This document provides background information for a teacher study investigating how instruction in phonemic awareness affects decoding skills in readers with dyslexia. It begins with an introduction outlining the problem, purpose, and research question of the study. It then reviews related literature on phonemic awareness and decoding. Phonemic awareness is established as important for reading acquisition, and instruction should include activities to teach sound manipulation. Decoding relies on applying letter-sound knowledge to read words. The document discusses theories of reading development and challenges faced by students with dyslexia.
The document discusses a study that examines the influence of teaching sight words and phonics simultaneously on improving reading comprehension for Iranian elementary EFL learners, with a focus on gender. The study involved 180 students who took a pre-test, with 120 then receiving instruction using both sight words and phonics over 10 sessions. The experimental group showed improved reading skills compared to the control group on the post-test. The study also found no significant difference in outcomes between male and female students who received the combined instruction approach. The findings suggest that a simultaneous approach to teaching sight words and phonics can effectively support and improve reading comprehension for elementary EFL learners.
This study examined the relationship between phonological awareness and reading ability among 105 primary school students in Solwezi, Zambia who use Kiikaonde as their language of instruction. The study found a positive relationship between students' phonological awareness and their reading ability. Specifically, higher levels of phonological awareness facilitated stronger reading development, and higher reading skills improved students' phonological awareness. Additionally, the study revealed that sound isolation, blending, and substitution were the components of phonological awareness being taught in schools through largely teacher-centered instructional strategies.
A lack of reading limits one’s quality of life (Bradford, Shippen, Alberto, Houschins, & Flores, 2006) and yet only 1 in 5 students with intellectual disabilities reaches minimal literacy levels (Katims, 2001). Slow development of reading skills may affect more than just one academic subject but may also delay language acquisition, general knowledge, vocabulary, and even social acceptance.
However, “Literacy and reading instruction for students with significant intellectual disabilities is in its infancy….there is a dearth of information regarding complete instructional programs that might help these children learn to read and write” (Erickson et al., 2009, p. 132).
The document discusses Response to Intervention (RTI) programs in FUSD. It notes that RTI is an evidence-based intervention system that identifies struggling students, closes knowledge gaps, and brings students to grade level. The document then provides statistics showing that many students struggle with reading and the consequences of illiteracy like unemployment and incarceration. It emphasizes that learning to read begins before school and discusses research showing reading trajectories are established early, with low readers tending to fall further behind if not given support. The rest of the document discusses components of reading like phonemic awareness, decoding, fluency, and the importance of out-of-school reading practice. It frames RTI as a way to change trajectories for struggling readers through
The Effect of Vocabulary Knowledge on EFL Oral Competenceiosrjce
This document summarizes a study on the effect of vocabulary knowledge on EFL oral competence. The study surveyed 40 EFL teachers and 200 Moroccan high school students to understand their perceptions of students' speaking abilities and the role of vocabulary. Key findings included:
1) Both teachers and students identified vocabulary deficiency as the main factor limiting students' ability to speak English fluently.
2) Results from questionnaires and interviews showed that students struggled with not knowing how to convey meanings and not being able to find the exact English words they wanted.
3) Teachers also perceived speech anxiety and lack of vocabulary as major reasons for students' lack of fluency in speaking.
4) The study suggests that providing vocabulary
This document describes a school-wide literacy strategy to improve oral reading fluency for English language learners using a Response to Intervention (RtI) model. It proposes implementing a poetry performance where students read poems aloud individually and in groups. The performance aims to increase students' prosody, or ability to read with expression, through repeated practice. Benchmark assessments will monitor students' fluency progress and identify those needing additional support.
The purpose of this study was to identify the psychological factors involved in oral communication of ESL students. The research aimed to uncover the psychological barriers like learner’s self-esteem and self-opinions in oral competency of ESL students at graduate level. The investigation was carried out at Bahawalpur, Pakistan. This research was reported on a survey study and used a questionnaire for the students and interview format for the teachers as tools to investigate the issue. The interview was taken from forty highly experienced ESL/EFL teachers; and for questionnaire almost 100 students from each college were selected, total 498 ESL students participated in this research. The data provided through interview from teacher was analyzed qualitatively and the data from the students was analyzed through SPSS and Microsoft Excel. The following conclusion was drawn from the data collected from this investigation: Psychological factors affect student’s oral competency. This investigation has proved informative implications and suggested a variety of strategies for learners to cope with second language anxiety and for teachers to recognize and handle the learner’s fears.
The document discusses a study that examines the influence of teaching sight words and phonics simultaneously on improving reading comprehension for Iranian elementary EFL learners, with a focus on gender. The study involved 180 students who took a pre-test, with 120 then receiving instruction using both sight words and phonics over 10 sessions. The experimental group showed improved reading skills compared to the control group on the post-test. The study also found no significant difference in outcomes between male and female students who received the combined instruction approach. The findings suggest that a simultaneous approach to teaching sight words and phonics can effectively support and improve reading comprehension for elementary EFL learners.
This study examined the relationship between phonological awareness and reading ability among 105 primary school students in Solwezi, Zambia who use Kiikaonde as their language of instruction. The study found a positive relationship between students' phonological awareness and their reading ability. Specifically, higher levels of phonological awareness facilitated stronger reading development, and higher reading skills improved students' phonological awareness. Additionally, the study revealed that sound isolation, blending, and substitution were the components of phonological awareness being taught in schools through largely teacher-centered instructional strategies.
A lack of reading limits one’s quality of life (Bradford, Shippen, Alberto, Houschins, & Flores, 2006) and yet only 1 in 5 students with intellectual disabilities reaches minimal literacy levels (Katims, 2001). Slow development of reading skills may affect more than just one academic subject but may also delay language acquisition, general knowledge, vocabulary, and even social acceptance.
However, “Literacy and reading instruction for students with significant intellectual disabilities is in its infancy….there is a dearth of information regarding complete instructional programs that might help these children learn to read and write” (Erickson et al., 2009, p. 132).
The document discusses Response to Intervention (RTI) programs in FUSD. It notes that RTI is an evidence-based intervention system that identifies struggling students, closes knowledge gaps, and brings students to grade level. The document then provides statistics showing that many students struggle with reading and the consequences of illiteracy like unemployment and incarceration. It emphasizes that learning to read begins before school and discusses research showing reading trajectories are established early, with low readers tending to fall further behind if not given support. The rest of the document discusses components of reading like phonemic awareness, decoding, fluency, and the importance of out-of-school reading practice. It frames RTI as a way to change trajectories for struggling readers through
The Effect of Vocabulary Knowledge on EFL Oral Competenceiosrjce
This document summarizes a study on the effect of vocabulary knowledge on EFL oral competence. The study surveyed 40 EFL teachers and 200 Moroccan high school students to understand their perceptions of students' speaking abilities and the role of vocabulary. Key findings included:
1) Both teachers and students identified vocabulary deficiency as the main factor limiting students' ability to speak English fluently.
2) Results from questionnaires and interviews showed that students struggled with not knowing how to convey meanings and not being able to find the exact English words they wanted.
3) Teachers also perceived speech anxiety and lack of vocabulary as major reasons for students' lack of fluency in speaking.
4) The study suggests that providing vocabulary
This document describes a school-wide literacy strategy to improve oral reading fluency for English language learners using a Response to Intervention (RtI) model. It proposes implementing a poetry performance where students read poems aloud individually and in groups. The performance aims to increase students' prosody, or ability to read with expression, through repeated practice. Benchmark assessments will monitor students' fluency progress and identify those needing additional support.
The purpose of this study was to identify the psychological factors involved in oral communication of ESL students. The research aimed to uncover the psychological barriers like learner’s self-esteem and self-opinions in oral competency of ESL students at graduate level. The investigation was carried out at Bahawalpur, Pakistan. This research was reported on a survey study and used a questionnaire for the students and interview format for the teachers as tools to investigate the issue. The interview was taken from forty highly experienced ESL/EFL teachers; and for questionnaire almost 100 students from each college were selected, total 498 ESL students participated in this research. The data provided through interview from teacher was analyzed qualitatively and the data from the students was analyzed through SPSS and Microsoft Excel. The following conclusion was drawn from the data collected from this investigation: Psychological factors affect student’s oral competency. This investigation has proved informative implications and suggested a variety of strategies for learners to cope with second language anxiety and for teachers to recognize and handle the learner’s fears.
This study examined the effects of language teaching strategies in Amhara region, Ethiopia on children’s phonemic awareness reading performance. To this end, one hundred and two grade one children of two intact sections (n=50) and (n=52) were selected and participated as experimental and control groups, respectively. The research employed quasi-experimental pre- and post-test research design that aimed at examining the effects of reading strategies in children’s phonemic awareness performance. Besides, the researchers collected data through non-participant observation and teacher self-reflection reports. To analyze children’s phonemic awareness, paired samples t-test was computed using pre- and post-test scores of the children. To analyze the qualitative data, researchers employed narratives based on categories formed considering the basic themes of the research questions of this paper. Findings indicated that phonemic awareness reading strategies used in Amhara region could improve children’s phonemic awareness performance. Furthermore, observation and teachers’ reflections showed that there were positive results on the application of the strategies in improving children’s phonemic awareness. Eventually, recommendations and implications for further research were suggested.
Hefner, Erica - Ch 6 Specific Learning Disabilities (2)Erica Hefner
1. The document provides information about specific learning disabilities, including the federal definition, prevalence, causes, and characteristics. It describes difficulties with oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skills, reading fluency, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, and problem solving.
2. It discusses educational considerations like cognitive training, instructional approaches, direct instruction, task analysis, peer tutoring/PALS, and service delivery models. Assessment of progress may include CBM, informal assessment, and testing accommodations.
3. Early intervention includes screening tools for identifying children with risks in areas like letter naming fluency, phoneme segmentation fluency, oral reading fluency, written expression, spelling, and math. Transition
This document discusses different types of reading disabilities including dyslexia, hyperlexia, and alexia. Dyslexia is a learning disability affecting decoding, comprehension, and fluency. Hyperlexia is a superability in reading beyond one's age and IQ. Alexia is acquired dyslexia from brain damage. Decoding difficulties are at the root of most reading disabilities. Signs include issues with sounding out words and reading fluency. Comprehension and retention problems also impact reading ability. The document provides information to design remedial reading programs tailored for specific disabilities.
This document summarizes a study that examines anxiety levels related to speaking English as a second language among male and female business students in Malaysia. The study aims to identify potential sources of language anxiety and whether gender differences impact anxiety levels. A literature review discusses previous research on language anxiety and how it can be experienced both generally as a trait and situationally in response to specific contexts. The study uses questionnaires to collect qualitative data from 150 business students on their experiences with second language anxiety and speaking English in public.
HOW WOULD OUR STUDENTS LIKE TO BE CORRECTED? : A STUDY ON LEARNERS’ BELIEFS A...Eko Purwanti
This study aims at finding out whether learners with different English proficiency backgrounds respond differently to corrective feedbacks (CFs) and what kind of CFs are acceptable for them. This study was conducted using a qualitative method with a semi-structured interview and learning journals as the instruments to collect the data. Six students were involved in this study, two of them were high achievers, two were medium achievers, and the other two were low achievers. The findings showed that all participants in this study believed that they needed CFs from their lecturers and they were confident that CFs was very significant to improve their English competence. This study revealed that although most of the participants were alright to receive CFs immediately after they made mistakes, they would do differently if they became teachers. They would wait until their students finish talking before they give CFs or they would do it at the end of the class. The results confirmed that they preferred CFs which were accurate, appreciative, motivating and make them feel comfortable. Finally, this current study also points out that the way how lecturers give feedbacks has to consider the type of mistakes.
Blackwell Handbooks of Developmenal Psychology Erika Hoff Marilyn Shatz (edit...Imbang Jaya Trenggana
This document provides an overview of the development of the field of language development over the past century. It notes that early research focused on descriptive accounts of language acquisition, while more recent work has examined claims about language-specific predispositions and influences on language learning. The field now investigates topics including brain development, computational skills, cross-linguistic comparisons, bilingualism, and education, as reflected in the chapters of this Handbook.
1) The document discusses the importance of developing English proficiency and communicative competence for students in the Philippines to be competitive globally. It specifically focuses on developing listening skills through examining student reception strategies in the classroom.
2) It notes that listening is an important but often overlooked aspect of communication that provides insights into a receiver's comprehension. The study aims to identify reception strategies used by students to better understand their needs.
3) The researcher hopes the study will help develop a program to improve students' skills in eliciting input, asking questions, and requesting clarification during classroom discussions.
Effects of Phonological Awareness Among ESL LearnersMuhammad Zulkafli
1. The study examined the effects of a phonological awareness program on improving the English reading ability of adult students at Universiti Utara Malaysia.
2. Five students participated in a pre-test, two-week phonological awareness intervention program focusing on international phonetic alphabets, and post-test.
3. The results found that all students improved their reading time on the post-test, with time reductions ranging from 0.99% to 16.45%. This supports the hypothesis that phonological awareness can improve adult reading ability.
Giving a voice to dyslexic adult students who speak English as a second languageThe Free School
This research paper aims to give post-secondary students with dyslexia a “voice” (Fuller et al., 2004, p. 459) in the academic domain. I offer a self-reflexive account of what I am
discovering about a learning disability termed “dyslexia” from teaching ‘Hiro’ as a private subject tutor. This paper has been peer reviewed by the University of Tasmania, Faculty of Education.
The document discusses research on the effects of age on second language acquisition. Studies have found that learners who begin acquiring a second language at a younger age tend to achieve higher levels of proficiency, especially in terms of pronunciation and grammar. Younger learners in naturalistic learning environments often reach near-native levels of ability, whereas older learners show less overall control of the target language. While the process of acquisition appears similar for children and adults, age may have a more significant effect on pronunciation development than grammar.
This document provides an overview of a study that aims to improve the English vocabulary of low proficiency Malaysian vocational students through the use of songs. The study will use a quasi-experimental design with pre- and post-tests to evaluate changes in students' vocabulary sizes and oral production abilities before and after a series of 9 English lesson plans that incorporate popular songs. The conceptual framework is based on theories of second language acquisition including Krashen's Input Hypothesis and Zone of Proximal Development. The study hopes to benefit students, teachers, and the education system by exploring the impact of using songs to develop vocabulary and communication skills.
The IMPACT of ANXIETY in DIMINISHING EFL STUDENTS'S PARTICIPATION in ORAL PER...uzairahmohdali
This chapter discusses speaking skill and factors related to developing speaking ability. It defines speaking and outlines key criteria for selecting speaking tasks, including productivity, purposefulness, interactivity, challenge, safety, and authenticity. It also examines types of speaking tasks like role plays, information gap activities, free discussions, and storytelling. The chapter explores characteristics that enhance speaking such as fluency, accuracy, vocabulary, and pronunciation. It analyzes student psychological problems and barriers to oral English teaching. Finally, it recommends error correction techniques and concludes that addressing affective factors is important for improving EFL learners' speaking skills.
Diminishing Speaking anxiety in English classroomuzairahmohdali
This document presents the research proposal of Uzairah Binti Mohd Ali to study diminishing communication apprehension among semester one students at Kolej Poly-Tech Mara Ipoh through group work activities. The study aims to identify factors causing students' poor communication skills, determine if psychological and socio-cultural factors lead to English communication anxiety, and suggest ways to enhance students' self-esteem through group work. The research will use questionnaires to identify students' attitudes and factors affecting communication barriers, and observation to analyze if group work reduces anxiety. Results will be analyzed using SPSS to calculate means, percentages and number of anxious students.
This document discusses language anxiety, which is a type of anxiety experienced specifically in language learning contexts. It defines language anxiety and distinguishes between three types: trait anxiety, state anxiety, and situation-specific anxiety. Trait anxiety is a relatively stable personality characteristic, while state anxiety is a transient response to a particular situation. Situation-specific anxiety is related to apprehension caused by specific events like exams or presentations. The document also examines causes of language anxiety and ways it can be measured, such as through the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale questionnaire.
The document discusses the role of phonics instruction in learning to read. It summarizes that phonemic awareness, the ability to segment words into individual sounds, is critical for reading success. However, many students enter school without strong phonemic awareness. The document contrasts explicit phonics instruction, which directly teaches letter-sound correspondences, versus implicit or "embedded" phonics, which expects students to induce phonics patterns on their own. Research shows explicit phonics instruction is more effective, especially for struggling readers. The "whole language" approach of only using phonics incidentally in stories is insufficient for many students.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the perceptions of good and poor Malay speakers of Arabic regarding the importance of Arabic speaking skills, the required level of skills, and prerequisites for becoming a good speaker. Interviews with 14 Malay learners found that most saw speaking skills as important for language learning outcomes and careers. Opinions varied on whether learners should achieve an advanced or standard level of skills. Key prerequisites identified included self-confidence, determination, vocabulary, and opportunities to practice speaking Arabic. The study provided insights into learners' beliefs that can help teachers design more effective instruction.
Factors influencing english as-a-second-language educationRosa Lee
The document discusses factors that influence the acquisition of English as a second language. It analyzes how age of starting English education, experience attending English-only kindergartens, and attitude towards learning English can impact a learner's proficiency in English grammar. The study found initial age, time in English kindergarten, and positive attitude were correlated with stronger grammar skills, while other factors like years or frequency of English classes did not significantly influence acquisition.
EFFECTIVE FLUENCY STRATEGIES
Student Name
University Name
Date
Instructor Name
Five critical components:
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics
Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension strategies
Identifying words accurately and fluently
Constructing meaning once words are identified
Research indicates that students need to acquire skills and knowledge in at least five main areas in order to become proficient readers
The National Account Panel (in accordance with the No Child Left Behind Act) completed all-encompassing analysis to determine the a lot of able way to advise acceptance how to read. The research revealed that if the afterward 5 apparatus are finer taught, they lead to the accomplished adventitious of account success (known as the 5 pillars of reading): phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.
2
PHONEMIC AWARENESS—The knowledge and manipulation of sounds in spoken words.
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT—The knowledge of words, their definitions, and context.
READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES—The understanding of meaning in text.
PHONICS—The relationship between written and spoken letters and sounds.
READING FLUENCY, INCLUDING ORAL READING SKILLS—The ability to read with accuracy, and with appropriate rate, expression, and phrasing.
In five components, first one is phonemic awareness that defines the knowledge and manipulation of sounds in spoken words. Through the phonics, the relationship between written and spoken letters and sounds are cleared. By the oral reading skills, the ability to read with accuracy, and with appropriate speed, expression, and phrasing is included. The knowledge of words, their definitions and context are included in the vocabulary development. The understanding of the meaning in text is cleared through the reading comprehension strategies.
3
What is reading fluency?
Accuracy in reading words correctly.
Reading not too fast and not too slow.
Expressions with feeling.
Follow most or all the punctuation marks.
Sounds like talking.
Fluency has natural phrasing and intonation .
Fluency in reading is including accuracy, rate, expression, and punctuation. Accuracy-Accuracy in reading words correctly. Rate-Reading not too fast and not too slow. Expressions-Expressions with feeling, fluency has natural phrasing and intonation . Punctuation - Follow most or all the punctuation marks. Sounds like talking.
4
Strategies for Developing Reading Fluency
Model Fluent Reading
Do Repeated Readings in Class
Promote Phrased Reading in Class
Enlist Tutors to Help Out
Enlist Tutors to Help Out
Try a Reader's Theater in Class
In order to read fluently, students must first hear and understand what fluent reading sounds like. From there, they will be more likely to transfer those experiences into their own reading. Repeated readings as a way to help students recognize high-frequency words more easily, thereby strengthening their ease of reading. Having students practice readin ...
Phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension are the five essential components of an effective, comprehensive reading program. A variety of print-based and online instructional resources and strategies can be used to teach these components in small group or individual sessions from pre-kindergarten through high school. Formative and summative assessments including DIBELS, DRP, PALS, and curriculum-based measures provide data to monitor student progress, identify areas of difficulty, and adjust instruction accordingly.
Morphological awareness is the ability to consciously analyze and manipulate the morphemic structure of words. It develops throughout childhood and helps with decoding words and understanding their meanings. Research shows that morphological awareness is related to reading skills from 1st grade and continues to predict reading ability even after controlling for other factors like vocabulary and phonological awareness. Promoting morphological awareness through activities like analyzing word roots and suffixes can help students become independent learners and improve reading comprehension.
This study examined the effects of language teaching strategies in Amhara region, Ethiopia on children’s phonemic awareness reading performance. To this end, one hundred and two grade one children of two intact sections (n=50) and (n=52) were selected and participated as experimental and control groups, respectively. The research employed quasi-experimental pre- and post-test research design that aimed at examining the effects of reading strategies in children’s phonemic awareness performance. Besides, the researchers collected data through non-participant observation and teacher self-reflection reports. To analyze children’s phonemic awareness, paired samples t-test was computed using pre- and post-test scores of the children. To analyze the qualitative data, researchers employed narratives based on categories formed considering the basic themes of the research questions of this paper. Findings indicated that phonemic awareness reading strategies used in Amhara region could improve children’s phonemic awareness performance. Furthermore, observation and teachers’ reflections showed that there were positive results on the application of the strategies in improving children’s phonemic awareness. Eventually, recommendations and implications for further research were suggested.
Hefner, Erica - Ch 6 Specific Learning Disabilities (2)Erica Hefner
1. The document provides information about specific learning disabilities, including the federal definition, prevalence, causes, and characteristics. It describes difficulties with oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skills, reading fluency, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, and problem solving.
2. It discusses educational considerations like cognitive training, instructional approaches, direct instruction, task analysis, peer tutoring/PALS, and service delivery models. Assessment of progress may include CBM, informal assessment, and testing accommodations.
3. Early intervention includes screening tools for identifying children with risks in areas like letter naming fluency, phoneme segmentation fluency, oral reading fluency, written expression, spelling, and math. Transition
This document discusses different types of reading disabilities including dyslexia, hyperlexia, and alexia. Dyslexia is a learning disability affecting decoding, comprehension, and fluency. Hyperlexia is a superability in reading beyond one's age and IQ. Alexia is acquired dyslexia from brain damage. Decoding difficulties are at the root of most reading disabilities. Signs include issues with sounding out words and reading fluency. Comprehension and retention problems also impact reading ability. The document provides information to design remedial reading programs tailored for specific disabilities.
This document summarizes a study that examines anxiety levels related to speaking English as a second language among male and female business students in Malaysia. The study aims to identify potential sources of language anxiety and whether gender differences impact anxiety levels. A literature review discusses previous research on language anxiety and how it can be experienced both generally as a trait and situationally in response to specific contexts. The study uses questionnaires to collect qualitative data from 150 business students on their experiences with second language anxiety and speaking English in public.
HOW WOULD OUR STUDENTS LIKE TO BE CORRECTED? : A STUDY ON LEARNERS’ BELIEFS A...Eko Purwanti
This study aims at finding out whether learners with different English proficiency backgrounds respond differently to corrective feedbacks (CFs) and what kind of CFs are acceptable for them. This study was conducted using a qualitative method with a semi-structured interview and learning journals as the instruments to collect the data. Six students were involved in this study, two of them were high achievers, two were medium achievers, and the other two were low achievers. The findings showed that all participants in this study believed that they needed CFs from their lecturers and they were confident that CFs was very significant to improve their English competence. This study revealed that although most of the participants were alright to receive CFs immediately after they made mistakes, they would do differently if they became teachers. They would wait until their students finish talking before they give CFs or they would do it at the end of the class. The results confirmed that they preferred CFs which were accurate, appreciative, motivating and make them feel comfortable. Finally, this current study also points out that the way how lecturers give feedbacks has to consider the type of mistakes.
Blackwell Handbooks of Developmenal Psychology Erika Hoff Marilyn Shatz (edit...Imbang Jaya Trenggana
This document provides an overview of the development of the field of language development over the past century. It notes that early research focused on descriptive accounts of language acquisition, while more recent work has examined claims about language-specific predispositions and influences on language learning. The field now investigates topics including brain development, computational skills, cross-linguistic comparisons, bilingualism, and education, as reflected in the chapters of this Handbook.
1) The document discusses the importance of developing English proficiency and communicative competence for students in the Philippines to be competitive globally. It specifically focuses on developing listening skills through examining student reception strategies in the classroom.
2) It notes that listening is an important but often overlooked aspect of communication that provides insights into a receiver's comprehension. The study aims to identify reception strategies used by students to better understand their needs.
3) The researcher hopes the study will help develop a program to improve students' skills in eliciting input, asking questions, and requesting clarification during classroom discussions.
Effects of Phonological Awareness Among ESL LearnersMuhammad Zulkafli
1. The study examined the effects of a phonological awareness program on improving the English reading ability of adult students at Universiti Utara Malaysia.
2. Five students participated in a pre-test, two-week phonological awareness intervention program focusing on international phonetic alphabets, and post-test.
3. The results found that all students improved their reading time on the post-test, with time reductions ranging from 0.99% to 16.45%. This supports the hypothesis that phonological awareness can improve adult reading ability.
Giving a voice to dyslexic adult students who speak English as a second languageThe Free School
This research paper aims to give post-secondary students with dyslexia a “voice” (Fuller et al., 2004, p. 459) in the academic domain. I offer a self-reflexive account of what I am
discovering about a learning disability termed “dyslexia” from teaching ‘Hiro’ as a private subject tutor. This paper has been peer reviewed by the University of Tasmania, Faculty of Education.
The document discusses research on the effects of age on second language acquisition. Studies have found that learners who begin acquiring a second language at a younger age tend to achieve higher levels of proficiency, especially in terms of pronunciation and grammar. Younger learners in naturalistic learning environments often reach near-native levels of ability, whereas older learners show less overall control of the target language. While the process of acquisition appears similar for children and adults, age may have a more significant effect on pronunciation development than grammar.
This document provides an overview of a study that aims to improve the English vocabulary of low proficiency Malaysian vocational students through the use of songs. The study will use a quasi-experimental design with pre- and post-tests to evaluate changes in students' vocabulary sizes and oral production abilities before and after a series of 9 English lesson plans that incorporate popular songs. The conceptual framework is based on theories of second language acquisition including Krashen's Input Hypothesis and Zone of Proximal Development. The study hopes to benefit students, teachers, and the education system by exploring the impact of using songs to develop vocabulary and communication skills.
The IMPACT of ANXIETY in DIMINISHING EFL STUDENTS'S PARTICIPATION in ORAL PER...uzairahmohdali
This chapter discusses speaking skill and factors related to developing speaking ability. It defines speaking and outlines key criteria for selecting speaking tasks, including productivity, purposefulness, interactivity, challenge, safety, and authenticity. It also examines types of speaking tasks like role plays, information gap activities, free discussions, and storytelling. The chapter explores characteristics that enhance speaking such as fluency, accuracy, vocabulary, and pronunciation. It analyzes student psychological problems and barriers to oral English teaching. Finally, it recommends error correction techniques and concludes that addressing affective factors is important for improving EFL learners' speaking skills.
Diminishing Speaking anxiety in English classroomuzairahmohdali
This document presents the research proposal of Uzairah Binti Mohd Ali to study diminishing communication apprehension among semester one students at Kolej Poly-Tech Mara Ipoh through group work activities. The study aims to identify factors causing students' poor communication skills, determine if psychological and socio-cultural factors lead to English communication anxiety, and suggest ways to enhance students' self-esteem through group work. The research will use questionnaires to identify students' attitudes and factors affecting communication barriers, and observation to analyze if group work reduces anxiety. Results will be analyzed using SPSS to calculate means, percentages and number of anxious students.
This document discusses language anxiety, which is a type of anxiety experienced specifically in language learning contexts. It defines language anxiety and distinguishes between three types: trait anxiety, state anxiety, and situation-specific anxiety. Trait anxiety is a relatively stable personality characteristic, while state anxiety is a transient response to a particular situation. Situation-specific anxiety is related to apprehension caused by specific events like exams or presentations. The document also examines causes of language anxiety and ways it can be measured, such as through the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale questionnaire.
The document discusses the role of phonics instruction in learning to read. It summarizes that phonemic awareness, the ability to segment words into individual sounds, is critical for reading success. However, many students enter school without strong phonemic awareness. The document contrasts explicit phonics instruction, which directly teaches letter-sound correspondences, versus implicit or "embedded" phonics, which expects students to induce phonics patterns on their own. Research shows explicit phonics instruction is more effective, especially for struggling readers. The "whole language" approach of only using phonics incidentally in stories is insufficient for many students.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the perceptions of good and poor Malay speakers of Arabic regarding the importance of Arabic speaking skills, the required level of skills, and prerequisites for becoming a good speaker. Interviews with 14 Malay learners found that most saw speaking skills as important for language learning outcomes and careers. Opinions varied on whether learners should achieve an advanced or standard level of skills. Key prerequisites identified included self-confidence, determination, vocabulary, and opportunities to practice speaking Arabic. The study provided insights into learners' beliefs that can help teachers design more effective instruction.
Factors influencing english as-a-second-language educationRosa Lee
The document discusses factors that influence the acquisition of English as a second language. It analyzes how age of starting English education, experience attending English-only kindergartens, and attitude towards learning English can impact a learner's proficiency in English grammar. The study found initial age, time in English kindergarten, and positive attitude were correlated with stronger grammar skills, while other factors like years or frequency of English classes did not significantly influence acquisition.
EFFECTIVE FLUENCY STRATEGIES
Student Name
University Name
Date
Instructor Name
Five critical components:
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics
Fluency
Vocabulary
Comprehension strategies
Identifying words accurately and fluently
Constructing meaning once words are identified
Research indicates that students need to acquire skills and knowledge in at least five main areas in order to become proficient readers
The National Account Panel (in accordance with the No Child Left Behind Act) completed all-encompassing analysis to determine the a lot of able way to advise acceptance how to read. The research revealed that if the afterward 5 apparatus are finer taught, they lead to the accomplished adventitious of account success (known as the 5 pillars of reading): phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.
2
PHONEMIC AWARENESS—The knowledge and manipulation of sounds in spoken words.
VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT—The knowledge of words, their definitions, and context.
READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES—The understanding of meaning in text.
PHONICS—The relationship between written and spoken letters and sounds.
READING FLUENCY, INCLUDING ORAL READING SKILLS—The ability to read with accuracy, and with appropriate rate, expression, and phrasing.
In five components, first one is phonemic awareness that defines the knowledge and manipulation of sounds in spoken words. Through the phonics, the relationship between written and spoken letters and sounds are cleared. By the oral reading skills, the ability to read with accuracy, and with appropriate speed, expression, and phrasing is included. The knowledge of words, their definitions and context are included in the vocabulary development. The understanding of the meaning in text is cleared through the reading comprehension strategies.
3
What is reading fluency?
Accuracy in reading words correctly.
Reading not too fast and not too slow.
Expressions with feeling.
Follow most or all the punctuation marks.
Sounds like talking.
Fluency has natural phrasing and intonation .
Fluency in reading is including accuracy, rate, expression, and punctuation. Accuracy-Accuracy in reading words correctly. Rate-Reading not too fast and not too slow. Expressions-Expressions with feeling, fluency has natural phrasing and intonation . Punctuation - Follow most or all the punctuation marks. Sounds like talking.
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Strategies for Developing Reading Fluency
Model Fluent Reading
Do Repeated Readings in Class
Promote Phrased Reading in Class
Enlist Tutors to Help Out
Enlist Tutors to Help Out
Try a Reader's Theater in Class
In order to read fluently, students must first hear and understand what fluent reading sounds like. From there, they will be more likely to transfer those experiences into their own reading. Repeated readings as a way to help students recognize high-frequency words more easily, thereby strengthening their ease of reading. Having students practice readin ...
Phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension are the five essential components of an effective, comprehensive reading program. A variety of print-based and online instructional resources and strategies can be used to teach these components in small group or individual sessions from pre-kindergarten through high school. Formative and summative assessments including DIBELS, DRP, PALS, and curriculum-based measures provide data to monitor student progress, identify areas of difficulty, and adjust instruction accordingly.
Morphological awareness is the ability to consciously analyze and manipulate the morphemic structure of words. It develops throughout childhood and helps with decoding words and understanding their meanings. Research shows that morphological awareness is related to reading skills from 1st grade and continues to predict reading ability even after controlling for other factors like vocabulary and phonological awareness. Promoting morphological awareness through activities like analyzing word roots and suffixes can help students become independent learners and improve reading comprehension.
This document discusses reading comprehension for children with hearing impairments. It explains that reading comprehension involves decoding text, making connections, and deep thinking. Students with hearing loss often struggle with literacy skills like comprehension due to missing auditory information. Vocabulary, phonology, syntax, and lack of language exposure can negatively impact their comprehension. The document provides strategies to develop comprehension for these students, such as using sign language, visual aids, building vocabulary, and testing understanding.
This document provides an introduction and literature review on reading comprehension of various text types (narrative, descriptive, expository, argumentative) in children with and without hearing impairments in inclusive schools. It outlines the objectives to ascertain achievement in reading comprehension of each text type and compare achievement across groups. It proposes that narrative and descriptive texts will be most beneficial for hearing impaired children and describes the methodology which will use a researcher-made test tool and t-test analysis on two groups of 7th grade students from Mumbai inclusive schools. The significance of the study is to help enhance reading comprehension for hearing impaired children.
The document summarizes a literacy workshop that covered the key components of reading instruction including phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. It discussed challenges some students face learning to read and strategies to help struggling readers, such as direct instruction in skills they have not acquired. It also covered the writing process and elements of an effective literacy block in the classroom.
Vocabulary instruction is important for reading comprehension. Students need to learn an average of 2,000-3,000 new words per year. Direct vocabulary instruction should include defining words, using them in contexts, and having multiple exposures. Indirect instruction like wide reading is also important. The gap in vocabulary knowledge between strong and weak readers grows over time. Effective instruction includes promoting word consciousness, pre-teaching words before reading, and using strategies like context clues.
Indianapolis Public Schools Orton-Gillingham PilotJamey Peavler
The document summarizes an Orton-Gillingham pilot reading program implemented in two Indianapolis elementary schools. It found that the core reading program was not meeting the needs of most students and more intensive interventions were needed. A diagnostic assessment revealed specific gaps in phonics skills. The pilot program provided teacher training in Orton-Gillingham and multisensory instruction, developed daily phonics lessons, and offered coaching support. Results showed significant growth on DIBELS assessments from the beginning to middle of the year, with many kindergarten students already meeting end of year benchmarks. The program enhanced phonics instruction and helped reduce the number of students needing additional interventions.
This document discusses a study aimed at improving reading fluency among Year 2 pupils in Malaysia. It identifies that the pupils have difficulties pronouncing words with the phonemes /a/ and /u/ accurately due to confusion between English and Malay pronunciation. The study will examine the effectiveness of a "Phonic Race" game-based strategy in developing phonetic awareness and pronunciation. Specifically, it aims to identify the most problematic phoneme, and determine if Phonic Race can improve phonetic awareness and pronunciation. The target group are 12 Year 2 pupils with varying English proficiency levels.
This document discusses reading difficulties among learners. It begins by defining reading disorders as major impairments in comprehension, speech, or reading accuracy that interfere with academic or daily performance. Common characteristics of reading difficulties include challenges with word identification, comprehension, spelling, and slow reading. The document then examines factors that can cause reading compression difficulties, such as learning disabilities, attention issues, lack of vocabulary, and lack of interest. Finally, it discusses the impact of reading difficulties, including poor academic performance, low self-esteem, and potential school drop-out.
Reading difficulties & disabilities power pointRiama Sianturi
This document provides a summary of a PowerPoint presentation on teaching students with reading difficulties and disabilities. The presentation covers key topics in reading instruction including oral language, phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, comprehension, and fluency. It describes the relationship between these topics and learning to read. Strategies are provided for teaching each area, such as using visuals and linking new vocabulary to prior knowledge. The presentation emphasizes the importance of explicit instruction in all areas of reading. It also outlines a framework for assessment and intervention planning for struggling readers.
Components of effective reading instruction.pptxEnKhi1
The document discusses the key components of effective reading instruction:
1. It identifies the five essential components as phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.
2. It provides details on phonemic awareness, including definitions, its importance for reading, and how to teach it effectively.
3. It also discusses phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension - outlining what each component involves and its significance for developing reading skills.
This document provides information about phonemic awareness and its importance in learning to read. Some key points:
- Over 8 million students struggle with reading in grades 4-12, and 3000 students drop out daily. Poor readers are 20 times more likely to drop out than top students.
- Phonemic awareness, the ability to hear and manipulate sounds in words, is the strongest predictor of reading success. Instruction helps all students learn to read and spell.
- Activities should progress from larger to smaller linguistic units (syllables to phonemes) and connect sounds to letters. Assessments measure students' progress in phonemic awareness.
- Resources include videos on phonics instruction and a website that can enhance
- Over 8 million students in grades 4-12 struggle with reading. High school dropout rates are high, with only 70% graduating on time. Struggling readers are 20 times more likely to dropout than top students.
- Lack of phonemic awareness, the ability to understand how spoken words are represented in print, is a strong predictor of difficulty learning to read. Phonemic awareness instruction helps all students learn to read and spell.
- Effective phonemic awareness activities involve students in understanding sounds in words and connecting letters to sounds. Such instruction should be developmentally sequenced and integrated into daily language arts lessons with a clear focus on linguistic units.
- Over 8 million students in grades 4-12 struggle with reading. High school dropout rates are high, with only 70% graduating on time. Struggling readers are 20 times more likely to dropout than top students.
- Lack of phonemic awareness, the ability to understand how spoken words are represented in print, is a strong predictor of difficulty learning to read. Phonemic awareness instruction helps all students learn to read and spell.
- Effective phonemic awareness activities involve sounds in words, help make the connection between letters and sounds, and can be expanded to include print when students are ready. Such instruction provides an essential foundation for reading.
The document discusses the stages of reading development from emergent literacy to advanced reading. It describes the key characteristics of each stage, including how children develop phonemic awareness, knowledge of the alphabetic system, decoding and encoding skills, fluency and comprehension. The corresponding stages of spelling development are also addressed at each reading stage. Suggested instructional approaches that support reading at each level are provided.
The document discusses the five essential components of reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. It provides key strategies to teach each component, such as talking to kids to develop phonemic awareness and reading practice to build fluency. The document also discusses theoretical models of reading, factors that affect reading development, and the developmental stages of reading in children from birth through high school.
Somehow, information are substantial. we just have one reference but somehow helpful. Thanks! Comments for any questions and suggestions for future references.
1. 1
Kari Hoffman
ISED 797
How does instruction in phonemic awareness affect decoding skills in readers with dyslexia?
Dr. Helen Hyun
December 8, 2015
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Table of Contents
Problem and Purpose of the Study …………………………………………………………….. 3
Background and Review of Related Literature………………………………………………….. 5
Procedures …………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
Expected Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations ……………………………………… 17
References ……………………………………………………………………………………... 19
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Problem and Purpose of the Study
Over the last thirty years, there has been extensive research on how typical and struggling
readers acquire reading skills. Due to the fact that I teach first grade in a specialized school for
students with language-based learning differences, particularlydyslexia, Iam interested in gaining a
better understanding of reading acquisition. This teacher study will investigatethe affect instruction
in phonemic awareness has on decoding skills in students with dyslexia.
Phonemic awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate phonemes in spoken
words. This includes the understanding that spoken words and syllables are made up of sequences
of speech sounds (Yopp, 1992). Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound in words, which make a
difference in meaning. Instruction in phonemic awareness would include activities aimed to teach a
reader that words are made up of phonemes. These phonemes or individual sounds can be
segmented, blended and manipulated to make new words. When preparing instruction, the aspects
of phonemic awareness to be considered include: grapheme phoneme relationships and phoneme
isolation, deletion, counting, blending and segmentation (Yopp, 1988). Instruction should guide
students in repetitive, structured practice with these phonemic skills.
Decoding is the ability to apply knowledge of grapheme phoneme relationships and
knowledge of letter patterns to correctly pronounce written words. Children who understand these
relationships have the ability to quickly recognize familiar words and to figure out words they
haven’t seen before. When reading a new or unfamiliar word, a reader decodes the word by
segmenting the sounds or phonemes, which correlate which each individual symbol or grapheme
and blending the sounds together to read the word.
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is characterized by difficulties with accurate and
fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding. Developmental dyslexia is characterized
by an unexpected difficulty in reading in children and adults who otherwise possess the intelligence,
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motivation, and schooling considered necessary for accurate and fluent reading (Shaywitz, 1998). A
deficit in phonological processing impairs the ability to decode and identify meaning from written
word (Shaywitz, 1996). Deficits in the phonological component of language are thought to be the
cause of these difficulties, and these deficits are not consistent when compared with other cognitive
abilities. Compared to typically developing readers, students with dyslexia have more difficulty
learning to read words and acquiring sight word vocabulary due to limited knowledge of decoding
and analogizing strategies (Ehri & McCormack, 1998). This deficit in decoding poses a challenge for
gaining meaning from text.
In this teacher study, I plan to implement instruction in phonemic awareness with two
students with dyslexia and monitor their process in decoding. The students in this study will be two
students from my first grade classroom who have been diagnosed with a specific learning disability
in reading. I will administer instruction in phonemic awareness four days a week for twenty minutes
each session. The progress monitoring tool I will use will be from the Wilson Fundations language
program, which I use to teach reading and writing in class. This progress monitoring tool will assess
the students’ abilities to decode written real words and nonsense words and their ability to segment
sounds in a word read aloud. Based on prior research on the phonological nature of dyslexia, my
assumption is that instruction in phonemic awareness will positively affect decoding skillsin
students with dyslexia.
In terms of ethical considerations, Iwill protect my students’ identity by using pseudonyms
to ensure confidentiality and that any documents copied in the appendix do not show names, birth
dates, addresses, or any other personal information. All of the data will be stored in a personal
computer with password protection or in a locked file in the office which is monitored by office
staff. Only I and my instructional coach will have access to scores and data for each student.
Parents will be informed of all procedures and attempts to protect student confidentiality.
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Additionally, the information found in this study will not be related in the students’ school
performance reports. Parental consent will be acquired before conducting the study with students,
and the parents have the right to withdraw at any time as research is voluntary in nature.
I have chosen to do this teacher study because many studies on the topic focus on students
who are typical readers and students with various learning differences. I would like to learn the
effect that additional instruction in phonemic awareness has on a small group of students with
dyslexia. Students who have holes in their early learning of language typically struggle to read and
write fluently later in their schooling. The research question is: How does instruction in phonemic
awareness affect decoding skills in readers with dyslexia? If I can understand the effectiveness of
instruction in phonemic awareness, I may be able to prevent gaps in my students’ learning in the
future to prevent further struggles in learning language skills. In addition, if instruction in phonemic
awareness is affective, it may be a skill to focus on in intervention with students who are struggling
with reading and writing fluency in later years.
Background and Review of Related Literature
PHONEMIC AWARENESS
Phonemic awareness plays an important role in the ability to decode words that will
eventually become sight words read by memory. Ehri and McCormick (1998) caution in order for
students to gain sight word recognition and build fluency without relying too heavily on context,
students should be able to distinguish and manipulate phonemes sufficiently in order to make
connections between graphemes and phones spontaneously when reading text. Phonemic
awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate phones.
Smith (1998) discusses the importance of phonemic awareness in students’ abilities to read
and write. The article reviews strategiesfor assessing phonemic awareness in children and suggests
appropriate intervention strategies for each of the assessed skill. Immature phonemic awareness
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underlies reading and spelling delays in both children with reading disorders and typically developing
readers. Deficits in phonemic awareness should be assessed and interventions should be put in
place as early as possible. In kindergarten and first grade, students are already expected to begin
learning rhymes, word patterns, and segmenting and manipulating phonemes. As children become
more mature in their phonemic awareness, they are able to segment words into individual sounds
and split syllables, deleteand substitute sounds in words. All of these skills are critical for the
decoding process, which requires children to be aware of the order of sounds when sounding out
and blending words. When students who have weak phonemic awareness receive appropriate
instruction, they make a more rapid improvement in reading and spelling words when the skill is
linked with instruction in letter-sound and word learning. Smith concludes instruction in both
phonemic awareness and whole language instruction can be integrated in order to maximize student
progress in vocabulary development, reading comprehension, and writing skills. “The faster we
boost children's phonemic awareness skills, the more likely children with weaknesses in this area will
"crack the code" and become readers” (p.24).
The purpose of the study described by Weiner (1994) was to teach beginning readers
phonemic skills and direct students’ attention to the relationship between their phonemic skills and
decoding abilities to determine whether phonemic awareness training would improve the phonemic
awareness and reading in beginning readers compared to no phonemic awareness training. Three
groups of beginning readers were instructed with the following approaches, phonemic awareness
training only, phonemic awareness training with decoding opportunities, and phonemic awareness
training with decoding and reading opportunities. The results show that phonemic skills’ training
does interact with reading ability in middle-level reading students. Due to limitations of this study,
Weiner calls for further studies in phonemic awareness. This provides rational for the study, which
focuses on instruction in phonemic awareness in order to improve decoding skills. It is apparent
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that Weiner understands and supports the implications that phonemic awareness has on reading
acquisition and comprehension in mid-level reading students and recommends effective training
coupled with opportunities to read.
Yopp (1988) argues that phonemic test reliability should be an important consideration in
test selection for classroom and research use. She administered phonemic awareness test and a
word decoding test to 96 kindergarten children. The test results showed a correlation between the
results of the phonemic awareness tests administered. The study supports the notion that phonemic
awareness is necessary for reading acquisition. Yopp concludes that one assessment in both
compound Phonemic Awareness and Simple Phonemic awareness are necessary for assessing
reading acquisition than any one test alone. This information is necessary for teachers to choose
useful and well-rounded assessments in order to assess beginning readers’ phonemic skills. The
descriptions of the various assessments administered break down the various skills beginning readers
need to acquire through instruction in phonemic awareness.
de Carvalho (2014) investigated the relationship among reading fluency, reading
comprehension and phonological processing with typically developing readers and readers with
dyslexia. One hundred fifteen students from grades 3-8 were grouped into a control group and a
group with dyslexia. Students were assessed in their in their abilities to read words and
pseudowords; as well as in their text (decoding) abilities, listening and reading comprehension,
phonological short-term memory and working memory. The results showed that the dyslexic group
performed more poorly in all of these categories of assessment. However, both groups showed
similar performance in listening comprehension and in making “gap-filling” inferences in reading
comprehension. This study highlights the importance of working memory, which is necessary for
reading comprehension. Working memory in reading involves the ability to hold on to information
and decoded words while making sense of the text. Students with developmental dyslexia need
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phonological working memory to decode and comprehend text. de Carvalho concludes the
correlation between reading fluency and phonological memory in students with dyslexia support the
specific nature of phonological disorder in students with dyslexia.
Instruction in phonemic awareness is necessary for beginning readers. Students must
understand that words are made up of individual letters and sounds, which can be blended together
to read words. They must learn to recognize graphemes and phonemes and demonstrate the ability
to manipulate these sounds. According to the dual-route theory, this is known as the indirect
(phonological) route. According to Coltheart et al. (1993), students with dyslexia who struggle to
master the skills needed to read using indirect route may have what is considered Developmental
Phonological Dyslexia (Temple & Marshall, 1983).
Because prevention is the best antidote for struggling readers, phonemic and whole word
instruction should be implemented as early as possible (Smith, 1998). For students who have
difficulty learning the connection between graphemes and phonemes, instruction can be as basic as
learning the names and shape of each letter and how the mouth, teeth, and tongue form different
sounds. This can lead into direct instruction in letter, sound correspondence, assigning keywords to
represent the connection between graphemes and phonemes (Ehri & McCormick, 1998). When
preparing instruction, the aspects of phonemic awareness which should be considered include:
grapheme phoneme relationships and phoneme isolation, deletion, counting, blending and
segmentation (Yopp, 1988). Teachers should guide students in repetitive, structured practice with
these phonemic skills. It is also vital to understand the instructional history in order to assess
student’s true reading abilities and potential (Weiner, 1994). For students with reading challenges, it
is possible that there are gaps in their phonemic skills, which need to be filled before building upon
phonemic concepts towards decoding and eventually reading and comprehending text.
DECODING
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Decoding is the ability to apply knowledge of grapheme phoneme relationships and
knowledge of letter patterns to correctly pronounce written words. Children who understand these
relationships have the ability to quickly recognize familiar words and to figure out words they
haven’t seen before. Explicit instruction in this area is necessary to teach students the principles of
letter-sound relationships and how to sound out words (Reading Rockets, 2015).
Ehri argues that we must understand how readers process and remember the written form of
words. Because each student is unique, the process may vary from student to student. Readers
learn each skill and eventually become capable of reading words in all five ways:
1. By sounding out and blending letters, referred to as decoding or phonological recoding.
2. By pronouncing common spelling patterns, a more advanced form of decoding
3. By retrieving sight words from memory.
4. By analogizing words already known by sight.
5. By using context to predict words. (Ehri, 1997, 1994)
The process of learning to read sight words relies heavily on the phases involving phonemic
awareness. Sufficientlyread words often become sight words which are read from memory. The
processing of learning sight words and meanings in memory involves forming relationship between
graphemes and phonemes to the spelling of words and their pronunciations (Ehri, 2005).
Ehri theorizes that the course of development of sight word reading can be characterized by
four phases. These phases include pre-alphabetic, partialalphabetic, full alphabetic and consolidated
alphabetic phases. Readers move fluently between these four phases throughout the process of
learning to read. The first is decoding, also called phonological recording, where a reader can either
segment and blend graphemes into phonemes or break words into larger chunks of syllabic units,
hold them in mind, and blend them into pronunciations that are recognized as real words. Those
students who are reading at the pre-alphabetic phase are able to use their decoding skills in order to
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decode less complex words. This is in contrast to readers who are reading in the partial alphabetic
phase, where readers used letter-sound cues to remember words. Ehri and McCormick (1998)
proposed readers learn to read sight words from memory by forming connections between letters in
spellings and sounds in pronunciation of the words. This strategy includes both decodable words
and irregular words, however the process differs between the two. Furthermore, as readers progress
from the earlier phases of reading to the most proficient phase, they learn to read words in several
different ways, including: using context, decoding by segmenting sounds or associating spelling
patterns, by analogy, and by sight. During each phase, reading improves as students gain and
practice more strategies for reading words.
Those students who are reading at the pre-alphabetic phase are able to use their decoding
skills in order to decode less complex words. Readers who are reading at the partial alphabetic
phase use their knowledge of letter-sound cues to read and remember words. Based on the phases
laid out by Ehri, most of my students are reading at the partial alphabetic phase and are growing into
the full alphabetic phase. According to Ehri and McCormick (1998), multiple word reading
deficiencies are apparent in struggling readers, specifically students with Dyslexia due to a
discrepancy in how strategies for reading words are developed. Each skill is dependent on the other;
if one skill is not adequately developed, the others will not develop adequately either. Decoding skill
is necessary to retain sight words in memory. A sight word vocabulary is necessary to read words by
analogy (recognizing how the spelling of an unfamiliar word is known similar word). Familiarity
with the relationship between sight words and spelling patterns is useful for more efficient decoding.
Instruction in all aspects of word reading is necessary for students who have difficulty learning to
read, “Very little can be left to self-discovery or chance” (Ehri & McCormick, 1998, p. 158.)
de Oliveria, da Silba, Dias, Seabra, and Macedo (2014) studied the importance of various
components in reading comprehension in students with dyslexia comprising a study on the
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components of the reading comprehension model and predictive skills in 40 typicallydeveloping
students and students with dyslexia. In the study, listening, reading comprehension, and word
recognition skills were assessed. de Oliveria et al. introduce the cognitive model of reading
comprehension posits that reading comprehension is a result of the interaction between decoding
and linguistic comprehension. They include the notion of word recognition in her definition of
decoding skills, including processing speed and phonological awareness.
According to de Oliveria et al., The Simple View of Reading suggests reading
comprehension includes an interaction between decoding and linguistic comprehension. Decoding
can be understood as the conversion of graphic symbols into sounds. de Oliveria et al. describe
three different strategies for decoding and word recognition. The logographic strategy includes the
use of contextual cues and visual recognition. The alphabeticalincludes an understanding of the
correspondence between graphemes and phonemes in order to decode and encode words. The
orthographic strategy involves the accumulation of the reader’s experience and the development of a
“mental orthographic lexicon” (p.2) or ability to read sight words from memory and based on
understanding of vocabulary.
Results of de Oliveria et al.’sstudy showed a discrepancy in decoding and reading
comprehension skills between typicallydeveloping readers and readers with dyslexia. They found
students with dyslexia showed deficits in processing speed and word recognition, but preserved
auditory comprehension, which allows for the understanding of listening comprehension and text
comprehension in reading. When both abilities are intact, written text can be decoded and
understood in order for reading comprehension to occur. Alternately, if one of these processes is
impaired, reading comprehension will not occur due to the interaction between the two strategies
necessary for reading comprehension. Students with dyslexia have deficits related to word
recognition, specifically in orthographic strategy and have more difficulty in creating an
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“orthographic mental lexicon,” which causes a challenge in the orthographic strategy of
reading. Students with dyslexia have appropriate knowledge in phonological awareness, vocabulary,
naming and oral accuracy and reading comprehension, although they require more time to complete
tasks which may be related to processing speed. The fact that these skills are intact suggests
students with dyslexia have the ability to comprehend text and make inferences regardless of
challenges in processing speed and phonological and decoding skills, which suggest that the readers
have developed strategies that enable them to compensate for these difficulties.
The ability to decode words relies heavily on phonological awareness. As students learn to
recognize and manipulate graphemes and phonemes to read words, they begin to build a lexicon of
words they are able to read from memory or by sight. According to the dual route theory, this
implies that students can build skills using the indirect or phonological route in order to broaden
their lexile vocabulary in order use the direct or orthographic route to read words. Students with
dyslexia may struggle with either the indirect or the direct route for reading words, and sometimes
both. Understanding how to support readers who struggle with either or both of these strategies is
vital for supporting struggling readers. Practice reading words using indirect route can be used as a
tool to strengthen the ability to read using the direct route. This implies that direct instruction in
both phonemic awareness and decoding are necessary for students to gain and appropriately practice
reading skills required for reading words by sight. This notion illustrates the importance of gaining
practice in segmenting sounds and blending phonemes for decoding words in order to gain a
broader sight word vocabulary in order to build reading fluency.
The studies reviewed show that there is a relationship between phonemic awareness and
decoding. The phonological nature of dyslexia mentioned in the literature reviewed also supports
the question asked in this study: How does instruction in phonemic awareness affect decoding skills
in readers with dyslexia?
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Procedures
This teacher study will include a journal of teacher reflections. Each week, Iwill reflect on
the Phonemic Awareness lessons taught, student engagement and performance, and the progress
monitoring process for each student. Reflections will include observations of how the students
respond to instruction and to relate this information to student performance in progress monitoring.
It will also include ideas on what should be taught next based on assessments and how to improve
instruction in future lessons to increase student engagement.
My instructional coach, Rosa Lee Johansen will observe one lesson a week and give feedback
in our weekly debrief sessions. Rosa Lee is an instructional coach and specializes in teaching
language and beginning reading, specifically with students with language-based learning differences
such as dyslexia. She is trained in Wilson and Wilson Fundations programs and has been my
instructional coach in teaching Fundations for three years. During her observations, she will take
note of student engagement and performance in addition to reviewing my lesson plans and creating
suggestions on how to proceed with instruction.
In this teacher study, I plan to administer instruction in phonemic awareness and to monitor
student progress on a weekly basis for 17 weeks. The instruction in phonemic awareness will take
place four times a week for 20 minutes each session. The design of the instruction will be guided by
or directly taken from Phonemic Awareness in Young Children: A Classroom Curriculum, (Adams,
Foorman, Lundberg, & Beeler, 1998). The instruction includes teacher lead activities including
identifying beginning and ending sounds, replacing sounds to create new words, recognizing
rhyming words, and segmenting and blending sounds in words. There is an assessment included in
the curriculum, which I will administer as a pre assessment before beginning instruction in order to
choose appropriate activities for my group. I will also assess my students as a post assessment at the
end of the semester to see what my students have learned. This curriculum was recommended to
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me by my instructional coach, Rosa Lee Johansen. She will provide feedback and guidance in using
the curriculum in addition to her observations throughout the study. The curriculum is research
based and created by experienced teachers in reading acquisition.
The progress monitoring tool will be taken directly from the WILSON Fundations®
program, which monitors student progress compared to skills taught in the program. The probes I
will be using from the WILSON Fundations® progress monitoring tool assess students’ abilitiesto
decode written real words and nonsense words and to segment sounds heard in a word spoken
aloud. In my research study, I will provide examples of these assessment tools. Students will be
given a minute to complete each of the three probes. The number of words read or sounds
segmented within 60 seconds will be recorded, and each error will be subtracted from the score.
When reading nonsense words, each sound correctly identified will be recorded, and each error will
be subtracted from the score. The number of words read and sounds segmented in the 60 seconds
will be recorded and plotted on a graph. A line will be drawn from the number of sounds read the
first week to the benchmark number of words or sounds to be read by week 17, which is provided
by WILSON Fundations®. As the number of words read and sounds segmented are charted onto
the graph each week, progress will be reflected by assessing where the data is plotted on the graph
compared to this benchmark baseline. According to the Qualitative Overview (2014) of the
WILSON Fundations® systematic, research-based program is a reliable source for instruction in
“…foundational skills for reading and spelling, emphasizing phonemic awareness, phonics-word
study, high frequency word study, fluency, vocabulary, handwriting and spelling.” The reliability of
the results of this progress monitoring tool will be strengthened by keeping a consistent time,
location and warm up routine for each testing session.
I will be using a convenience sample when collecting information and data in this teacher
study. The two students I have chosen are both first grade students in my classroom. They have
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both been diagnosed with a specific learning disability in reading. In my study, I will write a more in
depth portrait of each of these two students.
Validity
I will use triangulation to increase the validity of this study and decrease data collection bias.
Triangulation means that I will gather information from multiple sources and perspectives.
Triangulation includes the use of my teacher reflection journal and observations and meetings with
my instructional coach. In addition, I will use two pre-existing assessments: a pre and post
assessment for phonemic awareness, and the WILSON Fundations® progress monitoring tool.
The use of a preexisting phonemic awareness curriculum and a research based language program for
progress monitoring assure that this teacher study supports the question being investigated. In
addition, the students participating in the study will have the diagnoses of dyslexia and/or specific
learning disability in reading. A major threat to the validity of this study is that students may acquire
phonemic awareness skills in settings outside of the instruction administered in this study. It will be
necessary acknowledge this possibility and to explore ways to ensure that any progress made in
decoding can be related specificallyto the addition instruction in phonemic awareness administered
in the study.
As a teacher study using a convenience sample, I acknowledge that there is still an element
of data collection bias to consider. The findings in this teacher study will mostly be valuable to me
as a teacher in this specific setting with these specific students and resources. The findings in my
teacher study may be generalizable to teachers who are searching for an intervention strategy for
readers with dyslexia who are struggling to acquire decoding skills. However, the small sample size
makes this study less generalizable. It would be useful to conduct a study with a larger sample size
and a wider demographic. Further
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Threats to the validity of my teacher study include inconsistency, data collection bias,
history, subjects’ attitude, implementation and history. Inconsistency is a threat because it is
common for students with specific learning disabilities in reading to perform with inconsistency. In
order to help prevent this threat, I will take this inconsistency in performance into account in my
analysis of the results of my teacher research study. I will also begin each lesson and assessment
session with the same 3 minute warm up review procedure to refresh students’ memory of the
letters and sounds they have learned. Test anxiety is also a threat because many students who
struggle with reading are often hesitant to read aloud for assessments, especially when timed. Iwill
attempt to minimize this threat by allowing students to believe that this instruction and the
assessments are a typical part of the lesson, and not an assessment of them independent from the
group. I will tell them that I am using a timer to keep myself on track so that it does not take too
long, and that I am having them read aloud so that I can learn more about what they know so that I
can become better at teaching them how to read. Due to the possibility that the students may
struggle with test anxiety and distractibility, testing will be conducted in a small group room with
limited auditory and visual distractions in which students are familiar. History is a possible threat
because some students have had additional tutoring or speech and language services outside of
school, which may affect their performance in the classroom. I will acknowledge this possibility and
report it in my final teacher research study and discuss how any such services may affect student
performance in class and in assessments. Instrumentation is a threat because this teacher research
study is a convenience sample, and thus there is data collection bias in how I interpret the findings.
As stated above, Iwill use triangulation with my instructional coach and two different methods of
assessment to limit the threat of data collection bias to the best of my ability.
I will assess the data from my teacher reflection journal and my instructional coach’s
observations by discussing them with my instructional coach and comparing our findings. We will
17. 17
compare our observations and findings throughout the teacher study in order to decide what
instruction strategy from the phonemic awareness curriculum to implement next. We can use
coding to find a theme within our reflections and notes as a data analysis tool. This way, the
common words and themes found can be analyzed in order to create an instruction strategy in
addition to understanding the results of this study. We will also discuss and compare our findings at
the end of the study. I will assess my students’ progress through comparing the scores in each
section of the pre and post assessment from the phonemic awareness curriculum. I will compare
my students’ improvement in decoding skills by comparing their weekly progress to where they
stand on the graph in relation to the projected growth baseline drawn after the first assessment. I
will also review this data with my instructional coach to gain her input on the effectiveness of the
additional instruction in phonemic awareness.
Expected Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
My expectation for this teacher study is that additional instruction in phonemic awareness
has the potential to improve decoding skills in students with dyslexia. This statement is based on
the phonological nature of dyslexia found in the research previously stated in this proposal. I expect
that the students will show improvement in their decoding abilities and that their progress will show
growth that is somewhat in line with their projected growth baseline set at the beginning of the
study. This will be shown in both their abilities to decode real and nonsense words. I also expect
that students will be able to segment sounds in words heard aloud with increased accuracy due to
the nature of instruction provided, which includes explicit instruction in segmenting sounds in many
lessons and activities.
As a beginning researcher, I am aware that this teacher study has limitations. However,
moving forward I might consider altering this study to increase the validity of the study and the
transferability of the findings. It would be beneficial to extend this study to a whole class of 12
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students rather than limit the study to two students in my language group. The students in this
study may be of a narrow demographic, and the study would need a greater cross section, possibly
involving several classrooms or schools. I would recommend comparing data between a study
group and a control group of students with dyslexia or other specific learning disabilities in reading.
Although there may be ethical considerations to consider, it is worth considering implementing
instruction in phonemic awareness to one group, and to compare the findings to a control group
who has not received this additional instruction. This would be in addition to a teacher reflection
journal and additional observations and coaching sessions with an instructional coach, since the
findings should not be solely based on assessment data. It would be interesting to also research the
effects of instruction in phonemic awareness on students’ fluency and comprehension skills since
these skills are also necessary for reading acquisition.
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