Kim

IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON

Department of Earth Science and Engineering
Centre for Petroleum Studies

Shallow Seismic Analysis

in Pagosa Springs, Colorado, USA

by Junghee Kim
A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the MSc

September 2012

DECLARATION OF OWN WORK

I declare that this thesis is entirely my own work and that where any material could be
construed as the work of others, this has been fully cited and referenced, and/or with
appropriate acknowledgement given.

Signature

Name of student Junghee Kim

Name of supervisor Dr. Adam Booth

Word Count 14744 words

ABSTRACT

In the Pagosa Springs, Colorado USA, students of Imperial College London and Colorado
School of Mines Geophysics Camp 2012 have performed geophysical analyses. Seismic
data, comprising P-wave and S-wave data acquired along two lines (North Line and Zen
Garden), were interpreted to analyse near surface geology for geotechnical and groundwater
purposes.

Refraction analyses were performed using gradient-intercept, reciprocal, time term inversion
and tomographic inversion methods to calculate the velocity and thickness of each
subsurface layer. The presence of significant refractor overlaps favoured reciprocal and time
term inversion methods as it allowed enough room for delay time window analysis to be
performed.

Results of each of these methods show a strong correlation in velocity and thickness values.
Output of the time term inversion was fed into the tomographic inversion as a starting model.
Convergence to a local minimum was reached after about 10 iterations, with an RMS error of
less than 10% in most cases.

Analyses of the results in the North Line and Zen Garden area show a slightly undulating
three layer near surface geology with a dip. Unconsolidated sediments with depth of about 2
m and properties that are consistent with shale were interpreted. The layer occupying a
depth between 2 m to around 15 m was interpreted to be water saturated sandstone. The
depth over 15 m seems like sandstone. However because the depth over 15 m is not
reachable with ray tracing path, it is not possible to sample beyond ~15 m with the hammer
seismic data.

By using the velocities acquired from tomographic inversion, datum static correction
(including refraction static correction) has been performed to the reflection data, after stack
and show improvement in terms of continuity of reflectivity. However, it suffers from
insensitivity due to its very shallow features.

Junghee Kim 1

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................ 1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................... 10
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 10
1.1 Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................. 12
2.0 Geological setting of Pagosa Springs, Colorado USA .............................................................. 12
CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................................. 15
3.0 Theory and Literature review .................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Refraction Seismic Method ....................................................................................................... 15
3.2 Time-Distance curves for layered media .................................................................................. 16
3.3 Hidden Layers, Velocity Inversions, and Blind Zones ............................................................. 20
3.4 Refraction Arrival picking and time adjustments ..................................................................... 22
3.5 Manual picking and automatic picking of traveltimes .............................................................. 22
3.6 Reciprocal Time Correlation ..................................................................................................... 23
3.7 Refraction Interpretation ........................................................................................................... 24
3.8 Gradient-Intercept method ........................................................................................................ 24
3.9 Delay-Time Concept ................................................................................................................. 24
3.10 Reciprocal Method ........................................................................................................................ 26
3.11 Term-time inversion.................................................................................................................. 31
3.12 Tomographic inversion method .................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER FOUR................................................................................................................................. 39
4.0 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 39
4.1 Data acquisition ........................................................................................................................ 40
4.3 Refraction Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 46
4.3.1 Basic refraction analysis in North Line.................................................................................... 46
4.3.1.1 Promax .................................................................................................................................. 46
4.3.1.2 Geometry assignment............................................................................................................ 46
4.3.1.3 Initial data analysis and quality control ................................................................................ 47
4.3.1.4 First Break Picking in Promax .............................................................................................. 47
4.3.1.5 Extraction to Matlab ............................................................................................................. 48
4.3.1.6 Gradient intercept method ..................................................................................................... 49

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4.3.2 Advanced refraction analysis (North Line) ............................................................................ 50
4.4.2.1 Seisimager ............................................................................................................................. 50
4.4.2.2 Initial data analysis and quality control ................................................................................ 50
4.4.2.3 Data Processing ..................................................................................................................... 50
4.4.2.4 Elevation importing. ............................................................................................................. 50
4.4.2.5 Amplitude Recovery ............................................................................................................. 51
4.4.2.6 Travel Time Pick and QC ..................................................................................................... 52
4.4.2.7 Reciprocal Time Check......................................................................................................... 52
4.4.2.8 First break picks of P-wave in North Line ............................................................................ 53
4.4.2.9 Advanced Seismic Refraction Analysis using Seisimager .................................................... 53
4.4.2.10 Layer assignment ................................................................................................................ 53
4.4.2.11 Reciprocal method .............................................................................................................. 54
4.4.2.12 Time term inversion ............................................................................................................ 55
4.4.2.13 Tomographic inversion ....................................................................................................... 56
4.3.3 Seismic Reflection Data Processing and Analysis in North Line ............................................ 60
4.3.3.1 Refraction Muting ................................................................................................................. 60
4.3.3.2 Bandpass Filtering ................................................................................................................ 62
4.3.3.3 Static Correction ................................................................................................................... 64
4.3.3.3.1 Elevation Statics Analysis in North line. ........................................................................... 65
4.3.3.3.2 Datum static correction from tomographic inversion of Seisimager in Promax: ............... 66
4.3.3.4 Stacking................................................................................................................................. 68
4.3.4 Comparison with the other methods (DC-resistivity) .............................................................. 71
4.3.4.1 DC Resistivity Survey........................................................................................................... 71
4.3.5 Advanced refraction analysis (Zen Garden ) ........................................................................... 73
4.3.5.1 First break picks of P-wave in Zen Garden........................................................................... 73
4.3.5.2 S-wave first break picking .................................................................................................... 74
4.3.5.3 Time-term inversion and Tomographic inversion in Zen Garden......................................... 76
4.3.6 Comparison with Ground Penetration Radar (GPR) ............................................................... 77
4.3.6.1 GPR (Ground Penetration Radar) ......................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER FIVE. ................................................................................................................................. 82
5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 82
5.1 Basic refraction analysis in North Line........................................................................................... 82
5.1.1Results from Gradient-Intercept method on the North line ...................................................... 82

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5.2 Advanced seismic refraction analysis in North Line ...................................................................... 86
5.2.1. Time Term Inversion .............................................................................................................. 86
5.2.2 Tomographic Inversion ............................................................................................................ 89
5.2.3 Reciprocal Method ................................................................................................................... 99
5.3 Statics analysis of P-wave data in North Line .............................................................................. 103
5.5.1 Elevation static correction from first break picks picked in Promax: .................................... 103
5.5.2 Datum statics from tomographic inversion . .......................................................................... 104
5.5.3 Application of static correction to the stack ........................................................................... 106
5.5.4 Comparison of the stack with results from refraction analysis. ............................................. 109
........................................................................................................................................................ 111
5.5.5 Comparison with the result of DC-resistivity survey in North line area. ............................... 112
5.4 Advanced refraction analysis in Zen Garden ................................................................................ 114
5.4.1 P-wave velocity model analysis in Zen Garden ..................................................................... 114
5.4.2 S-wave Velocity model from tomographic inversion in Zen Garden .................................... 119
5.4.3 Poison’s ratio analysis............................................................................................................ 121
5.4.4 Vp/Vs analysis ....................................................................................................................... 123
CHAPTER SIX. .................................................................................................................................. 125
6.0 Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................................................................... 125
References ........................................................................................................................................... 127
Appendix ............................................................................................................................................. 130

List of tables

Table 4-1 Summary of data acquisition in Pagosa Springs Colorado USA ........................................................... 42
Table 5-1 Depth model from basic refraction analysis ........................................................................................ 85
Table 5-2 Velocity model from basic refraction analysis ..................................................................................... 85
Table 5-3 Seismic Velocities of Earth Materials (Gary Mavko, 2005) .................................................................. 99
Table 5-4 P- to S-wave velocity and Poisson’s ratios calculated from P- and S-wave in Zen Garden ................ 121

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List of figures

Figure 1-1Seismic waves and the behaviour at interfaces .................................................................................... 10
Figure 2-1 Location of Pagosa Springs in entire map of United States of America. (Map is copyright Google
Earth) .................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 2-2 Areal Map of the Structures in the San Juan Basin with the area of Pagosa Springs outlined in red (
Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines Students of the geophysics field camp, 2012) .............. 13
Figure 2-3 Areal map with the Archuleta anticlinorium showing relations with the San Juan Basin and other
basin. ( Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines Students of the geophysics field camp, 2012) .. 14
Figure 3-1 Relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction ............................................................. 15
Figure 3-2 Source-to-receiver raypath of a refracted ray in a two-layer case. ..................................................... 16
Figure 3-3 Traveltime-offset curve for a horizontal interface two-layer case ...................................................... 17
Figure 3-4 Source-to-receiver raypath of a refracted ray in a three-layer horizontal case ................................... 18
Figure 3-5 Traveltime-offset curve for a horizontal interface three-layer case .................................................... 20
Figure 3-6 Hidden layer problem in refraction caused by a layer having insufficient thickness and velocity
contrast................................................................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 3-7 Blind layer problem in refraction caused mainly by a velocity inversion. ............................................ 22
Figure 3-8 Refraction picking options: t0 is the first break (first kick) time, t1 is the first arrival time through the
first inflection time, and t2 to t7 are the trough, zero crossing, and peak times (Cox, 1999) .............................. 23
Figure 3-9 Principle of the delay-time method ..................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3-10 Principle of reciprocal method ........................................................................................................... 26
Figure 3-11 Principle of reduced traveltimes ........................................................................................................ 28
Figure 3-12 Principle of time-term inversion (in case that the refractor is parallel to the ground surface) ......... 31
Figure 3-13 Principle of time-term inversion (in case that the refractor is non-parallel to the ground surface) .. 33
Figure 3-14 Process of depth calculation in time-term inversion.......................................................................... 34
Figure 3-15 Principle of tomographic inversion .................................................................................................... 35
Figure 4-1 Project work-flow ................................................................................................................................ 39
Figure 4-2 Data Acquisition work-flow ................................................................................................................. 40
Figure 4-3 hammer seismic showing different p-wave ray paths ......................................................................... 41
Figure 4-4 Data acquisitions of P-wave and S-wave ............................................................................................. 41
Figure 4-5 Elevation profile of survey area (North line) (information from GPS in Colorado field camp) ............. 43
Figure 4-6 Data conversion work-flow .................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 4-7 General Cross-section of Pagosa Springs showing location of North line and Zen Garden with
exaggerated vertical scale in larger detail. ........................................................................................................... 44
Figure 4-8 map of survey area (Map is copyright Google Earth) ......................................................................... 45
Figure 4-9 work-flow of basic refraction analysis in North Line........................................................................... 46
Figure 4-10 Geometry assignment screen of Common Depth Point (CDP) and Fold in Promax ........................... 47
Figure 4-11 Deciding what pick to make for the first arrivals, First Kick, Trough or Peak. ................................... 48
Figure 4-12 First break picking on first-kick in Promax ......................................................................................... 48
Figure 4-13 Gradient-intercept method graph ..................................................................................................... 49
Figure 4-14 work-flow of advanced refraction analysis in North Line .................................................................. 50
Figure 4-15 Original data before applying any form of gain. ............................................................................... 51
Figure 4-16 Data in figure 4-15 after amplitude correction, stretching. .............................................................. 51
Figure 4-17 Reciprocal test for two shots with significant refractor overlap. ....................................................... 52
Figure 4-18 Example of P-wave first break picking on first-kick ........................................................................... 53
Figure 4-19 Example of layer assignment ............................................................................................................. 54

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Figure 4-20 Example of reverse line forming with delay time line for reciprocal method .................................... 55
Figure 4-21 Example of Layered model from time-term inversion ....................................................................... 56
Figure 4-22 Process of Tomographic inversion ..................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4-23 Design of the number of layers for initial model ............................................................................... 58
Figure 4-24 Ray tracing path in tomographic inversion ....................................................................................... 59
Figure 4-25 work-flow of seismic reflection data processing and analysis in North Line ..................................... 60
Figure 4-26 Refraction muting in Promax. (left: before refraction muting, middle: applying refraction muting,
right : after refraction muting ) ............................................................................................................................ 61
Figure 4-27 Aliased reflectors of data in FK spectrum analysis ............................................................................ 62
Figure 4-28 Schematic drawing on cut range of Bandpass (frequency: 50 – 100 - 200 - 400 Hz)......................... 63
Figure 4-29 Bandpass filter application ( left: gather before applying bandpass, right: gather after applying
bandpass............................................................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 4-30 schematic geometry for elevation statics with data from first break picks on first-kick of Promax .. 65
Figure 4-31 schematic geometry for datum statics using data from tomographic inversion of Seisimager ........ 66
Figure 4-32 Screen showing difficulties on velocity picking in Promax ................................................................. 68
Figure 4-33 Schematic drawing showing possibility of use of constant velocity for Normal Move Out in short
offset ..................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Figure 4-34 Expected reflector through a look into gather in Promax ................................................................. 70
Figure 4-35 Reflector shown in Brute stack in Promax ......................................................................................... 70
Figure 4-36 work-flow of comparison of North Line with DC-resistivity ............................................................... 71
Figure 4-37 SP and inverted resistivity profiles of PAGO 02 (Imperial College London and Colorado School of
Mines Geophysics Field Camp, 2012).................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 4-38 North line area where North line hammer seismic survey line crossing with PAGO 02 DC resistivity
survey line (Map is copyright Google Earth) ......................................................................................................... 72
Figure 4-39 Work-flow of advanced refraction analysis in Zen Garden ................................................................ 73
Figure 4-40 Example of P-wave firstbreak picking on first-kick in Zen Garden ..................................................... 74
Figure 4-41 Example of the raw data of S-wave in Zen Garden ........................................................................... 75
Figure 4-42 Example of choosing bad trace of S-wave in Zen Garden .................................................................. 75
Figure 4-43 Example of S-wave firstbreak picking on first-kick in Zen Garden ..................................................... 76
Figure 4-44 Work-flow of comparison of Zen Garden with GPR ........................................................................... 77
Figure 4-45 GPR acquisition comprising of the radar components and the analogue interpretation of a radar
time section. Tx: Transmitter, Rx: Receiver (Redrawn from Imperial College London and Colorado School of
Figure 4-46 Barn 3 survey line ( red line: SW- NE ) cited from Google Map ........................................................ 79
Figure 4-47 General cross-section of Pagosa Springs showing the location of Barn 3 and Zen Garden. Vertical
scale has been exaggerated to show features in larger detail. (Imperial College London and Colorado School of
Figure 4-48 General cross-section of the location of GPR acquisition in data acquisition line of Barn 3. Vertical
scale has been exaggerated to show features in larger detail. (Imperial College London and Colorado School of
Figure 5-1 Depth model generated from picking firstbreak on the first pick in Promax ...................................... 82
Figure 5-2 Depth model generated from picking firstbreak on first kick in Promax ............................................ 83
Figure 5-3 Depth model generated from picking firstbreak on first trough in Promax ....................................... 83
Figure 5-4 Velocity model generated from picking firstbreak on the first pick in Promax ................................... 84
Figure 5-5 Velocity model generated from picking firstbreak on first kick in Promax .......................................... 84
Figure 5-6 Velocity model generated from picking firstbreak on the first trough in Promax ............................... 85

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Figure 5-7Connected Layer assignment of whole North line in Plotrefa TM of Seisimage ................................... 87
Figure 5-8 Layered model from time-term inversion of North line with smoothing effect (Smoothing passes: 3)
added in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager...................................................................................................................... 88
Figure 5-9 Principle of designing the number of layers for the initial model ........................................................ 89
Figure 5-10 the image of one move-up time term inversion result chosen for parameter tests for initial model in
North line in comparison with the whole North line time term inversion image in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager ... 91
Figure 5-11 images of one pattern time term inversion result chosen for parameter tests for initial model in
North line in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager ( (a) P-wave velocity 30 m/s – 3000 m/s, the number of layers 10 (b)
P-wave velocity 30 m/s – 3000 m/s, the number of layers 15 (c) P-wave velocity 30 m/s – 3000 m/s, the
number of layers 18 ............................................................................................................................................. 92
Figure 5-12 images of time term inversion result chosen for parameter tests for initial model in North line in
Plotrefa TM of Seisimager ((a) P-wave velocity 30 m/s – 1000 m/s, the number of layers 15 (b) P-wave
velocity 30 m/s – 3000 m/s, the number of layers 15 (c) P-wave velocity 30 m/s – 10000 m/s, the number of
layers 15 ) ............................................................................................................................................................. 93
Figure 5-13 The image of initial model in whole North line in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager ( calculated with
parameters of P-wave velocity 30 m/s – 3000 m/s, the number of layers 15 ...................................................... 95
Figure 5-14 Misfit between synthetic and observed travel time as a function of the iteration number. Observe
the lack of significant reduction in the travel time misfit after about 10 iterations. ............................................ 96
Figure 5-15 the image of P-wave velocity model from tomographic inversion in whole North line in Plotrefa TM
of Seisimager (value 10 was chosen for the number of iteration ) ....................................................................... 97
Figure 5-16 the image of Ray tracing path of P-wave velocity model from tomographic inversion in whole North
line in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager .......................................................................................................................... 98
Figure 5-17 an image of reciprocal method showing delay time line and reverse time line in one move-up of
North line in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager (delay times in both sides are calculated and averaged ) ................... 100
Figure 5-18 the image of P-wave velocity model generated by reciprocal method in one move-up of North line
in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager ( delay times in both sides are calculated and averaged ) ................................... 101
Figure 5-19 Comparison between images of P-wave velocity models generated by reciprocal method and time-
term inversion in one move-up of North line in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager (Note that both methods are
conducted in same position) ............................................................................................................................... 102
Figure 5-20 plots of Elevation static correction on P-wave obtained from first break pick on first kick in
Northline of receiver shown in Promax . ............................................................................................................. 103
Figure 5-21 plots of Elevation static correction on P-wave obtained from first break pick on first kick in Northline
of source shown in Promax . ............................................................................................................................... 103
Figure 5-22 Values of LVL Static ( refraction static), Elevation static correction of receiver and total datum static
correction shown in Promax . The values of elevation static correction and LVL static correction are added up to
find datum static correction. .............................................................................................................................. 104
Figure 5-23 plots of Datum static correction on P-wave obtained from tomographic inversion in North line of
receiver shown in Promax . ................................................................................................................................. 105
Figure 5-24 plots of Datum static correction on P-wave obtained from tomographic inversion in North line of
source shown in Promax . ................................................................................................................................... 105
Figure 5-25 the image of stack not applied with static correction (only bandpass applied : Bandpass frequency
range : 50 – 100 -200 -400 hz . ........................................................................................................................... 106
Figure 5-26 the image of stack applied with elevation static correction ( bandpass and elevation static
correction applied : Bandpass frequency range : 50 – 100 -200 -400 hz .) ......................................................... 107
Figure 5-27 the image of stack applied with Datum static correction ( bandpass and datum static correction
applied applied : Bandpass frequency range : 50 – 100 -200 -400 hz Here Datum static correction = LVL static

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correction ( Refraction static correction (LVL) .................................................................................................... 107
Figure 5-28 the image of stack ( only bandpass applied : Bandpass frequency range : 50 – 100 -200 -400 hz . 108
Figure 5-29 the image of stack applied with elevation static correction ( bandpass and elevation static
correction applied : Bandpass frequency range : 50 – 100 -200 -400 hz .) ......................................................... 108
Figure 5-30 the image of stack applied with datum static correction ( bandpass and datum static correction
applied applied : Bandpass frequency range : 50 – 100 -200 -400 hz Here datum static correction = LVL static
correction ( Refraction static correction )+ elevation static correction............................................................... 108
Figure 5-31 A possible fault by comparison between refraction processed image and reflection processed image
in North line. (a) image from time-term inversion (b) image from tomographic inversion (c) image from brute
stack applied with datum statics correction. ...................................................................................................... 110
Figure 5-32 A possible fault (F1) by comparison of the stack with superimposed and flattened refraction
processed image( from tomographic inversion) in North line ............................................................................ 111
Figure 5-33 A possible fault expected by result from DC-resistivity survey and Hammer seismic survey in North
Line area (The DC-resistivity model is fit to the PAGO02 pararelly, and the tomographic inversion image is fit to
the North line in parallel) DC-resistivity image is cited from Imperial College London and Colorado School of
Mines Geophysics Camp 2012. ........................................................................................................................... 113
Figure 5-34 the image of P-wave velocity model generated by time term inversion in Zen Garden in Plotrefa TM
of Seisimager ...................................................................................................................................................... 114
Figure 5-35 the image of P-wave velocity model from tomographic inversion in Zen Garden in Plotrefa TM of
Seisimager (value 10 was chosen for the number of iteration ) ......................................................................... 115
Figure 5-36 the image of Ray tracing path of P-wave velocity model from tomographic inversion in Zen Garden
in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager .............................................................................................................................. 116
Figure 5-37 Comparison of P-wave velocity model from tomographic inversion and subsurface model from basic
gradient intercept method done by Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines Geophysics Field
Camp, 2012 ( right Figure.- cited from Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines Geophysics Camp,
2012 (right Figure cited from Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines Geophysics Camp, 2012).
............................................................................................................................................................................ 117
Figure 5-38 the image of S-wave velocity model generated by time term inversion in Zen Garden in Plotrefa TM
of Seisimager ...................................................................................................................................................... 118
Figure 5-39 the image of S-wave velocity model from tomographic inversion in Zen Garden in Plotrefa TM of
Seisimager (value 10 was chosen for the number of iteration) .......................................................................... 118
Figure 5-40 the image of Ray tracing path of S-wave velocity model from tomographic inversion in Zen Garden
in Plotrefa TM of Seisimager .............................................................................................................................. 119
Figure 5-41 Comparison of shapes of P-wave data and S-wave data ................................................................ 120
Figure 5-42 Chart of Poisson’s ratio, Vp/Vs ratio and P-wave velocity (Redrawn from Thomas M. Brocher, 2005)
............................................................................................................................................................................ 122
Figure 5-43 Chart of Vp, Vp/Vs ratio and Porosity in Zen Garden ( Redrawn from E.R.(Ross) Grain, 2000) .... 123
Figure 5-44 (a) Seismic section at Barn 3 and (b) its interpretation related to the Dakota Sandstone. (Imperial
College London and Colorado School of Mines Geophysics Field Camp, 2012) .................................................. 124

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Dr. Adam Booth. I would like to express my special appreciation to him. He is my supervisor.
Without his guidance and supervision, the completion of this project would not be possible.

In addition, I would like to express special gratitude to Professor Helmut for his kind supports
and guidance throughout this entire course.

I also appreciate Faculty of Colorado School of Mines for the efforts that are made to acquire
these data from Pagosa Springs, Colorado, USA.

Sincere thanks to Mr Seth who was in charge of data acquisition in Pagosa Springs for his
kind support and guidance.

Special thanks to My sister, Mrs. In-hee Kim and his husband Mr. Isaac Choi, my parent,
Mrs. Sun-hee Kim, Mr. Hyun-dong Kim.

And I also thank Kenneth for his spiritual supports.

Junghee Kim 9

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Seismic surveys measure the earth’s elastic properties using seismic waves (Sheriff 2002).
The source of these disturbances can be controlled as in the case of exploration and
engineering seismology, or it can be uncontrolled as in the case of earthquake seismology.
(Dobrin 1976) The propagation is described by the elastic wave equation, which is derived
from two laws of physics, Hooke’s law and Newton’s second law of motion. (Dobrin 1976)
When an elastic wave propagates through a medium in the earth is reflected, refracted and
transmitted at an interface (Figure 1-1) (Dobrin 1976). The wave can also be diffracted
around discontinuities. (Dobrin 1976)

Figure 1-1 Seismic waves and the behaviour at interfaces (Dobrin 1976; Waters 1997)

There are two forms of seismology, reflection and refraction seismology (Jakubowicz 2012).
Refraction seismology involves the recording, processing and analysis of refracted seismic
energy and is mainly used for near surface studies. Reflection seismology involves
processing and analysing seismic reflected energy. Reflection surveys are mainly applied in
exploration for mining and hydrocarbon exploration (Dobrin 1976), and crustal studies
(Reading et al, 2011). Seismic experiments performed for near surface investigations are
referred as shallow seismic surveys. (Karastathis et al. 2007)

Shallow seismic studies are often applied to detect geologic structures in fault zones and to
find shallow, soft layers of underground earth materials especially in area of rapid

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urbanisation and heavy agriculture. (Karastathis et al. 2007)

Seismic refraction survey using a Hammer source was conducted along selected line across
Pagosa Springs, Colorado in June 2012. The aim was to perform near surface study and
characterisation of the hydrothermal activities in the area. Although Pagosa Springs in
Colorado is famous for the hydrothermal activities, these are still not well understood.
(Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines Geophysics Field Camp 2012)

In this project, near surface study and characterisation using refraction analysis of data
acquired at Pagosa Springs will be performed with a view to determining the depth of the
bedrock and the ground water, the lateral and vertical changes in lithology, the lithology type
and investigating the structural features such as micro faults.

1.1 Objectives

The aims of the near surface study in Pagosa Springs are as follows:

 To use P-wave and S-wave refraction methods to obtain velocity-depth models for
near-surface layering at Pagosa Springs.
 To combine P- and S-wave observations to quantify physical properties of near-
surface layering, and to propose lithology.
 To investigate the interpretation of P-wave refraction data as a reflection profile,
including a near-surface

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Geological setting of Pagosa Springs, Colorado USA

Pagosa Springs is located on the northeast edge of the San Juan Basin as seen in Figure 2-
2. ( Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines, geophysics filed camp 2012)
This is a large depositional basin concentrated in western New Mexico and Four Corners
region of the western United States (Fred 1982).The basin is bordered in the north by the
San Juan Mountains of southern Colorado, in the northeast by the Chama Basin, in the east
by the Nacimiento and San Pedro Uplifts, in the south by the Zuni Uplift and the Zuni
Mountains of New Mexico and in the west by the Defiance Uplift of eastern Arizona and
western New Mexico. The central basin with deepest sedimentary units is mainly located in
north western New Mexico and a small part of southern Colorado. (Fred 1982) Uplift of
mountain ranges almost prior to the Cambrian age and the transgression of multiple
seaways beginning in the late Cambrian age caused this basin to form. This is the reason
why the basin includes almost continuous column of sedimentary units beginning in the late
Cambrian and continuing until the glaciations and orogenies of the late Cenezoic. (Fred
1982). On the Archuleta anticlinorium, Pagosa Springs is located in the northeast edge of
this basin. (Fred 1982) The Archuleta anticlinorium is located in the edge of the San Juan
Basin starting from southern Colorado with a north- northwest trend, continuing into north
central Arizona. (Fred 1982) The region is located 15 miles west of the continental divide
with the San Juan River serving as the primary stream system because it flows from the
Divide to the Pacific Ocean to the Southwest. Its allochthonous folding over the underlying
basement is the most significant characteristics of this structure. (Fred 1982) A shallow
north-north western trending anticline through Pagosa Springs is produced by this. This
gives the 12000 ft of sedimentary units in the area, a dip of about 5-10˚ towards the San
Juan Mountains in the north eastern half of the anticlinorium and a similar dip towards the
basin on the south western half. (Fred 1982) To the north, the units merge with the
surrounding basins beneath the San Juan Mountains. (Fred 1982) However, to the south,
the units increase in dip when they move towards the main basin. (Fred 1982)

In the Pagosa Springs, Colorado USA, geophysical analyses have been performed by
students of Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines during the geophysical
summer camp 2012. Different geophysical experiments were performed in this area. One of
such was the refraction seismic method which is to analyse near surface geology of the area
for geotechnical and groundwater purposes.

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Figure 2-1 Location of Pagosa Springs in entire map of United States of America. (Map is copyright Google Earth)

Figure 2-2 Areal Map of the Structures in the San Juan Basin with the area of Pagosa Springs outlined in red (
Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines geophysics field camp 2012)

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Figure 2-3Areal map with the Archuleta anticlinorium showing relations with the San Juan Basin and other basin. (
Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines, geophysics field camp 2012)

Junghee Kim 14

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Theory and Literature review

3.1 Refraction Seismic Method

Refraction can be defined in terms of the change in direction of a seismic ray or wavefront at
an interface between layers of different velocities (Cox 1999). The relationship between the
angles of incidence and refraction at the interface (Figure 3-1) is governed by Snell’s law,
which is given as (Craig Lippus 2007):

(2.1)

Where , represent the angles of incidence and refraction and , represent the
velocities in the first and second layer respectively. (Craig Lippus 2007)

Figure 3-1Relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012)

When the angle of incidence is such that the refracted wavefront is perpendicular to the
interface ( ), it is referred to as critical angle of incidence ( ) and the refracted ray travels
along the interface between the two layers. Equation (2.1) is the then adjusted to the form
(Craig Lippus 2007)::

(2.2)

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The waves that travel to and along the interface between the two layers and return to the
surface through the upper layer are referred to as refraction waves, head waves, Mintrop
waves, or bow waves (Cox 1999).

3.2 Time-Distance curves for layered media

Figure 2.5 shows the raypath of a refracted ray from a source location at S to a receiver
location at R for a two-layer horizontal interface case. The total traveltime ( ) for this
raypath, having a source-to-receiver separation of x is given as the sum of the traveltime on
each of the three sections making up the path. (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012) i.e:

(2.3)

This implies that:

Rearranging the equation:

(2.4)

Figure 3-2 Source-to-receiver raypath of a refracted ray in a two-layer case (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012).

Using Snell’s law (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012)

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(2.5)

Finally we have:

(2.6)

Equation (2.5) represents a straight line with a slope of and an intercept of given by:

(2.7)

Figure 2.5 shows the traveltime graph representing the propagation of the refracted ray for a
two-layer horizontal case. From the graph we can calculate and use it to estimate to the
refractor z. (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012)

Figure 3-3Traveltime-offset curve for a horizontal interface two-layer case (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012)

From Equation (2.7), we have that (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012):

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(2.8)

Using equation 2.2 and some trigonometric properties, we have that (Jacob Fokkema and
Nafi Toksoz 2012) :

(2.9)

Figure 3-4 Source-to-receiver raypath of a refracted ray in a three-layer horizontal case (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi
Toksoz 2012)

For a three-layer case having a raypath diagram shown in figure 3-4, Equations (2.5 – 2.7)
can be extended following the same processes as above to yield the total traveltime as

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(Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012),

(2.10)

This again is a straight line equation with a slope of and an intercept of given as:

(2.11)

The depth of the first layer is calculated as before, while the thickness of the second layer is
given as:

(2.12)

Therefore,

(2.13)

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Figure 3-5 Traveltime-offset curve for a horizontal interface three-layer case (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012)

Figure 3-5 shows the traveltime curve for the three layer case from which we read the
intercept times and calculate the thicknesses of the various interfaces.

For a multilayer problem, Equation (2.14) is given by (Cox 2009)

(2.14)

Where

(2.15)

3.3 Hidden Layers, Velocity Inversions, and Blind Zones

In order to be detected in a first arrival refraction survey, a layer must satisfy two conditions:
(a) be underlain by a layer of higher velocity so that head waves are produced, and (b) have
a thickness and velocity such that the head waves become first arrivals at some range
(Kearey and Brooks, 2002). It is possible for layers to exist in the Earth, yet not produce any
refracted first-arrival waves, and a simple first arrival refraction survey will not be able to

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detect these layers if these conditions are not met. The possibility of undetected layers
should therefore be considered when interpreting refraction data. (Philip Kearey et al. 2002)

Figure 3-6 Hidden layer problem in refraction caused by a layer having insufficient thickness and velocity contrast
(Philip Kearey et al. 2002).

In practice, two different types of problem are shown: (1) Hidden layer, and (2) Blind zone.

A hidden layer, from its name, is one that cannot be detected by first arrival seismic
refraction method, and may be caused by insufficient thickness and velocity contrast of the
layer (Cox, 1999). The layer produces head waves, but does not give rise to first arrivals
(Kearey and Brooks, 2002). Rays travelling to deeper levels arrive before those critically
refracted at the top of the layer in question (Figure 3-6). In such a case, a method of survey
involving recognition of only first arrivals will fail to detect the layer. It is good practice to
examine the seismic traces for possible arrivals occurring behind the first arrivals. (Philip
Kearey et al. 2002)

A blind layer violates the first condition necessary for first arrival refraction experiment
detection by resulting from a low-velocity layer, as illustrated in Figure 3-7 (Kearey and
Brooks 2002). Rays are critically refracted at the top of such a layer and the layer will
therefore not give rise to head waves. The interpretation of travel-time curves, in the
presence of a low-velocity layer, leads to an overestimation of the depth to underlying
interfaces. (Philip Kearey et al. 2002)

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Figure 3-7 Blind layer problem in refraction caused mainly by a velocity inversion (Philip Kearey et al. 2002).

3.4 Refraction Arrival picking and time adjustments

The first step in the interpretation of a refraction experiment data is to review and pick the
arrival times (Cox 1999). While the review phase involves the initially analysis of the data to
be picked, the picking phase is concerned with the actual picking of traveltimes, which is
usually done either manually or automatically. Certain adjustments of reciprocal time are
also performed on the picked traveltimes before any form of interpretation is then carried out.
(Cox 1999)

3.5 Manual picking and automatic picking of traveltimes

Figure 2.10 shows a refraction arrival in which the various forms of picks (from first kick,
peak, trough) has been shown. Picking requires that we have a broadband signal, minimal
filtering of data, a good signal-to-noise ratio, and a high gain display (Cox 1999). First break
or kick (represented by t0 in Figure 3-8 ) is usually picked because a change in frequency
with offsets, receiver and source locations (usually common with land surveys) may cause a
shift relative to the first break. (Cox 1999)

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Figure 3-8 Refraction picking options: t0 is the first break (first kick) time, t1 is the first arrival time through the first
inflection time, and t2 to t7 are the trough, zero crossing, and peak times (Cox 1999)

In most settings, it is desirable in manual picking of travels times that the accuracy stays
within 1 or 2 ms for individual picks (Cox 1999).

In the presence of a large dataset the picking is usually automated. Automated picking works
well in a good signal-to-noise dataset, and the first arrivals are well defined. (Cox 1999)

3.6 Reciprocal Time Correlation

Regardless of the subsurface structure, seismic reciprocity condition between any two points
must be satisfied for the surface-consistent refracted travel times,(Hagedoorn 2006) i.e.:

(2.16)

This condition should be tested and corrected prior to performing any form of interpretation.
It is usually done by calculating the reciprocal time misfits between all pairs of shot locations
(Si and Sj) with reciprocal (reversed) recording (Hagedoorn 2006):

(2.17)

When the misfit ( ) is large, corrections are then applied to traveltime picks, though it is
advised that the picking be redone when possible (Hagedoorn 2006).

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3.7 Refraction Interpretation

In an area with simple planar refractors and the velocities in the overlying layers are laterally
invariant, any of Equations (2.4) to (2.17) can be used to determine the layer velocities and
their corresponding depths. However, in practice the geology is usually very complex and
special efforts are therefore required in refining these equations and in applying them
subsequently (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012).

Refraction interpretation methods are broadly divided into two approaches (Cox 1999):
Those in which the data are analysed at a common surface location and those in which the
data are analysed at a common subsurface location.

Inversion can also be used to interpret refraction data. Tomographic and time-term
inversions are the most common applied in practice.

3.8 Gradient-Intercept method

The gradient-intercept method (also called intercept method) is used as an interpretation
method when the geology is simple and planar. It uses the Equations derived above ((2.4) ~
2.17)), where the intercept time (zero offset time) is used to determine the refractor depth at
the source location (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012). (Figure 3-2).

3.9 Delay-Time Concept

In a complex subsurface where the interfaces are undulating and multi-layered, most of the
refraction-statics methods, such as the Plus-Minus and the Generalized Reciprocal methods
are based on the delay-time approximation of refracted travel times (Hagedoorn 2006) to
solve for the refraction statics. Consider a source located at point S and a receiver at point
R at the surface (Figure 2.4). In the delay-time approximation, the refractor is considered as
near-horizontal between the two points, and the distance between them is much greater than
the critical distance. (here, critical distance means the minimum distance from the energy
source at which the first critical refraction can be received (Jacob T. Fokkema and M.Nafi
Toksoz 2012). Generally, this implies that the velocity of the refractor (bedrock) is much
larger than that of the overburden.

Under these approximations, the travel-time from S to R can then be separated to the
source-side and receiver-side times (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012).:

(2.18)

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Figure 3-9 Principle of the delay-time method (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012).

Time can be represented as a sum of the travel time along the reflector and the “source
delay” time (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012).:

(2.19)

For source delay, , we therefore have (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012):

(2.20)

In a similar way, the receiver delay time is defined, and the total time from the source to the
receiver is (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012) :

(2.21)

This equation relates the velocity of the bedrock and the depth of the weathering layer to the
first-arrival travel times. This equation is further inverted to solve for the depths of the
weathering layer near the sources and receivers, and the velocity of the refractor (Jacob
Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012).

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3.10 Reciprocal Method

Concept of Delay time in Reciprocal Method is as Figure 3-10.

Figure 3-10 Principle of reciprocal method (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012).

Referring Equation (2.19) and Equation (2.20), if AC = BD, in this case, × 2 (because
in both sides) + (here x = ) (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012; Seisimager/2D
Manual 2005)..

(2.22)

But if it is different values,

Then,

(2.23)

Similarly,

(2.24)

And

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(2.25)

Delay time to in Reciprocal method

(2.26)

If substituting,

(2.27)

This is equal to,

(2.28)

In the Figure 3-10,

(2.29)

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Therefore,

(2.30)

Here, to is twice the time required for the seismic energy to travel from P to P’.

Delay time DT at point P is defined as below (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012;
Seisimager/2D Manual 2005).. .

(2.31)

Computation of reduced traveltime allows us to remove the effect of changing layer
thickness on the traveltim curve and give a better measurement of velocity. The delay time
and refractor depth are calculated (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012; Seisimager/2D
Manual 2005).. .

Figure 3-11 Principle of reduced traveltime (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005)

The reduced traveltime at point P for a source at A T’AP (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz

2012; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005)..

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(2.32)

This is same as

(2.33)

By rearranging,

(2.34)

Because

(2.35)

(2.36)

Therefore,

(2.37)

Assuming that the AC = BD,

(2.38)

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(2.39)

Because

(2.40)

Therefore,

(2.41)

(2.42)

Therefore, the depth in P point is decided as following (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz

2012; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005)..

(2.43)

Note that Equation (2.43) is same as (Jacob Fokkema and Nafi Toksoz 2012;

Seisimager/2D Manual 2005).

(2.44)

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3.11 Term-time inversion

A linear Least-Squares approach is used to define the time-term method. This is to
determine the best discrete-layer solution to the data (Takaya Iwasaki 2002; Seisimager/2D
Manual 2005).

Figure 3-12 Principle of time-term inversion (in case that the refractor is parallel to the ground surface) (Takaya
Iwasaki, 2002; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005). .

Slowness is defined as S which is inverse velocity (Takaya Iwasaki 2002; Seisimager/2D
Manual 2005). .

(2.45)

(2.46)

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From Snell’s Law,

(2.47)

Travel time definition in reciprocal method (in the assumption that the depths in both sides

are same)

(2.48)

If the total travel time = t from source to receiver, h = z, S1 = 1/V1, S2 = 1/V2

(2.49)

C is defined as follows,

(2.50)

Then

(2.51)

Z and S2 are not known

The example above has assumption that the refractor is parallel to the ground surface

If these are non-parallel, curved surfaces, there are three un-knowns Z1, Z3 and S2. (Takaya
Iwasaki 2002; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005). .

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Figure 3-13 Principle of time-term inversion (in case that the refractor is non-parallel to the ground surface) (Takaya
Iwasaki 2002; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005). .

Now,

(2.52)

Generalisation,

(2.53)

In matrix form,

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(2.54)

Where m = number of traveltimes, and n = number of receivers (Depths to be calculated).
So, Z1, Z2, ••• Zn and S2 are solved.

Figure 3-14 Process of depth calculation in time-term inversion

To make it clear, in Figure 3-14, the first source can have many cases of x values with
different t values. When the seismic ray is passing P1, many receivers can receive this ray.
By the travel times and x values, z1 is decided. The second source does same thing again
calculating z2 and it is repeated up to the last source calculating z3, z4, ··· zn. This is
··,
expressed as Equation (2.54).

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3.12 Tomographic inversion method

Jacob R. Sheehan et al. (2000) stated that tomographic inversion method is able to resolve
velocity gradients and lateral velocity changes and can be applied in settings where
conventional refraction techniques don’t work. For example, the method can be applied in
areas of compaction, karst, and fault zones.

Tomographic inversion requires an initial model because this inversion is non-linear problem.
Iteratively tracing rays through the model compares the calculated traveltimes to the
measured traveltimes. And it modifies the model and repeats the process until the misfit
between calculated and measured times is minimised. Therefore, the ultimate goal is to find
the minimum traveltime source and receiver for each source-receiver pair. By solving l
(raypath) and s (slowness: inverse velocity). Because both are unknowns, the problem is
under-constrained and an iterative, least-squares approach. (Non-linear problem) (Jacob R.
Sheehan et al. 2000 ; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005).

Figure 3-15 Principle of tomographic inversion (Jacob R. Sheehan et al. 2000 ; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005).

(2.55)

S= slowness

= velocity

lij = raypath

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(2.56)

Therefore,

(2.57)

Or

(2.58)

Following can be said.

● (2.59)
●

This can be expressed as

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(2.60)

This is the Least squares method. Generally, M > N

The conditions are required in the tomographic inversion.

First, Jacobian matrix requires ray-path.

Second, Ray-path cannot be calculated without a velocity model.

Third, cannot solve at once.

Fourth, must use non-linear Least Square method.

Iterative solution of a non-linear Least Squares matrix is as follows.

1) Theoretical value Yo (travel time) for initial value Xo (Slowness) is calculated.

(2.61)

2) Calculate residuals (∆Y) between theoretical value Yo and observed value Y.

(2.62)

3) Calculate correction value for X(∆Y) by the least squares method (Here, A = raypath)

(2.63)

4) Calculate new estimate for X1 ( there X1 = Xo + ∆X )
5) Put the X1 value back to the model.

(2.64)

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This process is repeated until the misfit is close to the minimum.

And with the X values (Slowness) and Y values (travel time), the depths of each point are
decided. (Jacob R. Sheehan et al. 2000; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005)

In the time-inversion and tomographic inversion, RMS error checking was performed for data
quality purpose.

Here Root-mean-square error

(2.65)

Here n is the number of layer, and Ei is the difference between the inverted and actual
velocities for the ith layer. (Khaled Al Dulaijan 2008)

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 METHODOLOGY

This section introduces the source of data acquisition, its preparation technique, data
processing and methods of analyses. Procedure of this project is as follows in Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1Project work-flow

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4.1 Data acquisition

Figure 4-2 Data Acquisition work-flow

The location of the North line in the Pagosa Springs, 2012 firstly was chosen for survey is
because according to geological study, this area is assumed to have anomalous features
such as fault, and dipping interfaces.(Imperial College London and Colorado School of
Mines Geophysics Field Camp 2012) On the location map of the North Line, P-wave seismic
refraction acquisition was performed. Secondly, the location of the Zen Garden was chosen
for survey because this area is very close to North line, the geological feature in this area is
assumed to be similar to the North line area. In addition, in the Zen Garden area, S-wave
seismic refraction acquisition, as well as P-wave seismic refraction acquisition has been
performed. The availability of S-wave and P-wave information allow us to calculate Poisson’s
ratio and Vp/Vs through which the rock properties, lithology, porosity and water spreading in
the area could be analysed.

In North Line, shot and receiver spacing were each 3 m, while the shot point was in same
position of receiver point. In Zen Garden, shot and receiver spacing were each 3m, while the
shot point was midway between two adjacent receivers and 24 geophones were deployed at
a time in each line making the maximum offset 70.5m. In Gen Garden the shot moves in
between the geophone spread, down to the end of the line resulting in a total of 24 shots.
In North Line, the shot moves in same position of geophone spread, down to the end of the
line resulting in a total of 24 shots. Then the setup is rolled along the line until the end of the
survey line is reached. The experiment was rolled seven times on the North Line, but done
just once on the Zen garden line.
P-waves were recorded in both the North line and the Zen garden using vertical geophones,
while an addition S-wave survey was carried out in the Zen garden, using horizontal
geophones (Figure 4-4).

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Figure 4-3 hammer seismic showing different p-wave ray paths

Figure 4-4 Data acquisitions of P-wave and S-wave

A summary of the acquisition set is shown in table 4-1.

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Table 4-1 Summary of data acquisition in Pagosa Springs Colorado USA(Imperial College London and Colorado
School of Mines Geophysics Field Camp 2012)

Zen Garden area is almost flat (elevation: about 2141 m) and the North line area has
topography as shown in Figure 4.5. (Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines
Geophysics Field Camp 2012) (Appendix. 6)

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Figure 4-5 Elevation profile of survey area (North line) (information from GPS in Colorado field camp)

4.2 Data conversion

Figure 4-6 Data conversion work-flow

When the data were acquired, the file format was SU file. To process the data, the SU
format file had to be converted to SEG-Y file and SEG-2 file.

Matlab was used to convert SU format files to SEG-Y for application in Promax for basic
analysis and reflection processing and SEG-2 format files for application in Seisimager for
advanced analysis. ( Mathworks 2012)

Promax and Seisimager will be explained later.

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Figure 4-7 General Cross-section of Pagosa Springs showing location of North line and Zen Garden with exaggerated vertical scale in larger detail. ( Imperial College London and
Colorado School of Mines Geophysics Field Camp 2012 )

In Figure 4-7, the blue arrow is directing the locations of North line and Zen Garden. (Imperial College London and Colorado School of Mines
Geophysics Field Camp 2012)

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Figure 4-8 map of survey area (Map is copyright Google Earth)

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4.3 Refraction Data Analysis

Refraction analysis basically involves the processing and interpretation of first for various
near surface parameter estimation.

4.3.1 Basic refraction analysis in North Line

Figure 4-9 work-flow of basic refraction analysis in North Line

4.3.1.1 Promax

SEG-Y format file is used for this process. With the hammer seismic data in Promax,
process of the first break picking is conducted.(Promax 1998) Based on the data obtained
from this process, Seismic refraction analysis has been performed further in matlab for the
basic analysis.

4.3.1.2 Geometry assignment

In this process, geometry information of shot spacing (3 m), receiver spacing (3 m) and
move-ups (patterns)(1 – 24, 25-48, 49 -72, 73 -96, 97 -120, 121 – 144, 145 -168)) have been
assigned.

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Figure 4-10 Geometry assignment screen of Common Depth Point (CDP) and Fold in Promax

The acquisition was done every move-up (pattern) separately. Once it was done, the line
was rolled up and spread out another line of another pattern. We repeated the process 7
times. That is why the fold versus CDP graph looks as 7 peaks.

Maximum fold of coverage in Land data (North Line) = The number of channels / (shot
interval/group interval) = 24 / (3/3) = 24 (Jakubowicz 2012)

4.3.1.3 Initial data analysis and quality control

The original seismic data are initially subjected to quality in other to look for bad shot
gathers. The following shot gather were discovered to be really and as such not suitable for
analysis and interpretation. In the initial stage, data were quality controlled for repeated
shots. They were subsequently removed from the dataset. (Appendix 5)

4.3.1.4 First Break Picking in Promax

First break picking is to detect or pick the onset arrivals of refracted signals from all the
signals received by the receiver and produced by a source generated. This is sometimes
called first break detection or first arrival picking. (Chugn-Kuang and Chu and Jerry Mendel
1994) In this project, first break picking has been done using Promax in each shot.

Picking first arrival is faced with the decision of what to pick, First Kick, Peak, or Trough
(Figure 3-9).

Junghee Kim 47

Figure 4-11 Deciding what pick to make for the first arrivals, First Kick, Trough or Peak.

Picks were made in this project by selecting first kicks first, peak and later trough.

In this project, to see the sensitivity by first break picking, first-kick, peak and trough of the
seismic have been picked and the results (Depth models and Velocity models) from the
different first-break picks have been compared.

Figure 4-12 First break picking on first-kick in Promax

4.3.1.5 Extraction to Matlab

The data of first break picks were extracted and loaded to Matlab for refraction analyses
(basic analysis: gradient -intercept method).

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4.3.1.6 Gradient intercept method

The gradient intercept method discussed in chapter was first used to interpret the picked
travel times. Because the travel time picks do not fall on a straight line, a line of best fit so-
called polyfit was used to approximate a straight line representing the picks in MATLAB
(Figure 4-13). The test of error between actual data and data from polyfit are measured in
Appendix 7.

Figure 4-13 Gradient-intercept method graph

The velocities of the first and second layers (and third layers in some case) are estimated
from the slopes of each segment of the plot. The thickness of each layer is also estimated
using the intercept formulae derived in chapter 3. These velocity and thickness values are
placed at the source position and interpolated with the other values at every source position.
The results will be in Chapter 5.

Junghee Kim 49

4.3.2 Advanced refraction analysis (North Line)

Figure 4-14 work-flow of advanced refraction analysis in North Line

4.4.2.1 Seisimager

SEG-2 format file is used for this process. Seisimager has two main modules. PickwinTM
and PlotrefaTM. PickwinTM helps to conduct first break picking and PlotrefaTM helps to
analyse the data. Seisimager is a tool for refraction analysis. (Seisimager Manual, 2005). In
this project, the Seisimager has been used.

4.4.2.2 Initial data analysis and quality control

The data loaded in Seisimager are checked and bad data are removed. The removed data
were equal to the data removed in Promax. Some data in Zen Garden especially S-wave
data had a lot of noise. Some trace did not have any information. Some traces were killed in
some cases and some traces were not applied with first break picks by skipping picking in
the trace. Bandpass was considered. However, by concluding the data given are ok with
first break picking because it can still showing the first break picks even though it is a lot
noisy deep down.

4.4.2.3 Data Processing

The data are uploaded to computer and Seisimager processes the seismic data. Using
function of PickwinTM, the first arrival times are picked. (Seisimager 2005)

Complete analysis process is as following steps. (Anne Obermann 2000)

4.4.2.4 Elevation importing.

The elevation data were imported to the Seisimager before processing for the North line
while for the Zen Garden, the area is regarded as flat area. The elevation was set as 2141 m
in Zen Garden. .

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4.4.2.5 Amplitude Recovery

The refraction data may have suffered from amplitude decay due to spherical divergence
and other factors. It is also possible that there have one or two dispersion phenomena in the
data. It is therefore, necessary that before making any pick on the data, some form of
conditioning (which includes amplitude recovery) should be made on the refraction data.

Figure 4-15 Original data before applying any form of gain.

Figure 4-15 shows the original data as acquired, without any kind of processing applied to it.
Obviously, picking on a dataset as this is not practical. The dataset is therefore corrected for
amplitude decay, stretched so as to display a few initial times, as we have no need for late
arrivals, and finally the amplitudes are clipped to avoid errors in the auto-picker. Figure 4-16
shows the corrected form of the same data as figure 4-15. First arrivals picking can now be
done on some data as Figure 4-16.

Figure 4-16 Data in figure 4-15 after amplitude correction, stretching.

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4.4.2.6 Travel Time Pick and QC

Having corrected for amplitude, first arrivals are then picked and interpreted.

4.4.2.7 Reciprocal Time Check

A basic principle of refraction seismic method is that time reciprocity is valid, i.e.
interchanging the source and the receiver positions does not change the arrival time of the
refraction events (Phillip Kearey et al. 2002).

The error in the reciprocal time is therefore used a QC test for the quality of picks made.
Errors greater than 5% of the traveltime suggests that the pick was bad and as such should
be repeated. Figure 4-17 shows a sample of a reciprocal time test made in this project.
Clearly the error is minimal and hence suggests that this pick is very good. The test is
performed for the entire line using sets of shots having significant refractor
overlap.(Appendix 8.)

Figure 4-17 Reciprocal test for two shots with significant refractor overlap.

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4.4.2.8 First break picks of P-wave in North Line

Figure 4-1 Example of P-wave first break picking on first-kick

The whole 7 move-ups have been first break picked and each move-up has been first break
picked individually. The first break picks of whole 7 move-ups are to show the whole seismic
refraction map and the individual first break picks are for showing individual seismic
refraction image of interesting area. At this time, the first break picks were picked at first kick
points (Note that the hammer seismic source is impulsive energy which is minimum phase.
So, first break picks would be the first energy that is detected.). The first break picks have
been picked every 3 shot.

4.4.2.9 Advanced Seismic Refraction Analysis using Seisimager

The travel times picked are interpreted using gradient, reciprocal method (a better
interpretation method with no assumption of plane interface), Inversions techniques (Time
term and tomographic).

4.4.2.10 Layer assignment

The seismic refraction methods such as reciprocal method, time-term inversion are using
the concept of delay time as discussed in chapter two. The processing software used
(Seisimager PlotRefra) relies on the user to assign layers on the travel time picks. Figure 4-
19 shows the layer assignment done for one example. It is worth noting that great care had
been taken in picking the travel times as the affect the results of any interpretation algorithm
strongly.

Junghee Kim 53

Figure 4-19 Example of layer assignment

4.4.2.11 Reciprocal method

According to Jocelyn Dufour and Darren Foltinek (2000), the reciprocal method (in other
words, delay time method) is developed to solve the time delays of reflection seismic data.
Based on the determination of the crossover point and reciprocity, the method is performed.

In this project, area of West to East distance 85 m to 144 m in North Line has been chosen
for this analysis since this method can analyse only reciprocal time window area which
should be chosen. The result is compared with result from the other methods in the North
Line.

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Figure 4-2 Example of reverse line forming with delay time line for reciprocal method

The pink line in Figure 4-20 is showing the reduced travel time line generated in Seisimager.
It calculates delay time. And optionally, the reverse delay time line is created and does same
process and averages the delay time values. With calculated V1 and V2 (when assigned), It
calculates depth in the each points (P1, P2, … Pn) within reciprocal window according to
Equation (2.44) and interpolates those.

The result will be shown in Chapter 5.

4.4.2.12 Time term inversion

Time-term inversion assumes that the subsurface is vertically stratified and does not
consider the lateral changes during inversion. The depth to the top of the underlying layers is
calculated based on points of first break picking. On the basis of the points assigned for
different layers, a layered model is generated. The depth is calculated and interpolated and
the layered model from the time term inversion is generated (Takaya Iwasaki 2002;
Seisimager/2D Manual 2005)..

In this project, with the values V1 and V2 calculated in Seisimager, depths of every point (P1,
P2,.., Pn) in Figure 4-20 are calculated by principle of Equation (2.54) and interpolated.
Same process is performed between 2nd layer and 3rd layer if there is 3rd layer.

Figure 4-21 shows one example of result of time-term inversion.

Junghee Kim 55

Figure 4-3 Example of Layered model from time-term inversion (from one move-up data of North Line)

4.4.2.13 Tomographic inversion

The tomographic inversion as discussed in chapter three, tries to match the acquired data by
iteratively adjusting a model until the misfit between the data created from this model and the
real data is below some acceptable level. The tomographic inversion performed in this
project uses an initial model generated from time term inversion (Jacob R. Sheehan et al.
2000 ; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005)..

Tomographic inversion method is fairly sensitive to the initial model. It was therefore
necessary that out results of time term inversion was good enough to start the tomographic
inversion. (Jacob R. Sheehan et al. 2000 ; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005).

Junghee Kim 56

Figure 4-4 Process of Tomographic inversion (from one move-up data of North Line)

Actual values of matrix To are calculated with layers designed for tomographic inversion.
The values of layer lengths get divided and become corresponding to the number of layers
designed manually to make initial model.

To make it clear, let’s assume the number of layers in time-term inversion was 3 and 6
layers are designed for tomographic inversion.

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Figure 4-23 Design of the number of layers for initial model

As seen Figure 4-23, number of elements in matrix of To became same number as T1 (From
3 layers to 6 layers) and it is applied to find ∆S. The number of elements in matrix of ∆S, S1,
S2, ….,Sn becomes same number as the number of layers manually designed for
tomographic inversion.

In this project, to find sensitivity of initial model by parameter (the number of layers, minimum
velocity and maximum velocity) set up was tested before tomographic inversion.

And at the point when ∆Y is almost “0” when RMS values do not decrease much anymore,
the number of iterations was checked. (note that RMS values are inversely proportional to
the number of iterations ) The chosen value of number of iterations is n for the tomographic
inversion.

Setting range of Minimum and maximum velocities were tested.

After tomographic inversion, ray tracing was performed to show the penetration of the rays
used in estimating the synthetic travel time data employed in the tomographic inversion
algorithm.

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Figure 4-24 Ray tracing path in tomographic inversion

Through ray tracing path, the reliability of the data with depth was checked. (note that it is
not possible to sample beyond depth not reachable with ray tracing path with the hammer
seismic data. (Jacob R. Sheehan et al. 2000 ; Seisimager/2D Manual 2005)

Junghee Kim 59

4.3.3 Seismic Reflection Data Processing and Analysis in North Line

Figure 4-25 work-flow of seismic reflection data processing and analysis in North Line

To generate stack that can be compared with image from refraction processing, basic
seismic reflection data processing has been performed in Promax.

SEG-Y file is used for this process. With the hammer seismic data in Promax, the seismic
reflection data processing is performed. Even though the seismic reaches very shallow, it
would be enough to prove the effect of static correction derived from refraction data in the
stack.

4.3.3.1 Refraction Muting

The direct arrival waves and refracted waves dominate data. The amplitudes related to those
events are high because they travel closely and are not attenuated. (Jakubowicz 2012)

In seismic reflection data processing, refraction and direct arrival are considered as a
coherent noise and removed. The refraction muting is applied to these data.

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Figure 4-26 Refraction muting in Promax. (left: before refraction muting, middle: applying refraction muting, right : after refraction muting )

Junghee Kim 61

4.3.3.2 Bandpass Filtering

Bandpass Filter is applied. Here bandpass filter(s) is a frequency filter(s) to each input trace
operated by the filter algorithm in the frequency domain (Steve H. Danbom, Ph.D., P.G. Rice
University ESCI 444). To find out the range of frequency of bandpass, the bandpass
parameter tests have been conducted.(note that the attempt to find out the range of
frequency of bandpass using the function of FK Spectrum Analysis did not work because in
the analysis window, the signal was highly aliased. This is assumed because the sampling
rate is too big. The reason of this assumption is because if KMax of data acquired with
hammer are not satisfied with Equation (3.1), the data are aliased.

(3.1)

Here KMax = Maximum frequency (hz)

∆x = sampling rate (s)

(Jakubowicz 2012)

The sampling rate was checked in Promax. It was 2.5 ms. The Nyquist Frequency is 1/ 2.5
×1000 = 400 hz. The data acquired with hammer must have higher maximum frequency than
this.

Figure 4-27 Aliased reflectors of data in FK spectrum analysis

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Figure 4-5 Schematic drawing on cut range of Bandpass (frequency: 50 – 100 - 200 - 400 Hz)

The parameter test was performed. The ranges of frequencies are illustrated in Appendix 9.

The bandpass range of 50-100-200-400 was giving the best result keeping reflector the most
and removing the ground roll the most. So this value was chosen.

By applying bandpass with frequency range 50-100-200-400, the ground roll was
successfully removed and reflector existing in the data seems to reveal.

Junghee Kim 63

Figure 4-6 Bandpass filter application ( left: gather before applying bandpass, right: gather after applying bandpass

4.3.3.3 Static Correction

In this project, the final datum was set as 2259 m and replacement velocity was set at 1700
m/s in this project. The final datum 2259 m was chosen with the height around 10 m higher
than the highest elevation. The replacement velocity 1700 m/s was chosen with the average
velocity value of weathering layer.

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4.3.3.3.1 Elevation Statics Analysis in North line.

Figure 4-70 schematic geometry for elevation statics with data from first break picks on first-kick of Promax

Elevation static correction is calculated as:

(3.2)

(Khaled Al Dulaijan 2008)

In this project, the base of weathering was calculated in Promax with the first break picks on
first-kick. And the elevation statics have been calculated based on the value, final datum
value and replacement velocity.

Junghee Kim 65

4.3.3.3.2 Datum static correction from tomographic inversion of Seisimager in Promax:

Figure 4-8 schematic geometry for datum statics using data from tomographic inversion of Seisimager

tLVL is calculated as:

(3.3)


The elevation static correction is calculated as:

(3.4)


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The Datum static correction tDatum = tLVL + tE

Therefore,

(3.5)


In tomographic inversion’s case, h = h0 + h1 + h2 + h3 + • • • • + hn

1, 2, 3, 4 • • • • • n
The h and a values were at different every each shot because those have different number
of layers. The data calculated from tomographic inversion are in Appendix 10 and 11.

With the data from tomographic inversion, the LVL statics (refraction statics), elevation
statics and Datum statics has been calculated.

Datum statics correction (Elevation statics + refraction statics) is performed in Promax. The
values of the number of layers, thickness and velocity were extracted from results of
tomographic inversion in Seisimager. Through the values, the LVL (refraction statics) and
elevation statics were calculated and datum statics have been calculated. By inputting and
applying the datum statics values in Promax, the datum statics correction has been done.

The result applied with this datum statics correction was compared with the result not
applied with the statics correction and applied with the elevation statics correction by a
model from first break picks in Promax. The results will be shown in Chapter 5.

Junghee Kim 67

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