate
Questions for Review
1. What is the scientific method? What is the difference
between a hypothesis and a scientific theory?
2. Explain the geologic evidence for continental drift, sea floor
spreading, and subduction. How does plate tectonics explain
64. this evidence?
3. Why does Earth have a magnetic field? How do rocks provide
a record of the magnetic field back through time? What
evidence does this provide that supports continental drift and
seafloor spreading?
4. What causes plates to move?
GEO 101 The Solid Earth
Week 2 Tectonics Lab Answer Sheet
Name:Learning OutcomeQuestionsPoints Comments
Become familiar with Earth’s tectonic plates by identifying and
locating plates (by name) and plate boundaries (by type) on a
map
1, 2/3
Interpret the location and types of plate boundaries based on the
location of surface features such as ridges, trenches, and
volcanic arcs
4, 6, /5
Infer direction of plate motion based on distribution of plate
boundaries and types
3, 5/3
Graph a dataset and use the graph to identify trends in the data
7, 8/3
Use hotspot tracks to infer velocity and direction of plate
motion
65. 9-17/6
Explain the age distribution of oceanic crust in relation to
tectonic features on the seafloor such as ridges and trenches
18, 19/2
Compare the age of oceanic crust to the age of continental crust
and the age of the Earth
20, 21, 22/3
TOTAL
/25
Exercise 1 – Plates and Plate Boundaries
1. Plate
Name
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
66. L
M
N
2. Boundaries. Place an “x” in the appropriate column.
#
Convergent
Divergent
Transform
#
Convergent
Divergent
Transform
1
15
2
16
3
70. Closer
Further
No Change
London (UK) & New York
Honolulu, Hawaii & Tokyo, Japan
Mecca, Saudi Arabia & Cairo, Egypt
New York & Mexico City
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil & Cape Town, South Africa
Honolulu Hawaii & Los Angeles
Cape Town, South Africa & Bombay, India
Los Angeles & San Francisco, California
Sydney, Australia & Bombay, India
71. 4.
5. Place an x in the appropriate column.
Boundary
Divergent
Convergent
Transform
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
72. 6.
Exercise 2 – Hot Spots
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Exercise 3 - The Age Distribution of Oceanic Crust
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
73. Page 2 of 4
GEO 101 The Solid Earth Page 1 of 8
Week 2 Lab
GEO 101 The Solid Earth
Week 2 – Plate Tectonics Lab (25 points)
Introduction
Plate tectonics is a set of related concepts that explains how the
Earth works – including where and
why earthquakes and volcanoes occur and how the continents
and oceans have changed over time.
Learning Outcomes
s tectonic plates by identifying
and locating plates (by name) and plate
boundaries (by type) on a map
the location of surface features such
as ridges, trenches, and volcanic arcs
r direction of plate motion based on distribution of plate
boundaries and types
data
motion
ceanic crust in relation to
74. tectonic features on the seafloor such as
ridges and trenches
crust and the age of the Earth
Exercise 1 – Plates and Plate Boundaries
1. Identify the tectonic plates on the map of plate boundaries
(page 2). Refer to the information in the
lecture slides or textbook. Record your answers in the answer
sheet by identifying each lettered
plate by its name.
2. Label each plate boundary as convergent, divergent, or
transform (again, referring to the lecture to
textbook) using arrows to indicate the relative motion of the
plates. Use the following key.
Record your answers on the answer sheet by identifying each
numbered plate boundary as
convergent (subduction zone or continental collision), divergent
(mid-ocean ridge or continental
rift), or transform by placing an “X” in the appropriate column
of the table.
75. Please note that the ocean ridge is segmented – broken into
sections where new ocean crust is made
at different rates. These sections are connected by short sections
of transform faults that allow the
seafloor to spread at different rates. The ocean ridge is
nonetheless divergent and not transform –
crust is neither made nor recycled at a truly transform boundary.
GEO 101 The Solid Earth Page 2 of 8
Week 2 Lab
Map of plates (letters A-N) and plate boundaries (numbers 1-
27).
GEO 101 The Solid Earth Page 3 of 8
Week 2 Lab
3. Based on the distribution of divergent and convergent plate
boundaries, indicate which of the
following locations are moving closer together, further apart or
show no change by placing an x in
the appropriate column.
change (they will both be moving in
the same direction at the same speed).
plate boundary lies between them.
76. plates are moving away from each
other as new crust is being produced, pulling the two cities
further apart.
are moving towards each other and
old crust is being destroyed, bringing the two cities closer
together.
need to look at the relative
directions of the plates to determine if the two cities are moving
closer or further apart.
Locations Closer Further No Change
London (UK) & New York
Honolulu, Hawaii & Tokyo, Japan
Mecca, Saudi Arabia & Cairo, Egypt
New York & Mexico City
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil & Cape Town, S. Africa
Honolulu, Hawaii & Los Angeles
Cape Town, S. Africa & Bombay, India
Los Angeles & San Francisco, California
Sydney, Australia & Bombay, India
Examine the figure and answer the questions
that follow. The patterned areas labeled X,
Y, and Z are continents; the rest of the map
is ocean.
4. How many plates are present? Hint: first
77. identify what geologic features mark the
boundaries between plates (separate
different plates).
5. Draw arrows on the map showing the
relative directions of plate motions.
Record your answers in the answer sheet
by indicating whether each numbered
boundary is convergent, divergent, or
transform.
6. Where is subduction taking place? Describe which plate(s)
are being subducted and by which other
plate by referring to the lettered continent it contains or the
numbered boundaries that surround it.
GEO 101 The Solid Earth Page 4 of 8
Week 2 Lab
Exercise 2 – Hot Spots
The volcanic rocks of the Hawaiian-
Emperor volcanic chain are all
younger than the surrounding oceanic
crust. This volcanic chain also defines
two linear trends (Figure 1). In 1963,
a geologist named J. Tuzo Wilson
suggested that this chain of volcanoes
78. formed as the Pacific Plate moved
over a stationary plume or hot mantle
rock, called a hot spot. Basalt magma
from the mantle plume ascended
through the oceanic crust forming the
island chain.
This is a testable hypothesis because if
this hypothesis is correct, then: 1) the
volcanoes should be progressively
older farther away from the current
location of the hot spot (the Kilauea
volcano); 2) this age-distance
relationship can be used to measure
the rate of movement (velocity) of the Pacific Plate; 3) the
trends of the Hawaiian-Emperor chain
should define the direction of movement of the Pacific Plate.
Procedure:
1. Plot the data in Table 1 (next page) on the graph paper
provided. The x-axis (horizontal axis) will
be age in millions of years and the y-axis (vertical axis) will be
distance from Kilauea in kilometers.
Choose a scale for the x and y axis so that the data fills most of
the page.
2. Label the axes (x = age in millions of years; y = distance
from Kilauea in kilometers).
3. Label the points for Kilauea, Brooks Bank, Gardner
Pinnacles, and Suiko with their names.
4. Using a straight edge, draw a best fit straight line for the data
between Kilauea and Brooks Bank.
Remember, a best fit line means that not all the points will be
on the line. Place your line so that an
79. approximately equal number of points fall on either side of the
line. A straight piece of (uncooked)
spaghetti works well for adjusting the fit of your line BEFORE
you draw it.
5. Draw a second best fit line for the data between Gardner
Pinnacles and Suiko.
6. Use your graph to answer the following questions on the
answer sheet.
If you prefer, you can graph the data using Microsoft Excel or a
similar program; the data is provided
as Excel and tab-delimited text files in the assignment materials
in Blackboard. Step-by step directions
for plotting the data in Excel are provided as separate
documents in the assignment materials (Excel
2003 and earlier for Windows XP, or Excel 2007 for Windows
7/Vista).
Map of the Hawaiian-Emperor chain.
GEO 101 The Solid Earth Page 5 of 8
Week 2 Lab
Table 1: Age and distance from Kilauea (along the chain) of
selected volcanoes from the Hawaiian-
Emperor Chain, obtained from Volcanism in Hawaii (Volume 1,
1987).
80. Volcano Name
Age in
millions
of years
(my)
Distance
from
Kilauea
(km)
Kilauea 0 0
Kohala 0.43 100
West Maui 1.3 221
West Molokai 1.9 280
Oahu 3.7 374
Kauai 5.1 519
Nihoa 7.2 780
Unnamed 9.2 913
Necker 10.3 1058
La Perouse Pinnacle 12 1209
Brooks Bank 13 1256
Gardner Pinnacles 12.3 1435
Laysan 19.9 1818
Pearl and Hermes Reef 20.6 2281
Midway 27.7 2432
Abbott 38.7 3280
Daikakuji 42.2 3493
Yuryaku 43.4 3520
Koko 48.1 3758
Jingu 55.4 4175
Nintoku 56.2 4452
Suiko 64.7 4860
81. GEO 101 The Solid Earth Page 6 of 8
Week 2 Lab
Graph Paper for Exercise 2 – Hot Spots
GEO 101 The Solid Earth Page 7 of 8
Week 2 Lab
Answer the following questions on the answer sheet.
7. What does this graph indicate about the general relationship
between age and distance from
Kilauea? In other words, how does age change with distance
from the hot spot?
8. Describe (in words) how the two lines differ in terms of
slope. What does this difference in slope
tell you about the motion of the Pacific Plate?
9. Using the data in Table 1, calculate the velocity of the
Pacific Plate in kilometers per million years
(km/my) while the portion of the Hawaiian hotspot track
between Kilauea and Brooks Bank was
formed. Remember, velocity is distance divided by time (in this
case, age expressed in millions of
82. years). First, determine the distance between Kilauea and
Brooks Bank. Then divide by the
difference in age between Kilauea and Brooks Bank.
10. Calculate the velocity of the Pacific Plate while Emperor
Seamounts were formed. First, find the
distance between Gardner Pinnacles and Suiko in Table 1. Then,
divide by the difference in age
between Gardner and Suiko.
11. Convert the plate velocity for each segment of the hotspot
track from km/my to centimeters per
year (cm/yr). To do this multiply your results by 0.1.
Kilauea-Brooks Bank (Q9):
Gardner- Suiko (Q10):
12. Compare the plate velocity between Kilauea and Brooks
Bank to the plate velocity between
Gardner and Suiko. Are the velocities the same? Or did the
plate speed up or slow down?
13. In map view, the Hawaiian-Emperor chain bends at
Daikakuji seamount where the Hawaiian and
Emperor chains meet. What does this bend represent?
14. What direction was the plate moving while the Emperor
Seamounts formed?
83. 15. What direction is the plate moving after the bend (and
currently), while the Hawaiian Ridge was
forming?
16. How long ago did the bend, or change in the direction of
motion of the Pacific Plate, occur? Hint:
Find Daikakuji in the table.
17. Compare the timing of the bend with the timing of the
velocity change. Which happened first, the
change in velocity or the change in plate motion?
GEO 101 The Solid Earth Page 8 of 8
Week 2 Lab
Exercise 3 - The Age Distribution of Oceanic Crust
Use this week’s lectures to answer the following questions.
18. Near what major geologic feature of the Earth’s surface is
older oceanic crust always located?
84. 19. What is the age of the oldest oceanic crust found on Earth?
20. How does this age compare with the oldest continental
rocks?
21. Assuming that the Earth is 4.6 billion years old, what
percentage of Earth history is recorded by the
rocks of the ocean basins? Hint: Determine the age of the
oldest rock in the ocean basins by
referring to the second figure in section 3.4.5 of the lecture.
Divide the age of the oldest oceanic
crust by the age of the earth to determine what fraction of
earth's history is recorded by the rocks
of the seafloor. Multiply the result by 100 to express your
answer as a percent.
22. Why are there no really “old” rocks found on the ocean
floor? Why are really old rocks only found
on the continents?