Introduction Heading 1: Energy Sources Heading 2: Energy reliability Heading 3: Renewable energy Heading 4:Non-renewable energies Heading 5: New energy Heading 6: Recovery techniques, Recommendations Conclusion References Contemporary Engineering Issues: Energy Availability ABSTRACT Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, that is what scientists have concluded from their researches on energy, however, energy conservation and management remains a priority issue to all nations. Posterity of energy is a growing concern, and several states, are critically considering measures that will ensure energy availability and sustainability. This has elicited researches into various energy related fields in a bid to ensure availability prioritized. This report will therefore explore matters as pertaining to energy availability. Prospects of energy sources, reliability, depletion, and recovery techniques will be a priority. Intensive research in the later named fields will be pivotal in ensuring energy is Available for use today and tomorrow, for the world needs efficient energy transformations. Energy availability Introduction Advancement in civilization and science can be attributed to the availability of energy. Over the past years, energy has been the driving force behind various sectors of the economy, such as transport, manufacturing and processing, agriculture, etc. Great scientific explorations have also been enabled by the progress made in energy production systems that power space vehicles and satellites. Owing to its importance, human beings have always, both in the past and in the present times, sought for methods of exploiting energy resources to obtain maximum benefits. The increased use of coal during the industrial revolution enhanced industrial growth and mechanization in the production of goods. Coal exploitation also changed the transport sector with invention of locomotives and steam powered engines that required coal. Advancement in technology led to exploitation of petroleum, thereby replacing coal as the main source of energy. Petroleum has been widely used in power generators and as fuel for engines. Concerns have however been raised on the durability of the available energy resources since most coal and petroleum deposits are getting depleted and may not be available in the future [3]. This has led to research and development on alternative energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, geothermal and even tidal energy. In addition, the use of various forms of energy in homes, places of work and industries has undergone major transformations in a bid to minimize energy wastage and lower pollution levels arising from the production of greenhouse gasses. Scientists have also come up with methods of making the use of energy more convenient and reliable. More power stations are also being built in an attempt to meet the ever growing power demands by the human population. All these efforts are driven by the concern that the world.

1. Introduction
Heading 1: Energy Sources
Heading 2: Energy reliability
Heading 3: Renewable energy
Heading 4:Non-renewable energies
Heading 5: New energy
Heading 6: Recovery techniques,
Recommendations
Conclusion
References
Contemporary Engineering Issues: Energy Availability
ABSTRACT
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, that is what
scientists have concluded from their researches on energy,
however, energy conservation and management remains a
priority issue to all nations. Posterity of energy is a growing
concern, and several states, are critically considering measures
that will ensure energy availability and sustainability. This has
elicited researches into various energy related fields in a bid to
ensure availability prioritized. This report will therefore explore
matters as pertaining to energy availability. Prospects of energy
sources, reliability, depletion, and recovery techniques will be a
priority. Intensive research in the later named fields will be
pivotal in ensuring energy is Available for use today and
tomorrow, for the world needs efficient energy transformations.
Energy availability
Introduction
Advancement in civilization and science can be attributed to the
availability of energy. Over the past years, energy has been the
driving force behind various sectors of the economy, such as
transport, manufacturing and processing, agriculture, etc. Great

2. scientific explorations have also been enabled by the progress
made in energy production systems that power space vehicles
and satellites. Owing to its importance, human beings have
always, both in the past and in the present times, sought for
methods of exploiting energy resources to obtain maximum
benefits. The increased use of coal during the industrial
revolution enhanced industrial growth and mechanization in the
production of goods. Coal exploitation also changed the
transport sector with invention of locomotives and steam
powered engines that required coal. Advancement in technology
led to exploitation of petroleum, thereby replacing coal as the
main source of energy. Petroleum has been widely used in
power generators and as fuel for engines. Concerns have
however been raised on the durability of the available energy
resources since most coal and petroleum deposits are getting
depleted and may not be available in the future [3]. This has led
to research and development on alternative energy sources such
as solar, wind, hydro, geothermal and even tidal energy. In
addition, the use of various forms of energy in homes, places of
work and industries has undergone major transformations in a
bid to minimize energy wastage and lower pollution levels
arising from the production of greenhouse gasses. Scientists
have also come up with methods of making the use of energy
more convenient and reliable. More power stations are also
being built in an attempt to meet the ever growing power
demands by the human population. All these efforts are driven
by the concern that the world may, in the future, experience
energy shortages and blackouts due to energy unavailability [6]
Energy Sources
Energy can derived from different sources and is usually
transformed into various forms that make it usable for various
purposes such as for manufacture of goods, for transport, for
lighting and heat in homes and places of work. Energy sources
may be classified as primary or secondary. Primary energy
sources may include sources that occur naturally like
hydropower, geothermal, fossil fuels and nuclear energy.

3. Secondary sources on the other hand, are obtained from the
conversion of primary sources, and may include electricity
generated from different primary sources. The primary sources
can also be classified as either renewable or nonrenewable
sources. Renewable sources have reserves which are always
replenished. Examples in this category include: wind, solar,
hydro and geothermal energy sources [5]. Nonrenewable sources
on the other hand come from limited sources. Examples in this
category include: fossil fuels and earth minerals such as
uranium.
Energy reliability
Energy reliability refers to the capacity of an energy source or
system of energy production to continuously produce the
anticipated levels of energy over a given period of time [1] To
achieve this many factors interplay different roles to ensure that
there is always a continuous and steady supply of power.
Having numerous sources of that generate electricity provides a
diversified input to the grid. This prevents power shortages or
blackouts that may result from storms or breakdowns in power
generation plants. Energy reliability also depends on the
availability of base load power plants that are able to constantly
generate power to meet the minimal demands of an electrical
grid. Majority of base load power plants generate power from
coal or nuclear reactions. In contrast, peaking power plants
supply power only occasionally, when there is peak demand for
electricity. Many peak power plants rely on gas or petroleum
powered turbines that generate power from combustion of
natural gas or petroleum. In some cases, water may be pumped
into reservoirs, and released to flow into turbines to generate
extra power if demands increase [1] intermittent energy sources
have variable outputs which are subject to uncontrollably
factors. Solar and wind energy are classified as intermittent
since their output is subject to environmental conditions such as
wind speed and sunlight intensity and duration. Power output
from intermittent energy sources is difficult to control or
predict, and is thus problematic when used to meet consumer

4. demands. Even though electricity generation from renewable
sources of energy likes wind or solar help to minimize emission
of greenhouse gasses, their power output is not reliable in
meeting consumer power demands. Nuclear power plants have
the capacity to generate sufficient amount of electricity over
long periods of time and are thus considered reliable [4].
Renewable energy
Renewable energy refers to energy that is obtained from sources
that are naturally regenerated and replenished over a period of
time. Renewable energy can be obtained from natural sources
such as wind, sunlight, geothermal heat, tides and waves [5].
Solar energy comes in the form of radiant heat and light from
the sun, which is harvested using solar panels or solar heaters.
Energy trapped from the sun can either be active or passive
depending on how it is captured, transformed and distributed for
use in various purposes. Active harnessing of solar energy
involves the use of solar panels and thermal collectors. Solar
panels are made from photovoltaic cells that convert radiations
from the sun into direct current electricity. Passive methods
involve solar architecture whereby selective materials, with
convenient thermal and light scattering properties are used in
construction of buildings. It may also involve orienting or
designing a building to maximize on the use of sunlight for
lighting and air circulation [4]
Wind energy is obtained by using wind turbines that have blades
propelled by wind. Wind turbines in turn rotate generators to
produce electricity. Wind towers are usually erected in wind
farms which may either be offshore or onshore. Wind power is
widely distributed in Asia, Europe and the United States. The
world’s largest onshore wind farms are found in China, United
States and India, whereas the largest offshore wind farms are
found in Germany, Denmark and the United Kingdom [4]
Walney offshore wind-farm, UK. Image source:
www.cleanenergyworldnews.com

5. Hydroelectricity refers to electricity generated by the use of
gravitational force produced by flowing or falling water
(hydropower). Hydropower is used to turn generators which
convert the kinetic energy into electricity. Hydroelectricity is a
source of power for most towns and cities; and is also the most
commonly used renewable energy. Hydroelectricity is very
flexible since power plants are easily erected to meet the power
demands of various places. It also has a lower output of waste
as compared to power plants that generate electricity from fossil
fuels. The construction of dams, however, interferes with the
natural courses of rivers and may also result in displacement of
populations. China is the world’s largest producer of
hydropower, with the Three Gorges Dam being the largest
hydroelectric power station [5]
Three Gorges Dam, China. Image source: newamericamedia.org
Tidal energy is a form of hydropower captured from the rise and
fall of tides. Tides are produced as a result of gravitational
interaction between the earth, moon and sun, which cause
motion in the ocean. This results in periodic rise in water
levels, which move back and forth. A tidal generator is used to
transform the energy from tidal flows to electricity. Tides are
more predictable, unlike wind and solar which keep varying.
Generation of energy through tides however is limited to coastal
areas and also relatively expensive [4].
Geothermal energy refers to thermal energy stored beneath the
earth. Geothermal energy originates from the slow decay of
radioactive materials in the earth’s crust. Some of this energy is
also attributed to heat losses coming from the initial processes
during the formation of the earth. The high temperatures in the
earth’s crust heat the rocks below the surface, which in turn
heat the underground water to produce steam, under high
pressure. The steam is harnessed for rotating turbines in power
generators, which produce electricity. Power generated from
geothermal energy can be used for both domestic and industrial
purposes. Geothermal power is clean, sustainable, cost effective

6. and environmentally friendly. The cost of exploration and
setting up geothermal power plants is however, expansive.
Geothermal energy is also limited to areas close to tectonic
plate boundaries [5]
Nesjavellir geothermal power station, Iceland. Image source:
www.ucsusa.org
Biofuels are fuels produced from living organisms. This energy
comes from carbon fixation that occurs in microalgae and
plants. Biomass energy comes from conversion of organic
material by chemical, biochemical or thermal processes
resulting into fuel. This form of energy generally comes from
plant and animal waste, and is used for cooking and heating in
homes as well as fuel for transport and industries. Its main
drawback, however results from high emission of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
Non-renewable energies
Nonrenewable energy refers to energy drawn from sources that
are not replenished and can thus be exhausted. Nonrenewable
energy sources include fossil fuels (petroleum, coal and natural
gas) and nuclear energy. Fossil fuels are the major source of the
world’s primary energy sources and are widely used because
there is technology and infrastructure for their exploitation [3]
Coal is formed from decayed plants and comprises of carbon
combined with organic or inorganic compounds. It is the most
abundant fossil fuel on the earth. Coal is mostly found lodged
between rock layers beneath the earth’s surface from where it is
mined. Coal is usually burnt to provide heat which may be used
to generate electricity. In coal powered plants, coal is used to
heat water into steam, which is channeled to rotate turbines that
generate electricity. Coal is relatively cheaper to mine and has
more reserves as compared to other fossil fuels like petroleum
or natural gas. The use of coal for heating however results into
emission of high levels of carbon dioxide which is responsible
for global warming. High amounts of coal used in power plants
have also led to excessive mining which has caused significant

7. environmental degradation.
Petroleum (crude oil) is a carbon based viscous liquid that is
formed from fossilized remains of animals. Most oil deposits
are found underground between rock seams, on land or under
the ocean floor. Oil may however emerge to the surface from
the ground below and form large pools of oil, as in the LaBrea
Tar Pits found in California. Crude oil is abundant in Middle
East countries such as Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and
United Arab Emirates (UAE). A few oil wells are also found in
North America and Canada [3]. Crude oil is mined by sinking
drill rigs into the reservoirs and pumping the oil out through
pipes. Crude oil is refined to make a wide range of products
with different uses. Oil products such as gasoline is widely used
in the transport sector and in industries. Even though it is
relatively inexpensive to extract and use as a source of energy,
petroleum extraction, transport and use, pose a major threat to
the environment. Combustion of oil leads to emission of
greenhouse gasses and other atmospheric pollutants. Oil spills
during drilling and transport may also result in death of both
land and sea organisms.
Offshore petroleum extraction, Canada. Image source: oil-
canadasnaturalresource.weebly.com
Natural gas refers to a mixture of many gasses (methane,
butane, propane and ethane) that is trapped beneath the earth’s
surface. Natural gas is extracted by drilling into rocks beneath
the surface. Hydraulic fracturing may be used to split the rocks
to release the trapped gasses under high pressure. Middle East
countries have high amounts of natural gas reserves. Natural gas
is a cleaner fossil fuel as compared to coal or oil, and its
extraction is also relatively inexpensive. Its extraction may
however pose a threat to the environment and cause minor
earthquakes when rocks are split under great pressure [1].
Nuclear energy is generated from nuclear processes (nuclear
fission or nuclear fusion) that are exothermic. Many nuclear
power plants use nuclear fission to produce energy. Nuclear

8. fission involves splitting of atoms to release energy stored in
elements. Uranium 235 is used in most nuclear power plants and
electricity is normally generated from the resultant energy
produced by these reactions. Nuclear energy is clean since it
does not emit greenhouse gasses. It also requires small amounts
of raw materials to produce high amounts of energy, making it
very efficient. It is however expensive to set up and run a
nuclear power plant. The radioactive materials produced as a
waste of the reactions may be toxic and carcinogenic. Nuclear
disasters and leakage of nuclear materials may also be very
difficult to contain, and can result into devastating effects both
to the human beings and the environment. Examples of such
disasters have occurred in Chernobyl, Ukraine and Fukushima
Daiichi, Japan, in 1986 and 2011 [2].
TVA Watts Bar Nuclear Power Plant | Photo courtesy of
Tennessee Valley Authority
New energy recovery techniques
To ensure energy availability, new techniques are being
employed to enhance efficiency by the use of new energy
recovery techniques. Some of the methods convert waste into
energy that can be used for various purposes in homes and
industries [2]
Anaerobic digestion of organic waste by bacteria in biogas
digesters results in the production of biogas which is rich in
methane. The biogas is normally used in homes for cooking and
heating. Biogas is also used in power generation by gas powered
turbines. The sludge from the digesters may be used as manure
or soil conditioner depending on the composition of the waste
used.
Waste may also be incinerated in combustion chambers to
produce heat energy. The resultant heat energy may be used to
produce steam for steam turbines or even industrial processes
that require heating. Waste that is dumped in landfills usually
undergo decomposition over a period of time to produce landfill

9. gas, which has high percentages of methane. Recovery of
landfill gasses can provide useful energy for cooking or heating
or even power generation [3]
Many efforts have also been made in attempts to create systems
that consume less energy. Such advancements can be seen in the
design of modern engines that consume less fuel but have grater
output. Energy saving devices have also been designed in an
attempt to minimize power wastage. Modern architecture has
also been involved by designing of energy efficient buildings
that use renewable solar energy for lighting and heating. This
has not only lad to minimal production of greenhouse gasses but
also minimized overreliance on other sources of power [6]
Recommendations
In as much as great strides have been made to harness energy
from various sources, the issue of energy availability, for
present and future uses, has not been adequately tackled. The
consumption of fossil fuels, especially coal and petroleum, still
remains high despite prospects to cleaner and renewable energy
sources. It is recommended that industries that depend on fossil
fuels should make investments aimed at replacing their energy
sources with renewable ones since the energy deposits are fast
getting depleted and may not be available in the future. Even
though the costs of setting up and running nuclear power plants
may be high, their power supply is very reliable to meet the
increased demands of power in various states. It is therefore
recommended that investments should be made to build more
nuclear based power plants to meet the current energy demands
which keep escalating. It is also recommended that buildings
should be fitted with solar panels and solar heaters if possible
to help supplement power demands. Modern building designers
should also incorporate necessary designs that enable the use of
sunlight for lighting and air circulation. This would help in
minimizing the use of electricity, thereby lowering power
demands. More research and exploitation is also recommended
in the prospect for tidal energy which is still rather unpopular in
many countries.

10. Conclusion
Since energy is the driving factor behind civilization and
scientific advancements, its conservation and management
remains a top priority for all nations. Availability of sustainable
energy is an important factor for all countries that plan for
continuous survival of the present and future generations. The
shift from reliance on fossil fuels to cleaner and renewable
energy sources still remains a major challenge owing to
unpredictability of conditions that generate clean energy such as
sunlight and wind. The use of renewable energy can be
considered as the future of energy availability since coal and
petroleum deposits, which are the current major sources of
energy in various countries in the world, are getting depleted.
References
[1]Beggs, C. 2009.” Energy: Management, supply and
conservation. Amsterdam: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.”
P. 123-456
[2]Duncan, T. 2011. “Energy Recovery. New Delhi: World
Technologies.” P. 45
[3]Evans, R. L. 2007. “Fueling our future: An introduction to
sustainable energy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press”.
P. 32
[4]Khaligh, A., and Onar, O. C. 2010. “Energy harvesting:
Solar, wind, and ocean energy conversion systems.” Boca
Raton: CRC Press. P. 12
[5]Langwith, J. 2009.” Renewable energy. Detroit” Greenhaven
Press. P. 67
[6]Orme, H. 2008. “Energy for the future.” New York, NY:
Bearport Pub. P.112