This document summarizes a student essay that argues the U.S. Army newspaper Stars and Stripes constructed an ideal masculinity for American soldiers during World War 1 through its portrayals of soldiers as middle class, white, and brave. Previous scholarship has focused on Stars and Stripes as propaganda but not how it shaped views of gender. The essay examines issues of the newspaper to identify how it promoted soldiers embodying strength, courage, and conforming to social norms of the time. It aims to add to the limited research on how military and society defined appropriate gender roles for soldiers and citizens.

1. Stars and Stripes: Constructing Masculinity for United
States Soldiers during the Great War, 1918
Abstract: This essay argues that masculinity was constructed for American soldiers via The
Stars and Stripes military newspaper during World War I. This essay will concentrate on three
themes of ideal masculinity: soldiers who were middle class, soldiers who were white, and
soldiers who exhibited bravery. Previously, The Stars and Stripes has only been studied in its
relation to propaganda. This essay adds a new topic to the existing scholarship. It is important to
consider how the American government and The American Expeditionary Force tried to mold
the ideal soldier that would win the Allies the war. Also, how these soldiers embraced this
definition of masculinity after the war, and contributed to America’s larger definition of societal
gender norms.
Brittney A. Bendien
3/11/15
Dr. Lisa Z. Sigel
HST 390

2. 1
Stars and Stripes: Constructing Masculinity for United States Soldiers
during the Great War, 1918
“The U.S. Army is made up of the most dedicated, most respected Soldiers in the
world. These Soldiers protect America’s freedoms while serving at home and abroad,
and they are always prepared to defend the nation in times of need.
A U.S. Army Soldier is the embodiment of physical strength, mental strength and
strength of purpose. As a Soldier, you will be prepared to serve our country whenever
and wherever you are needed. You will be combat ready at all times, and you will be
trained to counter any threat, anywhere.”1 –U.S. Army Official Website.
The idea that the American soldier must embody ideal physical and mental strength was
constructed long before this post found its way on the United States Army’s webpage. It was also
constructed long before scholars began to study social history and what this ideal masculinity
would mean for future generations. The examination of social and gender history began in the
1990’s and is the newest historical approach. This new approach has allowed scholars to focus
their attention on what masculinity consists of and how masculinity has previously been shaped
and constructed.
During World War I, the American Expeditionary Force (A.E.F.) constructed an ideal
masculinity for American soldiers that has carried through the last century. The A.E.F. was able
to successfully accomplish this by producing The Stars and Stripes, a military newspaper
provided for American soldiers overseas in France. Though The Stars and Stripes was a wildly
popular newspaper during WWI, it has hardly been the focus of historical scholarship.
Previously, scholars have overlooked how the A.E.F. has contributed to gender discourse. World
War I scholars have also overlooked the value of The Stars and Stripes, and what it can tell them
about World War I culture.
1 United States Army, “About the Army,” United States Army, http://www.goarmy.com/about.html (accessed March
11, 2015)

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The goal of this paper is to add a new topic to the limited historiography on The Stars
and Stripes. Previously, the newspaper has only been examined in its relation to propaganda.
Even then, the scholarship produced is few and far between, consisting of only one main
contributor, Alfred E. Cornebise. The Stars and Stripes is a valuable source to understand the
mindset of American soldiers and officers during WWI. This essay examines news articles,
illustrations, poems, etc. written by both A.E.F. staff and A.E.F. soldiers writing to The Stars and
Stripes to better understand this mindset. Through the examination of twenty issues of The Stars
and Stripes, this essay will demonstrate that the newspaper constructed an ideal masculinity for
American soldiers in World War I. This ideal masculinity consisted of men who were
courageous in the face of danger, middle class, and white. It is important for scholars to
understand how the American government and The American Expeditionary Force tried to mold
the ideal soldier that would win the Allies the war. Also, how these soldiers then took the new
definition of masculinity home with them after the war and contributed to America’s larger
definition of societal gender norms.
The Stars and Stripes newspaper has been under-examined by past scholars. Those that
did focus on The Stars and Stripes only emphasized the role propaganda and censorship played
in the newspaper. The leading source on the subject, The Stars and Stripes: Doughboy
Journalism in World War I, was written in 1984 by Alfred E. Cornebise. His book is the leading
source on the subject; however, it served more as a survey text than as a monograph. Cornebise’s
book addressed many different aspects of the newspaper and focused on different themes that
were present throughout the issues. Cornebise wrote that he aimed for his book to “serve as a
piece of reportage on an interesting journalistic undertaking, as a sampler of A.E.F. life.”2
2 Alfred E. Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes:Doughboy journalismin World War I (Connecticut: Greenwood Press,
1984), xiii.

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Cornebise was one of the first historians who was not directly involved in the publication of the
newspaper to write exclusively on The Stars and Stripes newspaper and its role in World War I.3
Most of the references in his book are documents from the National Archives.4 Throughout his
chapters, Cornebise focused on how the establishment of The Stars and Stripes began, as well as
its purpose. He wrote that “undoubtedly, The Stars and Stripes did accentuate the positive; that
was one of the reasons for its existence, and the editors were certainly selective in what they
published. At one level, then, The Stars and Stripes was skillful propaganda.”5 However, he
concluded that, with only a few exceptions, the newspaper was left to the men running it with
very little interference by A.E.F. headquarters.6
Cindy Elmore built on Cornebise’s book in “Stars and Stripes: A Unique American
Newspaper’s Historical Struggle against Military Interference and Control,” published in 2010.
Her article discussed The Stars and Stripes since its formation in World War I through recent
wars, arguing that “censorship at The Stars and Stripes have ebbed and flowed throughout the
newspaper’s history.”7 However, when discussing the censorship of The Stars and Stripes during
World War I, Elmore agreed with Cornebise that the United States Army had little interference
with the newspaper.
Calder M. Pickett’s article, “A Paper for the Doughboys: Stars and Stripes in World War
I,” was published in 1965, and also fits into the discussion of the newspaper as a form of
3 John T. Winterich, a writer and editor for The Stars and Stripes,published Squads Write! A Selection of the Best
Things in Prose, Verse and Cartoon from The Stars and Stripes. Official Newspaper of the A.E.F., in 1931. Harry L.
Katz was a staff member in the mailing department of the newspaper.He published the short book, The History of
the Starsand Stripes.Official Newspaperof the American Expeditionary Forces in France, From February 8, 1918
to June 13, 1919, in 1921.
4 Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes,183.
5 Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes,xii.
6 Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes,179.
7 Cindy Elmore, “The Stars and Stripes: A Unique American Newspaper’s Historical Struggle against Military
Interference and Control,” Media History 16, no. 3 (2010): 314.

5. 4
propaganda. Pickett wrote that “The Stars and Stripes had set a pattern for soldier journalism.”8
It was representative of the American soldiers’ viewpoint, while still providing the necessary
information that needed to be released by the A.E.F. These authors dealt with the importance of
The Stars and Stripes in forming and representing American soldiers’ opinions.
Not only is the scholarship on The Stars and Stripes underdeveloped, but so is the
scholarship on the discussion of masculinity and the many ways to form it. While the
development of gender history is a newer historical approach, previous scholars have studied the
ways The Stars and Stripes helped form masculinity in American Soldiers. When deliberating
the cultural definition of masculinity in World War I, the discussion revolves around soldiers
experiencing shell shock or men’s moral purity. The latter is discussed in Making Men Moral:
Social Engineering during the Great War, published in 1996 by Nancy K. Bristow. She focused
on the role the Commission on Training Camp Activities (CTCA) played in protecting men from
venereal diseases, as well as how, through the CTCA, a new national masculinity was
constructed. This definition of masculinity involved men acting to protect female purity, having
sexual purity themselves, as well as having self- control and physical prowess or “physical
manhood.”9
Margaret R. Higonnet wrote that shell shock played a role in forming masculinity in
“Authenticity and Art in Trauma Narratives in World War I,” published in 2002. Higonnet wrote
that examining how shell shock was interpreted and understood in WWI would help present
scholars understand how Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is viewed and comprehended today. She
described that WWI shell shock “was understood by the military as a failure of masculinity—a
8 Calder M. Pickett, “A Paper for the Doughboys:Stars and Stripes in World War I,” JournalismQuarterly 42
(1965): 68.
9 Nancy K. Bristow, Making Men Moral: Social Engineering during the Great War (New York: New York
University Press,1996), 19-20.

6. 5
failure of hardness, courage, or willpower—and a manifestation of latent effeminacy or
immaturity.”10 Robert Shepherd wrote in A War on Nerves: Solider and Psychiatrists, 1914-
1994, that doctors viewed shell shock in WWI as a disease, and one that usually affected only
women or men of Latin, Slavonic, or Jewish heritage; clearly not fitting their cultural definition
of masculinity.11 To further understand how masculinity was constructed for American soldiers
in World War I, scholars must examine The Stars and Stripes. The examination of The Stars and
Stripes and its role in the construction of masculinity is necessary to further understand how
these soldiers contributed to America’s larger definition of societal gender norms.
As previously stated, The Stars and Stripes newspaper was produced by the American
Expeditionary Force for United States soldiers stationed in France. The newspaper was produced
from Paris from February 8th, 1918 to June 13th, 1919, and was issued weekly every Friday.12
American soldiers could subscribe to the newspaper for three months for four francs or buy the
newspaper individually for 50 centimes. The profits made from selling the newspaper went
directly back to the subscribers’ company funds.13 The Stars and Stripes began with only 30,000
copies, but by the end of publication in World War I, the A.E.F. produced over 526,000 copies
that reached 2,000,000 American soldiers, proving it to be a very popular newspaper.14
The idea for The Stars and Stripes was developed in November, 1917 by Guy T.
Viskniskki, an assistant lieutenant of infantry and an assistant press officer in the A.E.F.
Viskniskki, along with the leaders of the A.E.F., wanted to create a newspaper that would boost
the morale of the stationed soldiers. Viskniskki believed that in order to boost morale, the
10 Margaret R. Higonnet, “Authenticity and Art in Trauma Narratives of World War I,” Modernism/ modernity 9, no.
1 (2002): 93.
11 Robert Shephard, A War of Nerves: Soldiers and Psychiatrics,1914-1994 (London: The Random House Group,
2002), 9-10.
12 Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes,xi.
13 “The Stars and Stripes,” The Stars and Stripes, February 8, 1918, pg. 4. American Memory, Library of Congress,
http://memory.loc.gov/phpdata/issuedisplay.php?collection=sgpsas&aggregate=sgpsas.
14 Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes,3.

7. 6
newspaper needed to provide soldiers with what they wanted to read, such as comics,
advertisements, poetry, sports news from home, and how the war was progressing.15 Viskniskki,
with a team of other newspaper journalists from the United States, began creating the newspaper
in early 1918. Some of these men included: Harold Ross, Franklin Pierce Adams, Grantland
Rice, and Alexander Woollcott.16 Overall it took around three hundred men to successfully run
the newspaper.17
The Stars and Stripes of the A.E.F. provided the soldiers with useful information, as well
as doses of propaganda. However, the use of propaganda was decided by the staff to be minimal;
therefore, the A.E.F. could get their messages and orders across, but U.S. soldiers still felt like it
was a paper that they could identify with. Repeatedly throughout the newspaper the editors
pointed out the fact that this was a newspaper written for soldiers, by soldiers. In the very first
issue published, there was a message written by A.E.F. Commander in Chief, General John J.
Pershing. In large print in the center of the page he stated “The paper, written by the men in the
service, should speak the thoughts of the new American Army and the American people whom
the Army has been drawn. It is your paper. Good luck to it.”18 Also, on the front page of every
newspaper, in a small box in the upper right hand corner, it stated “By and For the Soldiers of the
A.E.F.”19 The popularity of the newspaper, shown by the number of issues sold, demonstrated
that soldiers thought the newspaper accurately expressed their views, and was not excessively
filled with war propaganda; otherwise the soldiers would not have purchased it.
The propaganda produced in The Stars and Stripes can be determined as a strength of the
newspaper. The propaganda allows historians to examine how the A.E.F., as well as the soldiers
15 Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes,3-4.
16 Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes,xi.
17 Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes,3.
18 “A Message from Our Chief,” The Stars and Stripes, February 8, 1918, pg. 1.
19 The Starsand Stripes, February 8, 1918, pg. 1.

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both writing and reading the newspaper, wanted their soldiers to act, think, and behave as men.
This allows scholars to examine how The Stars and Stripes portrayed masculinity and how those
writing and responding to the newspaper helped construct it. Another strength of this newspaper
was that it specifically targeted American soldiers. This newspaper was not written for the
common citizen, which means that when looking at how masculinity was constructed for U.S.
soldiers, every text speaks to this project. Because the newspaper was only eight pages, it would
have been lightweight and could have been easily distributed and easily brought along when
traveling, meaning it could reach thousands of soldiers. Limitations of The Stars and Stripes
include the newspaper staff choosing what editorial responses from soldiers they wanted to
include in the newspaper, such as only positive responses, instead of criticism. This limits a
historian’s knowledge of what the soldiers overall response to The Stars and Stripes actually
was. Also, scholars can never truly measure how the newspaper affected soldiers. However, the
number of newspapers sold by the end of WWI publication and its high increase from when it
began indicates that the newspaper was rather influential. Other limitations include that the
newspaper was not be able to reach those who did not possess the money to pay for it, and those
who could not read. However, the paper could always be shared with those who could not afford
it and read out loud to those who could not read it themselves. Unfortunately, those who could
not read or write would not be able to write in to the newspaper to share their ideas, poetry, or
comments, which is another limitation of The Stars and Stripes. Even with these limitations, the
strengths of The Stars and Stripes outnumber and outweigh any weaknesses that the newspaper
might have had.
When constructing the ideal masculinity, The Stars and Stripes idealized a certain type of
man, and this man was middle class and white. Throughout the newspaper, these characteristics

9. 8
are innately produced. While the editors may not have been trying to actively cultivate these
traits, the readers of The Stars and Stripes would have identified and emulated them. The
implicit belief that the American soldier should be middle class is apparent by the many
advertisements presented throughout all issues of the newspaper. These advertisements are
directed at men who had expendable income and could afford not only the subscription to the
newspaper, but also the items and amenities offered to them. These advertisements included
enjoying the “luxurious comfort” of the Palace Hotel in London, the Hotel Brighton, Hotel
Lotti,20 or Hotel Plaza- Athenee.21 Also, there were advertisements for “American fancy
groceries” by Rt. Jackson & Co. Advertisements for Tiffany & Co. can be found repeatedly
throughout the issues, as well as advertisements for military jewelry by Goldsmiths &
Silversmiths Company Ltd. 22 Soldiers, if they could get away from their post, could enjoy an ice
cream soda at the Place de L’Opera, as advertised in the August 2, 1918 issue. All of these
advertisements were quite unrealistic for many soldiers who were reading The Stars and Stripes
in the trenches of France.
More practical advertisements included those to repair or buy military shoes and dress,
such as from Sleator & Carter, who advertised that they specialized in olive drab uniforms and
American insignia.23 An advertisement for Burberrys’ military outfits appeared throughout the
newspaper and claimed to be the “best quality at reasonable prices.”24 There were also
advertisements for barber shops which claimed “Best of Service. Reasonable Price.”25 While one
20 The Starsand Stripes, September 6, 1918, pg. 2.
21 The Starsand Stripes, November 1, 1918, pg. 6.
22 The Starsand Stripes, February 22, 1918, pg. 5 and The Stars and Stripes, July 5, 1918, pg. 7-8.
23 The Starsand Stripes, March 1, 1918, pg. 8.
24 The Starsand Stripes, February 22, 1918, pg. 6.
25 The Starsand Stripes, July 5, 1918, pg. 7.

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could cut their own hair or repair their own coat, those who had expendable income, the middle
class, could afford to have someone do it for them.
The Stars and Stripes also molded their readers to have certain manners and etiquette that
would be applicable and expected by the middle class; this included being hygienic and
presentable at all times. In the September 6, 1918, issue an article titled: “Soldier and
Gentlemen,” stated that “the American Army consists of average Americans, and the average
American is a gentlemen.”26 In the May 3, 1918, issue the article titled: “Spick-and Span-ness,”
stated that cleanliness is “the very essence of soldierliness itself.”27 Under the title “Neatness in
Dress,” in the February 8, 1918 issue, it was written that “every effort must be made at all times
by the officers and men of the A.E.F. to present a neat and soldierly appearance.”28 There were
also many advertisements for soap throughout the newspaper. Morny Bath Soaps de Luxe is
advertised in the June 7, 1918 issue, Morny Shaving Soap was advertised in the July 5, 1918
issue, and Ivory Soap was advertised in the May 3, 1918 and May 10, 1918 issue. Certainly,
these advertisements and editorials played a part in trying to keep disease away, but it also
helped mold the soldiers into what the A.E.F. deemed appropriate.29
The acceptable and expected manners and etiquette constructed by The Stars and Stripes
also included writing letters home in a timely fashion. A cartoon in the May 3, 1918 issue
illustrated a character sending a letter to woman thanking her for sending cigarettes. He struggled
with the introduction, trying to find a balance between attempting not to sound too familiar or
too formal. Even though the character did not know how to properly address the letter, an
26 “Soldier and Gentleman, The Stars and Stripes, September 6, 1918, pg. 4.
27 “Spick-and Span-ness,” The Starsand Stripes, May 3, 1918, pg. 4.
28 “Neatness in Dress,” The Stars and Stripes, February 8, 1918, pg. 4.
29 The Starsand Stripes, May 3, 1918, pg. 5. Includes an advertisement for Ivory Soap; the advertisement reads:
“The Luxury of a Bath, That is an Aid to Health.”

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expectation by the author is still relayed that a letter must be sent.30 The first page of this issue
had an article about writing home for Mother’s Day. It expressed that while the soldier loves a
letter from home, he had no idea what his letter meant to his Mother.31 The article goes on to
state that his letters “are the only things she cares about these days,” and the soldier “will never
forgive yourself [himself] if you [he] begrudge the time to write.”32 A soldier reading this article
would certainly feel moved to write his mother for Mother’s Day specifically. There were also
advertisements to send flowers to loved ones back home in the United States throughout the
newspaper, which further proved the importance placed on respecting and caring for the loved
ones the soldier left behind.33 The use of advertisements, statements about expected cleanliness,
and the encouragement of being courteous to those left at home, helped construct the A.E.F.’s
ideal middle class, gentlemanly soldier.
Along with the ideal American soldier being innately middle class, the ideal American
soldier also consisted of innately being white. While the idea of soldiers needing to be white is
not implicitly stated throughout any of the texts, it is certainly implied. White men were the only
ethnicity represented in the advertisements throughout The Stars and Stripes. White men are also
the only ethnicity represented as the characters in every featured cartoon. This was an instinctive
choice by the editors of the newspaper. In the first issue of The Stars and Stripes, there is an
article titled: “Huns Starve and Ridicule U.S. Captives: Photographed Sandwiched between
Negroes Wearing Tall Hats.” The article began by stating that the American soldiers being held
prisoner by the Germans were subject to “ridicule, degrading labor, insufficient food and
30 Wallgren, “From: To: Subject:,” The Stars and Stripes, May 3, 1918, pg. 4.
31 “‘Mother’s Letter’ Plan Gives every Man in A.E.F. Special Opportunity for Observing Mother’s Day,” The Stars
and Stripes, May 3, 1918, pg. 1.
32 “‘Mother’s Letter’ Plan Gives every Man in A.E.F. Special Opportunity for Observing Mother’s Day,” The Stars
and Stripes, May 3, 1918, pg. 1.
33 The Starsand Stripes, June 7, pg. 3. Includes an advertisement for Max Schling Flowers that can ship anywhere in
the United States.

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inhumane treatment.”34 This ridicule and inhumane treatment included making white soldiers
stand between African Americans in a photograph. The article states that the purpose was to
“make them [white American soldiers] appear rediculous.”35 This article was on the first page of
the first issue of The Stars and Stripes, meaning it was important and shocking news. This article
implied that African American soldiers were a distinct and separate group, far from fitting the
concept of the ideal masculine soldier.
Further proof that the ideal soldier was white was demonstrated in the article “Soldier
Scotty Dies on His Gun: 30 Huns go First.” The author writes that Scotty’s regiment was often
called the “iron battalion,” referring to their wild Native American warwhoops.36 The regiment
went into battle with “strange, unintelligible savage cries that were echoes, perhaps, of the ones
that sounded long ago around the huts and stockades of primitive America.”37 The article then
quickly followed up with the subheading: “Good Soldiers and Catholics,” reassuring the reader
that the regiment itself was neither savage nor primitive, like the group’s war cries they were
copying.38
One of the more explicit texts displaying the ideal masculine soldier as white can be
found in the May 3, 1918 issue. The title of the short, mocking article is “The Three Dusketeers.”
The title itself is jeering. “Dusketeers” referred to African American’s skin color, and it was also
a play on the title of the book The Three Musketeers.39 The article was written in the first person
so that it appeared as if an African American had authored it. Its purpose was to mock the
colloquial language of African Americans under French regiments. The first sentence of the
34 “Huns Starve and Ridicule U.S. Captives,” The Stars and Stripes, February 8, 1918, pg. 1.
35 “Huns Starve and Ridicule U.S. Captives,” The Stars and Stripes, February 8, 1918, pg. 1.
36 “Deadly Quiet and Cool,” in “Soldier Scotty Dies on His Gun: 30 Huns go First,” The Stars and Stripes, August 2,
1918, pg. 2.
37 “Deadly Quiet and Cool,” in “Soldier Scotty Dies on His Gun,” The Stars and Stripes, August 2, 1918, pg. 2.
38 “Good Soldiers and Catholics,” in “Soldier Scotty Dies on His Gun,” The Stars and Stripes, August 2, 1918, pg. 2.
39 “The Three Dusketeers,” The Stars and Stripes, May 3, 1918, pg. 5.

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article is: “We’s ain’t no Saimmies, boss,” and continued with “But we’s getting educentified,
somehaow, too.”40 Another example of The Stars and Stripes writers poking fun at colloquial
language can be found in the February 22, 1918 issue. In an article about Chinese, immigrant
workers boxing with American soldiers, an A.E.F. writer described a boxing match where a
Chinese referee said, “‘No makee diff,’…‘Thlow him downee, wine scalpee! Ne’st man!’”41 The
Chinese man boxing was named Little Lo Brow, which the author wrote “sure, that’s his real
name—hon-est!”42 The writer also described that “Little Lo Brow smiled and smiled and smiled
the inscrutable smile of the Orient.” The language used to describe these men signified that
anyone of color had no place in the American Army and simply did not belong. The A.E.F.,
through The Stars and Stripes, presented people of color as incompetent and incapable of being
as educated as white, male soldiers. These examples, along with the complete lack of
representation through advertisements and cartoons, prove that the ideal masculine soldier
constructed by the A.E.F. newspaper, The Stars and Stripes, was very much intended to be
white.
While being a middle class, white soldier was innate to the definition of masculinity
prescribed by the writers of The Stars and Stripes newspaper, certain attributes and
characteristics were specifically constructed. These constructed characteristics consisted of
soldiers who were brave, calm in the face of danger, and eager to go into battle. In the first issue
of The Stars and Stripes, General Pershing stated “these readers are mainly the men who have
been honored by being the first contingent of Americans to fight on European soil for the honor
of their country. It is an honor and privilege which makes them fortunate above the millions of
40 “The Three Dusketeers,” The Stars and Stripes, May 3, 1918, pg. 5.
41 “Wising Up to New Style,” in “Lo Brow, Yellow Man, Scatters White Hopes,” The Stars and Stripes, February
22, 1918, pg. 7.
42 “Lo Brow, Yellow Man, Scatters White Hopes,” The Stars and Stripes, February 22, 1918, pg. 7.

14. 13
their fellow citizens at home. Commensurate with their privilege in being here, is the duty which
is laid before them, and this duty will be performed by them as by Americans of the past, eager,
determined, and unyielding to the last.”43
An example of these attributes being valued can be found in the April 5, 1918 issue,
under the headline “Sixteen Yanks Cited by French for Gallantry.” The Stars and Stripes editors
recognized American men awarded honors by their commanding officers (ten under an American
officer, six being under a French officer). Each soldier had a small description about what they
did to earn their honors after their name and rank. In the descriptions the words used the most to
describe them were: fortitude, devotion, courage, eagerness, calmness, coolness/coolly,
command, bravery, and good morale.44 A description for Lieutenant Caleb B. Lear read that he
was “an officer full of eagerness, and animated by an elevated war spirit,” and when he went to
battle on March 9, 1918 against the Germans, he did so “with calmness and method.”45 Sergeant
Robert M. Paulling joined the battle the moment he arrived at the front. “At the side of his officer
he was the first to enter the enemy’s positions. He revealed himself on that occasion as the owner
of the most brilliant qualities of coolness and bravery.”46 The description of Private Jerry Brown
stated that he “rushed boldly” to the front of his group and “was remarked for his eagerness.”47
At the end of the article the editor wrote that Commander in Chief, General Pershing, desired “to
convey…his appreciation of the splendid conduct which won for them these citations.”48
43 “A Message from our Chief,” The Stars and Stripes, February 22, 1918, pg. 1.
44 “Cited by General of Division,” in “Sixteen Yanks Cited by French for Gallantry,” The Stars and Stripes,April 5,
1918, pg. 1-2.
45 “Cited by General of Division,” in “Sixteen Yanks Cited by French for Gallantry,” The Stars and Stripes,April 5,
1918, pg. 1.
46 “Cited by General of Division,” in “Sixteen Yanks Cited by French for Gallantry,” The Stars and Stripes,April 5,
1918, pg. 1.
47 “Cited by General of Division,” in “Sixteen Yanks Cited by French for Gallantry,” The Stars and Stripes,April 5,
1918, pg. 2.
48 “Mentioned in Army Order,” in “Sixteen Yanks Cited by French for Gallantry,” The Stars and Stripes, April 5,
1918, pg. 2.

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This was not the only time The Stars and Stripes described the actions of soldiers who
were honored for their services. The May 3, 1918 issue described 117 men from the 104th
Infantry who were being awarded with the Croix de Guerre. The press emphasized 75 cases of
courage, 25 of devotion, 22 of coolness, 20 of volunteering, 18 of calmness, and 7 of self-
sacrifice.49 Out of 117 men, 75 of them, 64%, exhibited courage and were honored; the
description courage was used far more than any other characteristic. It demonstrates that out of
all the characteristics a soldier could have—courage was one of the most valued by the A.E.F.
and The Stars and Stripes editors. In the July 5, 1918 issue, more descriptions were provided for
soldiers who earned the Distinguished Service Cross. Courage was once again the most used
characteristic. Bravery, fearlessly, self-sacrifice, and coolness were other descriptions used to
describe these men.50
Not only were American soldiers expected to willingly and courageously go into battle,
but they were also expected to voluntarily give the ultimate sacrifice—their lives. The articles of
soldiers presented with awards of honor contained descriptions about individuals sacrificing
themselves for a fellow comrade or the good of their platoon. One of these men, Private John B.
Walters, “displayed great self-sacrifice in refusing aid and continuing to do his duty after being
mortally wounded.”51 Private Frank F. Vallely “voluntarily went to the assistance of other
soldiers…and was killed while engaged in this heroic action.”52 Captain Walton S. Danker
“showed during the attack particularly meritorious devotion and spirit of self-sacrifice.”53 Private
Charles Marine “showed calmness, courage, and the spirit of self-sacrifice” when carrying a
49 “Croix de Guerre for 117 Men of 104th Infantry,” The Stars and Stripes, May 3, 1918, pg. 1-2.
50 “112 More D.S.C.’s for Yank Heroes in many Sectors,” The Stars and Stripes, July 5, 1918, pg. 1-2.
51 “Tried to Protect Comrade,” in “112 More D.S.C.’s for Yank Heroes,” The Stars and Stripes, July 5, 1918, pg. 2.
52 “Carried Officer off Field,” in “112 More D.S.C.’s for Yank Heroes,” The Stars and Stripes, July 5, 1918, pg. 2.
53 “Fell at the Head of His Men,” in “Croix de Guerre for 117 Men of 104th Infantry,” The Stars and Stripes, May 3,
1918, pg. 2.

16. 15
soldier across the battlefield.54 Lieutenant John Norman “met bravely the fate of a soldier,” while
directing his soldiers in combat.55 These men were awarded and commended by the A.E.F. for
losing their lives in the line of duty.
Another example of a soldier being praised for self-sacrifice and eagerness to enter battle
can be found in the August 2, 1918 issue. The article “Soldier Scotty Dies on his Gun: 30 Huns
go First” described a boy of fifteen who bravely volunteered and fought for his country. The first
sub-heading of the article was “eager to go and he went.”56 The fifteen-year-old boy lied about
his age to the recruiting officer and joined the fight against the Central Powers, which showed
extreme dedication to the cause. Additionally, when in battle, Scotty was described as becoming
“deadly quiet and cool as a cucumber;” bravely willing to face the enemy in front of him.57 The
article went on to say that when Scotty and his regiment saw Germans they were “itching to open
fire.”58 When they began to fight, Scotty was able to take down thirty “Huns” before
dramatically dying at his gun—displaying that he fought until the very end.59 This article
demonstrates that a young boy was praised through The Stars and Stripes for being eager to fight
the enemy and willing to die for the cause, proving that these traits were viewed as idyllic for
A.E.F. soldiers.
The desired trait of eagerness to enter battle was also expressed in the September 6, 1918
issue of The Stars and Stripes. The editors chose to include a soldier’s suggestion for a new
slogan. The soldier proposed that instead of saying that they were “going over the top,” they
54 “Cared for Wounded,” in “Croix de Guerre for 117 Men of 104th Infantry,” The Stars and Stripes, May 3, 1918,
pg. 2.
55 “Mentioned in Army Order,” in “Sixteen Yanks Cited for Gallantry,” The Stars and Stripes, April 5, 1918, pg. 2.
56 “Soldier Scotty Dies on His Gun: 30 Huns go First,” The Stars and Stripes, August 2, 1918, pg. 1.
57 “Deadly Quiet and Cool,” in “Soldier Scotty Dies on His Gun,” The Stars and Stripes, August 2, 1918, pg. 1.
58 “Good Soldiers and Catholics,” in “Soldier Scotty Dies on His Gun,” The Stars and Stripes, August 2, 1918, pg. 2.
59 “Blocking the Path,” in “Soldier Scotty Dies on His Gun,” The Stars and Stripes,August 2, 1918, pg. 2.

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should instead say that they were “going Hun hunting.”60 The suggested slogan displayed the
enthusiasm of this soldier and his eagerness to kill the enemy, rather than the less passionate
phrase of simply going over a trench. Because it was published in The Stars and Stripes, it
displayed the A.E.F.’s approval and encouragement of this eagerness. The expected willingness
to die on the behalf of the A.E.F. was also explored in the April 5, 1918 issue in an article simply
titled “Sacrifice.” The author wrote that General Pershing would not recognize the sacrifice the
soldier made on the day of enlistment. “The army cannot recognize that kind of sacrifice,” he
stated.61 The only sacrifice that would be commemorated by the A.E.F. would be in “the hour
that the soldier is killed or mustered out.”62 This was the only sacrifice that was seen of value
and heroism. The Stars and Stripes newspaper constructed the idea that soldiers should not only
be courageous in the face of danger, but also eager and willing to head for it.
Unlike these previous articles that directly called for desired qualities, the newspaper also
implicitly argued for a need of bravery and willingness to fight through the counter example of
the subject of civilians. The very first issue of The Stars and Stripes provided a definition of the
word “civilian.” It read: “Civilian—A male person of tender or great age, or else of weak
intellect and faint heart.”63 This simple sentence conveyed how the A.E.F. soldiers viewed (or
were supposed to view) the men who stayed at home. Unless a man fell into these two
categories, they should have been overseas contributing to the war effort; and clearly, any man
who was not overseas was viewed as inferior and weak to the editors and readers of The Stars
and Stripes.
60 “AnotherSlogan,” The Stars and Stripes, September 6, 1918, pg. 4.
61 “Sacrifice,” The Starsand Stripes,April 5, 1918, pg. 4.
62 “Sacrifice,” The Starsand Stripes,April 5, 1918, pg. 4.
63 “The Anzac Dictionary,” The Starsand Stripes, February 8, 1918, pg. 2.

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This negative view of male civilians was also demonstrated in the June 7, 1918 issue of
The Stars and Stripes article “Etiquette Hints for Doughboys,” a satirical feature in many issues
of the newspaper. This particular article discussed etiquette for sending a wedding present to a
civilian friend back home. Bran Mash, the author of this article, wrote “if, however, a perfectly
husky civilian ex-friend of yours sends you an invitation” there will be no need to send gifts.64
This reiterates that there was no adequate reason for someone (especially of strong physique) to
not serve willingly. The sentence reads that the civilian is an “ex-friend.” The idea of a man not
contributing to the war effort was so opposed that a soldier should not even be friends with a
male civilian still in the United States. In the same issue, on the front page, there was an
illustration titled, “Helpless Victims of the Hun.” The picture portrayed women, elderly men, and
children as these helpless victims. 65 Able-bodied men were not included in this illustration. They
were not viewed as victims by the A.E.F. editors of the newspaper. Through The Stars and
Stripes, the idea that was continuously portrayed was that men courageously and willingly saved
victims, they were not the victims themselves. While using examples of what a desired soldier
should not be, The Stars and Stripes proved once again that the desired characteristics of the
A.E.F. soldiers during the Great War was courage and active willingness to fight.
By the end of The Stars and Stripes WWI publication, the newspaper had proved to
become a popular newspaper that appealed to the middle class, white soldier. These were the
men that had expendable income to buy the newspaper, which consequently supported the A.E.F.
They in turn could also afford what was being advertised throughout the newspaper. Through
The Stars and Stripes the A.E.F. tried to cultivate soldiers who aspired to be gentlemanly and
hygienic, who had manners and etiquette. The Stars and Stripes idealized this type of soldier.
64 Bran Mash,“Etiquette Hints for Doughboys,” The Stars and Stripes, June 7, 1918, pg. 8.
65 “Helpless Victims of the Hun,” The Stars and Stripes, June 7, 1918, pg. 1.

19. 18
They also idealized the soldier who was white. The illustrations of soldiers in newspaper articles
and advertisements were never people of color. This was not an explicit decision by the
newspaper staff but instead instinctive, which reflected broader twentieth-century American
culture. However, The Stars and Stripes newspaper articles purposefully jeered at people of color
and prescribed attributes that made them appear as individuals of lesser value. This demonstrates
that the belief of superior, white soldiers was obvious to the editors of The Stars and Stripes and
never needed to be implicitly stated, proving that the ideal A.E.F. masculine soldier was very
much intended and cultivated to be white.
This ideal soldier constructed by The Stars and Stripes newspaper was also courageous,
calm in the face of danger, and eager to go into battle. The A.E.F. shaped soldiers into becoming
the type of man that they believed could win the war for the Allies. Issue after issue of The Stars
and Stripes, these attributes were cultivated and instilled in soldiers. A soldier willing to risk his
life and eager to face battle was worth far more to the A.E.F. than one who would never make a
bold move. The enthusiastic soldier could encourage others and lift their spirits. These were the
type of men the A.E.F. needed—brave, calm, and eager. When these men returned home, they
returned with a new sense of self. The masculinity that was cultivated during World War I
continued well after the war ended. Understanding the ideal type of masculinity that was
constructed is essential to understanding the ideal masculinity that American society prescribes
to males today. Culture is created and shaped over many years. The idea that a soldier called to
duty must be brave, calm, and eager to fight for his country still exists.
The men who edited The Stars and Stripes also constructed newspapers when they
returned to the United States. Harold Ross, the creator of The New Yorker, was an editor for The

20. 19
Stars and Stripes newspaper.66 Other writers for The Stars and Stripes, such as Alexander
Woollcott, Franklin Pierce Adams, and Grantland Rice went on to have successful journalism
careers in the United States.67 These men helped establish how newspapers were read and
written; and they contributed to an enormous part of twentieth-century mainstream culture. The
traditions they created still continue today.
This essay only looked at one aspect of The Stars and Stripes. While other historians
have only examined the newspaper as propaganda, there is still so much the newspaper can teach
scholars and help them discover. It is important to discuss specifically how masculinity was
constructed through The Stars and Stripes, because there has been a serious lack of research
conducted on the newspaper. This essay demonstrated how valuable studying The Stars and
Stripes can be to understanding the culture of American soldiers in WWI. It is important for
scholars to understand how The American Expeditionary Force tried to mold the ideal soldier
that would win the war for the Allies. Also, how these soldiers then took the new definition of
masculinity home with them after the war and contributed to America’s larger definition of
societal gender norms. At a time of racial uplift and female suffrage, these soldiers solidified the
definition of masculinity for twentieth-century America and what masculinity would mean for
generations to come.
66 Ian Frazier, “The Cabaret Beat: A Debutante to the Rescue in the Harold Ross Era.,” The New Yorker, February
23, 2015, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/02/23/cabaret-beat.
67 Cornebise, The Stars and Stripes,xi.

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