The document discusses several topics related to history, science, and trade. It summarizes a research project that used genetic analysis to trace human migration patterns out of Africa around 60,000 years ago. It also describes a theory that a large volcanic eruption in 535 AD caused global climate changes that may have contributed to the fall of major civilizations. Additionally, it challenges common misconceptions about pre-Columbian societies in the Americas and their impact on the environment.

1. History, Science, and Trade Rebecca Wasmund History 140

2. What is History? History is a collection of events - a story - that are all important. Facts of history are all verifiable Difficult to prove some parts of history due to lack of records or reliable witnesses Historical facts can be proved by two types of sources: Primary - someone who was a direct witness to the event Secondary - someone who was not a direct witness, but they use other sources (primary and/or secondary) to construct their statement Nobody can simply decide whether a factual historical event took place - must be proved Will always be blank spots in history

3. What is History? - Viewpoint 3 sources to prove a historical event: Must have evidence from reliable witness Facts must be logically possible There must be observable causes and effects Another important element of history is viewpoint Viewpoint means that different people can interpret the same historical events and facts in different ways - even facts can hold different meanings for different people. This is the “why” of historical events Viewpoint determined by many things: environment, faith, education, status, age, etc Solitary facts mean little - facts and events in the broader context of historical periods are much more meaningful Knowledge of history is important - knowledge builds empathy, which results in tolerance.

4. The Journey of Man - Spencer Wells Enrolled in college at age 16 - graduated in 3 years His Genographic Project has taken him to more than 3 dozen countries Accomplishments: Revolutionary research for history of man Advanced understanding of Y chromosome Greater ability to trace human migration The Journey of Man - international book and documentary detailing his travels and findings

5. The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey The “old” (less accepted) theory is the multi-regional model - says that primitive humans left Africa millions of years ago and ended up in areas of Europe, Africa, and Asia, where modern humans evolved Wells’ work confirms newer (more accepted) theory, the Out of Africa model Out of Africa model says that all modern humans evolved in Africa, eventually migrated to other areas beginning 60,000 years ago - beginning with Australia Wells’ research focuses on male humans because of the presence of the Y chromosome Female history is in mitochondrial DNA, which is less useful/accurate for research purposes Studies of the Y chromosome have concluded that all people evolved from one common male ancestor in Africa Out of Africa model shows that humans didn’t migrate to the Americas until approximately 15,000 years ago - much more recent than originally thought.

6. Catastrophe! Theory from David Keys - not a historian, but incorporates data from many sources Discovered unusual new tree ring growth around 535 AD Likely due to extreme cold weather and long winters for several years Such a phenomenon could be attributed to one of three causes: Large volcanic eruption 4 km+ asteroid hitting earth 6 km+ comet Can’t be asteroid or comet - no crater large enough to prove such a theory Must be volcano - Krakatoa

7. Catastrophe! - Effects Eruption had devastating results on climate - several accounts around the world detailing long winters, strange, apocalyptic weather Hard winters had variety of effects: Less food (too cold, crops failed) Devastating plague - plague virus spreads rapidly in cold weather Death of necessary livestock (notably horses) Believed to have possibly led to the downfall of large civilizations - most notably the Roman empire Resulted in formation of new civilizations, such as England, and formation of revolutionary new beliefs and faiths (Islam) Changed course of history forever - can always happen again, and would undoubtedly change course of history again Conglomeration of so many sources leads many to believe that Keys’ hypothesis “is not unreasonable”.

8. America Before Columbus “ The Pristine Myth” - many believe that Indians left America virtually untouched Lived symbiotically with the land These assumptions are incorrect Originally thought there were approximately 1 million people living in the Americas when Colombus arrived Actual number appears to be closer to 100 million people This means that roughly 95% of the population was decimated by disease brought by visiting Europeans (no immunity)

9. Amazonia pre 1492 Originally believed that the Amazon rainforest could not support a society, and therefore thought that the rainforest was pristine pre-Columbians Disproved - archeologists found not just one town, but a network of towns At least 19 villages in 15 square miles Villages share same design Connected by system of highways Was a complex society - originally thought there was no such complex society possible in this area at that time Altered land to meet their needs by clearing some areas and preserving others Area is “last poorly known archeological regions on the face of the Earth” Found bridges, man-made ponds and ditches Evidence of complex civilization Also evident of sophisticated (for that time) knowledge of math, sciences

10. The World in 1492 Many misconceptions: knowledge that the world is round (and not flat) did not originate with Columbus In 1492 Europe was comprised by various small, unconnected states Europeans ended up more advanced than other societies This is because Western Europe was full of rivalries that resulted in the area being far more interconnected than any other region Connections mean that new inventions and discoveries traveled through these areas rapidly

11. The World & Trade Trade and connections made Europe the superior nation due to their superior connections Drugs have always been important to trade - commercially valuable, foundation of world economy Spain cleared huge plantations and employed slaves in the Americas to grow crops there exclusively Certain new discoveries were extremely valuable - almost laughable today Coffee Chocolate Potatoes Tobacco Mesoamerica (Mayans and Aztecs) participated in large-scale intraregional trade Mesoamerican trade destroyed upon arrival of Spaniards - who sought to trade globally