Has the US Policies done enough prevent Nuclear war

Whitlock 1
Have the United States Policies Done Enough to Prevent Nuclear War?
Jeffrey Whitlock
HIST498: Senior Seminar in History
Professor Carl J. Bradshaw, APUS
May 25, 2016

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Table of Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................3
Theory of nuclear weapons and how they work .......................................................................................4
Early Atomic Culture (1942 - 1945).............................................................................................................5
The United States and Nazi race for Atomic Bomb..................................................................................5
First Atomic Weapons ..............................................................................................................................6
High Atomic Culture (1949 - 1963)............................................................................................................12
The Atomic Energy Act of 1946.............................................................................................................12
The Soviet Union Detonates the first Atomic Bomb in 1949 .................................................................13
The Nuclear Arms Race between the Soviet Union and United States .................................................13
Development of Hydrogen and Thermonuclear bombs..........................................................................17
Formation of the nuclear triad.................................................................................................................18
Cuban Missile Crisis in 1963..................................................................................................................21
Late Atomic Culture (1964 – 1991)............................................................................................................22
The draw down of nuclear weapons .......................................................................................................23
Foreign nuclear powers...........................................................................................................................23
START I-II Treaties and Test Ban Treaties............................................................................................24
Fall of the Soviet Union 1991.................................................................................................................25
Post Atomic Culture (1992 – Present) ........................................................................................................25
The challenges of securing cold war stockpiles......................................................................................26
Rise of terrorism .....................................................................................................................................26
Non Proliferation Treaties.......................................................................................................................27
North Korea the new nuclear threat........................................................................................................27
Mishaps and incidents.............................................................................................................................28
China and Russia issues..........................................................................................................................29
Iran issue.................................................................................................................................................30
Nuclear Security Summit 2016...............................................................................................................30
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................30

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Abstract
Two world wars brought changes to the world. Fear of Hitler and the Nazis forced top
scientists to flee Germany and Italy for the United States. They convinced the American
government to begin the race for nuclear weapons. Most weapons are built to win wars. Nuclear
weapons are built to prevent war. The United States developed the first atomic bomb and had
the most advanced nuclear weapons program. While the motive was peace, these weapons gave
the United States the power to flex their muscles by threatening retaliation. Fear of total world
destruction helped the American people overlook the atrocities of the atomic bomb and endorse
nuclear weapon development.
The United States accepted the leadership role to control the use of nuclear weapons. The
United States nuclear program was a very important to the defense of its allies and homeland as
it prevented adversaries from being hostile to the United States. The challenge is not over.
Nuclear threats continue to be a concern for national security. Diplomatic relations, science and
technology are all part of the solution. The United States continues to lead the world on how to
handle these weapons. National security depends on being proactive. To prevent a country or
terrorist group from using nuclear weapons, they must worry about the repercussions from the
United States. While the United States has had mishaps, their nuclear doctrine has successfully
made the world a safer place. They have prevented a nuclear war. The United States nuclear
policies will continue to evaluate the current world situation and evolve to prevent a nuclear war.

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Introduction
As soon as the neutron was discovered, scientists researched nuclear physics. World War
II began the race for nuclear weapons. Since 1945, the United States has faced the challenges of
nuclear security. The United States believed they needed to be the leader in order to control the
use of nuclear weapons. They continue to believe that philosophy. National security depends on
being proactive. To prevent a country or terrorist group from using nuclear weapons, they must
worry about the repercussions from the United States. Diplomatic relations, science and
technology are all part of the solution. Despite the challenges, the United States nuclear doctrine
has so far been successful preventing a nuclear war. The challenge is not over. Nuclear threats
continue to be a concern for national security. The United States nuclear policies will continue to
prevent a nuclear war.
Theory of nuclear weapons and how they work
No one person or single decision created the American atomic bomb project. It all started
in 1919. Ernest Rutherford changed several atoms of nitrogen into oxygen. It was the first
artificial transmutation of an element. With more research, it was learned atoms are made of
protons, electrons and neutrons. Energy holds the nucleus together.1
In 1934, Italian physicist Enrico Fermi began bombarding elements with neutrons. When
Fermi bombarded slow neutrons with uranium, he produced fission. When the neutron hits a
uranium atom a large amount of heat and radiation are released. Nuclear fission occurs when
atoms are split apart and energy is released. Fragments fly apart. This work gained the interest
of Benito Mussolini who was the leader of the Fascist Italy. Fermi’s wife was Jewish. Fermi
1
“The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb,” Atomarchive.com, (accessed April
19, 2016) http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/mp/p5s2.shtml.

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worried his discovery would be used in a weapon so he left Italy with his work to the United
States. 2
Scientists believed as more neutrons are released, a chain reaction would occur. As atoms
split, the chain reaction gets faster. Academic scientists working in university laboratories
researched nuclear physics.
Early Atomic Culture (1942 - 1945)
The United States and Nazi race for Atomic Bomb
During World War II, Hitler and his Nazi Party wanted a powerful weapon. German
Nobel Laureate Werner Heisenberg was capable. Leo Slizard was another scientist who feared
Hitler and came to the United States. With the help of Albert Einstein, he wrote a letter to
President Franklin Roosevelt warning about Germany’s capability. President Roosevelt formed
an advisory committee where the greatest scientists in the world met to discuss the potential for
the atomic bomb. These scientists drafted a classified report for President Roosevelt discussing
the need for the United States to develop an atomic weapon. The Allies were worried Germany
would develop an atomic bomb and release them on England, Russia and the United States. 3
With this fear, the federal government began supporting and funding nuclear research. In
1942, the Manhattan Project was formed. The Manhattan Project was the code name for the
project that produced the first atomic weapons in the world. Hundreds of millions of dollars were
invested to develop the atomic bomb. There were approximately 250,000 people working on the
2
3
Matt Easley, “The Atomic Bomb That Never Was: Germany’s Atomic Bomb Project,”
Vanderbilt University Germany’s Atomic Bomb Project (accessed April 19, 2016)
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/physics/brau/H182/Term%20papers%20'02/Matt%20E.htm.

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Manhattan Project. Nuclear weapons use the energy produced by fission to create destructive
blasts.4
Germany did not develop the atomic bomb. The industrial and scientific capability of
Germany was insufficient. Germany did not have the people, money or the laboratory and
factory space for this type of project. Many of the best German scientists were Jewish. With
Hitler in power, they were under direct threat so they fled Germany for the United States.
Ironically, Hitler needed the very people he believed inferior. The German effort involved about
100 people. Germany did not build specialized laboratories. They worked in small houses and
caves.5
The Nazi nuclear weapons program met big setbacks. The Germans used heavy water to
develop their nuclear weapon. The German heavy water was refined in Norway and shipped to
Germany via cargo ship. In 1940, Germany took over Norway and their hydroelectric plant that
was used to provide heavy water to the German atomic weapons program. In 1943, a plan was
hatched to sabotage the plant to prevent the Germans from using this plant to produce heavy
water for their atomic weapon. British trained Norwegian saboteurs carried out the plan to blow
up the plant. The Royal Air Force helped destroy cargo ships loaded with heavy water. 6
First Atomic Weapons
The United States set up an infrastructure for an atomic weapon. The Manhattan Project
had dedicated university sites with elaborate laboratories. They built processing plants and a
4
Vanderbilt University Germany’s Atomic Bomb Project, (Accessed April 19, 2016)
5
Ibid.
6
“1943: The Heroes of Telemark,” HYDRO.com, (accessed April 28, 2016)
http://www.hydro.com/en/About-Hydro/Our-history/1929---1945/1943-The-Heroes-of-
Telemark/.

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testing complex at Los Alamos. The project was under the supervision of the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers.7
The Manhattan Project invested hundreds of millions of dollars in unproven and
unknown processes. All work was done entirely in secret. Speed and secrecy were the
watchwords of the Manhattan Project. The project was so secret that when President Roosevelt
died suddenly, Vice President Truman was unaware of the project. 8
The end goal of the Manhattan Project was a nuclear bomb. The Manhattan Engineering
district was a group of engineers and scientists with military supervision to develop the project.
Manhattan Engineer District operated like any other large construction company. It purchased
and prepared sites, hired personnel and subcontractors, built and maintained housing and service
facilities, placed orders for materials, developed administrative and accounting procedures, and
established communications.9
The Manhattan Project developed three specialized locations for the atomic bomb
program. These were Oak Ridge in Tennessee, Los Alamos in New Mexico and Hanford,
Washington. Each sites played an important role in nuclear bomb development. Oak Ridge was
responsible for separating Uranium 235 from Uranium 238 by a process using an electromagnet.
Los Alamos was the primary site for building the first nuclear weapon. The final site was
Hanford, Washington. This site created a new element called plutonium through the use of
nuclear reactors for the use in a weapon. 10
7
Vanderbilt University Germany’s Atomic Bomb Project, (accessed April 19, 2016)
8
9
Ibid.
10
“The Official Homepage of White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico.”
Wsmr.army.mil, (accessed April 20, 2016) http://www.wsmr.army.mil/Pages/newhome.aspx.

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At the Los Alamos Laboratory, two bombs were designed and built. The bomb using
uranium was a simple design. Scientists were confident it would work and did not need testing.
The plutonium bomb was more complex. Plutonium was compressed into a critical mass and
created a chain reaction. As atoms split neutrons are released creating large amounts of energy.
The chain reaction picks up speed as neutrons are released. They strike more atoms and release
more neutrons and more energy. 11
The two design features for the first bombs were a “gun type” weapon and an “implosion
type” weapon. These two were the main design features for the first two bombs. A gun type
weapon works like a gun. There was a large amount of Uranium 235 connected to a long tube
filled with a shaped conventional charge with a detonator placed behind it. When the detonator
activates it channels the explosive material toward the U-235 hitting the U25 setting off a nuclear
explosion. Scientists were confident with this design but the problem was the lack of enough
uranium. They did not test this design because they could not produce more uranium to use for a
second bomb. This was the design for the Little Boy Bomb used on Hiroshima.12
The scientists had a second “implosion type” bomb design. This bomb used plutonium
instead of U-235. This bomb was designed to have the mass surrounded by conventional
explosives like a sphere. When these explosives detonated, spontaneous fission occurred. The
nuclear material achieved critical mass and produced a nuclear explosion. 13
All this work saw fruit on July 16, 1945 at 5:29 AM while testing at White Sands Missile
Range in New Mexico. The United States army military police under the command of Captain
11
Neutron Physics for Nuclear Reactors, 2014, River Edge, SG: World Scientific,
accessed April 20, 2016. ProQuest ebrary.
12
“The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb,” Atomarchive.com, (accessed
April 19, 2016) http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/mp/p5s2.shtml.
13
Ibid.

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Marvin Davis set up the range for the test. White Sands was a 51,500 acre site. It was chosen as
the first choice for the military due to is relative closeness to Los Alamos where they were
building the weapon. It was part of the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range. It was very
secluded to maintain the necessary secrecy.14
The first device used in the test was known as the Gadget. This device was created in Los
Alamos and shipped to White Sands via train. The two men in charge at the test were Dr. Robert
Oppenheimer and General Leslie Groves. The Gadget was placed in a steel canister known as
“The Jug” to help prevent the plutonium from being lost in the explosion.15
On May 7, the scientists conducted a small test with 100 tons of TNT and a small amount
of radioactive material. The tests were successful and the program was ready to test the first
nuclear weapon. At 5:10 AM, with a calm light breeze from the weather report the test was a go
and the countdown started. The device was successful. The effects of the bomb were
devastating. The observers had mixed emotions. Most were in awe of the new weapon that had
been unleashed but all knew this weapon would change the world.16
Scientists and politicians
convinced themselves and the public, it was important the United States was the first country
with this capability. If Germany had been first, Hitler would not have thought twice about wiping
out large portions of Europe or Russia. Today, the White Sands Missile Range is typically
closed to the public. They open for tours of the Trinity site once or twice a year.
In 1945, World War II became desperate for the Axis. Finally, the Germans surrendered
to the Allies. The Japanese refused to give up and fought on. Americans servicemen and women
14
“The Official Homepage of White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico,”
15
Michael Quinlan, 2009. Thinking About Nuclear Weapons. Oxford, GB: OUP Oxford,
(accessed April 20, 2016) ProQuest ebrary.
16
“The Official Homepage of White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico,”

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fought to liberate the islands in the Pacific from the brutality of the Japanese. Islands like Iwo
Jima, the Philippines, and Okinawa were the sites of brutal fighting that saw 1,000s of
Americans killed. The suicide mind set by the Japanese made the Allies reluctant to invade the
Japanese home islands.17
Americans wanted the killings to end.
The successful test by the scientists and engineers at Los Alamos gave President Harry
Truman an option to use the bomb on the Japanese to save American lives. It was not an easy
decision. But he knew the American people wanted the war over. After listening to countless
advice, President approved of this weapons employment and it was shipped to Tinian in the
South Pacific. This bomb known as “Little Boy” was loaded on a B-29 Superfortress piloted by
Paul Tibbets commander of the 509th Composite Group. He named the Bomber Enola Gay after
his mother. The plane took off for the targeted Japanese city of Hiroshima which was an
important transportation center to the Japanese military. At approximately 8:15 a.m. Hiroshima
time, the Enola Gay dropped Little Boy. The bomb detonated 19,000 feet above the city. The
bomb explosion annulated the city killing over 70,000 people and leveled the infrastructure. 18
The shockwave shook the air plane so hard that Tibbets thought he was under flak from
the Japanese. Instead it was from the bombs explosion.
This bomb explosion was estimated at 15 kilotons or
15,000 tons of TNT. The effects of the bomb were
devastating. The bomb created so much heat people got
radiation burns. The bomb caused radiation sickness in
17
Michael Quinlan, 2009. Thinking About Nuclear Weapons, Oxford, GB: OUP Oxford.
accessed April 20, 2016. ProQuest ebrary.
18
“The Nuclear Weapon Archive,” (accessed April 12, 2016)
http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/.
Nuclear Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

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the civilian population. On August 6, the President announced to the American public that the
United States dropped the atomic bomb on Hiroshima.19
After the bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, the United States dropped leaflets on Japan
urging the Japanese government to surrender. The Japanese refused. The United States had no
choice. They needed to drop a second bomb to force Japan to surrender. The city of Nagasaki
was an important shipping port to the Japanese. It became the second target for a United States
nuclear strike. Nagasaki was not a favoured target. It was bombed five times in the previous
twelve months. It would be difficult to assess any damage caused by an atomic bomb. Also,
since Nagasaki grew across hills and valleys, the impact of a powerful bomb might be dissipated.
The city was also broken up with stretches of water. However, fate and the weather were to be
Nagasaki’s undoing. 20
Boxscar was the plane carrying out this raid. At 03.40 hours, the plane under the
command of Major Sweeney took off for the strike. The plane was loaded with an implosion
type bomb known as “Fat Man.” This bomb detonated and covered an area of 2.3 miles. The
residents of the city faced the same effects as Hiroshima with severe burns and radiation
sickness. Some 35,000 people died from the results of the blast. It was a significant turning point
in the war and future world policies. 21
Many people are shocked and angry the United States dropped the bombs and killed
innocent civilians. The United States had no choice. Thousands of American military servicemen
were being killed. Nothing was deterring the Japanese. Continuing with the island hopping
campaign was costly. And then there was Russia. While the United States and Russia were allies
19
“The Nuclear Weapon Archive,” (accessed April 12, 2016)
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid.

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against Germany in World War II, they were never friends. They did not trust each other. The
United States needed to end the war before Russia took Japan. This could have resulted in a split
Japan where Northern Japan was communist and Southern Japan was capitalist. Even before two
examples of Germany and Korea, the United States did not want a split Japan. President Truman
wanted to showcase the atomic bomb to Russia. He needed Japan to surrender.
Scientists hoped the devastation would unite the world. Eleanor Roosevelt said “the
bomb has been made by many minds belonging to different races and different religions that
should set the pattern for the way in which in the future we may be able to work out our
difficulties.” 22
Unfortunately, peace did not happen.
High Atomic Culture (1949 - 1963)
The Atomic Energy Act of 1946
The United States realized the need for nuclear security program. The Atomic Energy
Commission was established involving scientists, military leaders and politicians. It was a
federal agency established to regulate the development, production and use of nuclear power. To
secure nuclear secrets, congress passed the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. This law allowed the
government to secure nuclear resources and information relating to nuclear designs to safe guard
them. They knew the Soviets stole their secrets and design information. This law also gave the
government a way to prosecute anyone suspected of nuclear espionage for the Soviet Union or
any other state. This was extremely important to secure United States nuclear secrets. 23
22
Andrew J. Rotter, 2008. Hiroshima, Oxford, GB: OUP Oxford. (accessed May 5, 2016)
ProQuest ebrary.
23
“The Atomic Energy Act of 1946, 1946,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 2 (3): 18.

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The Soviet Union Detonates the first Atomic Bomb in 1949
At the end of World War II, the Yalta Conference discussed the future for Europe.
Russia, England and United States decided each nation should determine their own future and
support either United States or Russia. Stalin had his own agenda. He wanted a buffer zone with
the west after his country had a surprise attack from the Germans during World War II. He
rigged elections and created a Soviet friendly Eastern Europe. The United States had the only
nuclear power. Stalin wanted a nuclear weapon to help counter the United States monopoly. 24
The Soviet nuclear program was relatively small during World War II. They believed
atomic weapons were impractical and worried about more immediate defensive research. Once
Stalin saw the United States had an atomic bomb, the Soviets took nuclear research more
seriously. Espionage and spies helped the Soviets atomic weapons program get important secrets
from the American weapons program. Klaus Fuchs was a spy that stole and passed information
to the Soviets on American bomb design and technical
specifications. This information sped up the Soviet weapons
program and on August 29, 1949, the Soviets successfully tested
their first atomic bomb at Semipalatinsk. 25
This event shook the
Americans who no longer had the monopoly on the atomic bomb.
The Nuclear Arms Race between the Soviet Union and
United States
The Cold War started on August 29, 1949 with the
detonation of the Soviets first atomic weapon. The Cold War was neither peace nor direct
24
Andrew J. Rotter, 2008, Hiroshima, Oxford, GB: OUP Oxford. accessed May 5, 2016.
ProQuest ebrary.
25
Ibid.

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combat. It was a stalemate among world powers with many conflicts. Since 1945, the Soviet and
United States foreign relations rapidly deteriorated. The Soviets mistrusted the United States and
western European allies after World War II.
While President Roosevelt believed he could get along with Stalin, President Truman
knew Stalin was trouble. Both the United States and Soviet Union wanted to gain advantage
militarily over the other. Atomic weapons were valuable because of their huge potential for
destruction. Each side feared a surprise nuclear strike by the other and as a result, they created bombs
that are more powerful.
The United States tested weapons to improve them but also to show the Soviets what they
had. The United States made the message of massive retaliation very clear to the Soviets. They
believed that was the best way to handle any aggression. Typically, weapons are developed to
use for a military end. Nuclear weapons are developed with the objective to prevent war to start.
The Soviets wanted to spread Communist ideology throughout the world. President
Truman created the Truman Doctrine to deal with threats from the Soviet Union. The United States
foreign policy was to avoid foreign commitments during peacetime. Countries should not impose
their will on other countries. Everyone should be able to live their own way of life. The United
States helped create the United Nations to maintain peace throughout the world. 26
The Truman Doctrine was one of the biggest decisions for American foreign policies.
The doctrine requested money and military aid to help Greece and Turkey withstand Soviet
pressure. Since the end of World War II, leftist forces battled the Greek royal government. The
Soviets wanted control from Turkey over the Dardanelles territory. This was the first time the
United States directly opposed the Soviet Union. Many people worried about a complete
26
Robert Frazier, 2009. "Kennan, "Universalism, and the Truman Doctrine," Journal Of
Cold War Studies 11, no. 2: 3-34, International Security & Counter Terrorism Reference Center,
EBSCOhost (accessed May 5, 2016).

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breakdown with Soviet relations. No one wanted war. Some people questioned why the United
States and not the United Nations were helping Greece and Turkey. They wondered whether the
United States was going to commit money to all countries involved with Soviet aggression.
Truman argued that the United States could not allow the forcible expansion of Soviet
totalitarianism into free, independent nations, because American national security depended upon
more than just the physical security of American territory. 27
While the United Nations was created to maintain peace, it was not prepared to help at
the time. Great Britain and other European countries had economic difficulties from the wars.
They were unable to help Greece and Turkey. It was all up to the United States. The Truman
Doctrine committed the United States to offer assistance to preserve the political integrity of
democratic nations when it was in the best interest of the United States. This policy became a
statement for new foreign policy against the Soviet Union. Truman believed the Soviets would
back down if the United States was willing to go to war using nuclear weapons.28
Another huge impact on the United States nuclear arms race was the idea of the Domino
Theory. This idea believed if one country fell under Communist influence or control; its
neighboring countries would soon follow. The United States worried if Western Europe became
Communist, the United States would also become Communist. With this fear, the United States
needed a strong defense and strong allies to combat the Soviet and Communist threat. 29
George Kennan a State department diplomat stated that “the American people were
weary from war and had no desire to send United States troops into Eastern Europe, rolling back
27
28
Ibid.
29
Ibid.

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the gains of the Red Army would have been impossible. But in places where communism
threatened to expand, American aid might prevent a takeover. By vigorously pursuing this
policy, the United States might be able to contain Communism within its current borders.”
Containment was an important concept to the United States developing NATO alliance in
Western Europe. This treaty was instrumental to allow the United States operating military bases
to deploy nuclear weapons close to the Soviets borders.30
In response, the Soviet Union created their alliance called the WARSAW PACT.
Massive amounts of weapons were created by both alliances to gain the edge. During the Cold
War, there was a massive nuclear arms buildup with thousands of weapons of all shapes and
sizes. At the height of the Cold War, United States and Russia could blow up the world
thousands of times over.
The Soviet Union and United States also began the development of ICBMS to allow their
countries to strike from their homelands. These weapons were a huge improvement over bombs
and bombers. They allowed nations to have a means
to strike their enemies homeland in a short time and
not be countered. Thousands of these weapons were
made and deployed in silos ready to go a minute’s
notice. This technology was achieved by German
development of unmanned missiles such as the V-1
and V-2 that were used to bomb London. When World War II ended, the United States and
Soviet Union used these scientists to create weapons for their country.
30

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Development of Hydrogen and Thermonuclear bombs
The hydrogen bomb was a new type of weapon for the United States and Soviet Union.
These weapons were improvements over the gun type and implosion type bombs. These
weapons were created by the father of the hydrogen bomb, Edwin Teller. He was born in
Budapest, Austria-Hungary. He left Austria to study in Germany then immigrated to American in
the 1930’s with fear of the Nazis and joined Robert Oppenheimer to work on the Manhattan
Project. While working at this program, he became obsessed with the idea of a hydrogen bomb.
He believed, "If you want peace, prepare for war." There will be peace, he says, "if the power is
in the hands of those who want peace." 31
It is interesting that the leadership of Hitler and Stalin
were responsible for the advanced nuclear research in the United States. Top scientists feared
these leaders and fled their country. They came to the United States and provided brilliant work.
The United States nuclear program used these scientists to be the leader.
A hydrogen bomb or thermonuclear bomb, works differently from an atomic bomb. An
atomic bomb uses speed to produce a chain reaction and heat. A fission weapon requires a
fission trigger. A hydrogen bomb starts with the same fission reaction but the majority of
uranium or plutonium goes unused. More of the bomb’s explosive power becomes available and
with an additional step more explosive power is achieved. 32
In 1950, President Truman convinced that the Russians could achieve a hydrogen bomb
announced the United States would develop one. It was an extremely controversial decision.
Scientists and politicians shared feelings of horror if these weapons were created and used. Other
31
"'Father of Hydrogen Bomb’ Unrepentant," 2002, Nanaimo Daily News, Jan 05, D2,
http://search.proquest.com/docview/361064722?accountid=8289.
32
Ken Young, (2013) “The Hydrogen Bomb, Lewis L. Strauss and the Writing of
Nuclear History,” Journal of Strategic Studies, 36:6, 815-840, DOI:
10.1080/01402390.2012.726924.

Whitlock 18
politicians scared the American public with predictions about total destruction with a Soviet
thermonuclear weapon. 33
This fear helped the American people justify nuclear weapons.
The Marshall Islands was a United Nations trust territory administered by the United
States. The United States promised to "protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and
resources." The promise was broken. Between 1946 and 1958, the United States conducted
sixty-seven nuclear tests in the Marshall Islands. Forty-three of those tests occurred on Enewetak
Atoll and the remainder occurred on Bikini Atoll. In 1952, the “Mike” test was 750 times greater
than the Hiroshima bomb. This test vaporized an island. These forty three tests devastated the
land of the Enewetak people. The United States moved the Enewetak people to the smaller,
resource poor, isolated atoll of Ujelang. The people were told the move was temporary but
remained in Ujelang for thirty three years.34
Formation of the nuclear triad
The United States government did not want the army to have a monopoly on nuclear
weapons. They reorganized the United States war department
into the Department of Defense. The United States Air Force
which was previously under the army became a separate
branch of the army. This force was the premier unit in the
United States Air Force responsible for deploying nuclear
weapons against the Soviet Union. It was headed by the very
controversial leader, General Curtis Lemay even though he was considered the father of United
33
Ken Young, (2013) “The Hydrogen Bomb, Lewis L. Strauss and the Writing of
Nuclear History,” Journal of Strategic Studies, 36:6, 815-840, DOI:
10.1080/01402390.2012.726924.
34
Davor Pevec, 2006, “The Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal: The Claims of the
Enewetak People,” Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 35 : 221-547.

Whitlock 19
States Strategic Forces. His controversial ideas on the use of nuclear weapons were for the
United States to use "the entire stockpile of atomic bombs in a single massive attack." That
meant dropping 133 A-bombs on 70 cities within 30 days. He argued that, "if you are going to
use military force, then you ought to use overwhelming military force. Use too much and
deliberately use too much. You will save lives, not only your own, but the enemy's too." 35
Under his leadership, Lemay oversaw the United States Air Forces massive ICBM and
bomber program. His goal was to show the Soviet Union the strength of the United States. The
SAC motto was “Peace is our profession to Forgive is not SAC’s Policy.” 36
Lemay believed he
kept peace by training for war.
When the Navy created their first nuclear powered submarine, the Nautilus, they realized
the potential of nuclear weapons. The Nautilus was constructed under the direction of United
States Navy Captain Hyman G. Rickover, a
Russian-born engineer who joined the United
States atomic program in 1946. In 1947, he was
put in charge of the Navy’s nuclear-propulsion
program and began work on an atomic submarine.
This submarine revolutionized how Navy ships
were powered. 37
The Navy took the idea of nuclear
further and mounted nuclear missiles in submarines. The development of nuclear weapons on submarines
gave the United States a flexible defense strategy.
35
Phillip S. Meilinger, U.S.A.F. 2014, "How LeMay Transformed Strategic Air
Command," Air & Space Power Journal 28 (2): 77-86.
36
Ibid.
37
“History of USS Nautilus,”Submarine Force Museum, (accessed May 12, 2016)
http://www.ussnautilus.org/nautilus/.

Whitlock 20
In the early 1960’s, the United States formed a strategic nuclear triad consisting of land-
based heavy bombers, intercontinental ballistic missiles and submarine-launched ballistic
missiles. The nuclear triad refers to the three ways the United States is capable of firing nuclear
weapons. Each part has advantages but the combination is powerful. It has guaranteed security
for the United States and American allies for more than 50 years. 38
The idea behind the nuclear triad was to allow the United States a second strike ability if
surprised by the Soviet Union or any other enemy. Weapons in the United States nuclear arsenal
provide a wide range of options that can be tailored to meet desired military and political
objectives. Each leg of the triad has advantages that warrant retaining all three legs in the near-
term.39
With the belief that both the Soviet Union and the United States would suffer from
nuclear annulation, the Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) doctrine played an important role.
This idea emerged at the end of the Kennedy administration. It is a logical idea. When two
countries realize they have nothing to gain and everything to
lose, there is no point attacking. In short: Whoever shoots
first, dies second. 40
This belief kept both sides at peace but also required
both countries to build massive stockpiles of arms. This led to
the show down in Cuba in 1962.
38
Steve Pifer, “The Strategic Triad and the Challenge of Tight Budgets,” Brookings
Education, November 19, 2013, (accessed May 6, 2016) http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-
front/posts/2013/11/19-strategic-triad-tight-budget-challenges-pifer.
39
Joan Johnson-Freese and Thomas M. Nichols, 2007. "Space, Security, and the New
Nuclear Triad," The Brown Journal of World Affairs 14 (1): 159-172.
40
Ibid.

Whitlock 21
Cuban Missile Crisis in 1963
In 1961, Fidel Castro became the leader of Cuba and set up a Communist government.
The United States continued to worry about the spread of Communism. With Cuba close to the
United States, President Kennedy wanted to take Cuba from the Communists. His plan involved
Cuban immigrants trained by the CIA to overthrow Castro with support from the United States.
The plan was called the Bay of Pigs. The Cuban refugees began their uprising but did not get the
necessary support from the United States. The operation failed to overthrow Castro. 41
To make the situation worse, the Soviet Union pledged to defend Cuban by deploying
long range missiles to prevent another United States backed invasion. Soviet Premier Nikita
Khrushchev secretly made a deal with Fidel Castro to construct several missile sites. When the
United States did a routine fly by of Cuba, they discovered evidence of the Soviet arms build-up.
President Kennedy was alarmed. Weapons in Cuba gave the Soviet Union the ability to hit any
city in the United States. On September 4, 1962, President Kennedy issued a public warning
against the introduction of offensive weapons into Cuba.42
The United States had to get the weapons out of Cuba. There was no easy solution. The
military argued against airstrikes on the sites because they could not guarantee destroying all the
weapons. They advocated invasion which Kennedy decided would provoke war.43
The President decided to blockade Cuba and set up ships surrounding Cuba to prevent the
Soviets from bringing in military supplies. There was a quarantine of all items entering and
41
“The Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962 ,” US Department of State office of the
Historian, (accessed May 12, 2016) https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-
missile-crisis.
42
Ibid.
43
Ibid.

Whitlock 22
leaving Cuba. The international community supported President Kennedy condemning the Soviet
actions on Cuba. 44
The United States sent a letter and requested a diplomatic line to Khrushchev who
initially declined. Finally with the use of the Soviet diplomat, Soviet Premier Khrushchev and
President Kennedy made a deal. Soviet missiles were removed from Cuba under supervision of
the United Nations, with a guarantee that the United States not attack Cuba. The United States
also removed their missiles from Turkey. 45
The Cuban Missile Crisis was an important event in the history of the Cold War. The
United States and the Soviet Union were so close to war with the possibility of ending the world.
Diplomacy and mutual assurance deterrence led to a peaceful negotiation. Both sides realized the
severity of the situation. United States and Soviet Union began communications to regulate
nuclear weapons and draw down stockpiles of both countries.
Late Atomic Culture (1964 – 1991)
The culture of the Cold War turned to disarmament and draw down. While both the
United States and Soviet Union still mistrusted each other, the reality of Cuban Missile Crisis
made both see the dangerous potential of these weapons. They realized the need to limit creating
new weapons. Despite this reality, both countries maintained the posture of deterrence and
believed in the MAD philosophy so their weapons remained on alert.
44
“Cuban Missile Crisis,” The JFK Library, (accessed May 12, 2016)
http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-History/Cuban-Missile-Crisis.aspx.
45
“The Cuban Missile Crisis, October 1962 ,” US Department of State office of the
Historian, (accessed May 12, 2016) https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-
missile-crisis.

Whitlock 23
The draw down of nuclear weapons
The first step to bring about the drawdown of nuclear weapons was the 1968 Non
Proliferation Treaty. The 1968 Non Proliferation Treaty was a treaty proposed by the countries
of United Kingdom, China, Soviet Union and United States to prevent the spread of nuclear
technology. It was important to prevent the spread of nuclear technology so that countries
without nuclear weapons could not gain them or sell nuclear secret to countries. The United
Nations International Atomic Energy Agency was given the authority to oversee nuclear
facilities for those countries that wanted nuclear power.
This treaty was a landmark in the regulation of nuclear arms. It promoted the use of
nuclear power for peaceful purposes, gave the United Nations a role in regulating the Treaty, and
made the nations of the world adhere to it.
Foreign nuclear powers
The Soviet Union and the United States were not the only countries with nuclear
weapons. France, United Kingdom, China, India and Pakistan had such level of nuclear weapons.
The British nuclear program started at the same time with the United States. British and
American scientists worked together to share data on nuclear weapons development in World
War II. The British were the third atomic power next to the Soviet Union and United States. 46
The French atomic weapons program also started during World War II when two
scientists learned about the United States success in the Manhattan project.
The Chinese nuclear program began in 1955. The Chinese developed their program and
successfully tested their first weapon in 1964. The Chinese conducted about 45 tests throughout
46
John R. Walker, 2016. “Britain and Disarmament : The UK and Nuclear, Biological
and Chemical Weapons Arms Control and Programmes 1956-1975,” Farnham, GB: Routledge,
accessed May 13, 2016, ProQuest ebrary.

Whitlock 24
the Cold War. Little is known about the Chinese nuclear program, as it is a closely guarded
secret however, they will play an important role in the future.
The final two relatively new nuclear powers are India and Pakistan. These two nations
created nuclear weapons after Indian Pakistan War in the 1970s where there was a long disputed
border between the two countries. The Pakistani nuclear program began in the mid-1970s with
uranium enrichment. They tested their first bomb in 1998 shortly after India's nuclear tests,
declaring themselves a nuclear weapon state. Pakistan currently possesses a growing nuclear
arsenal, and remains outside both the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
(NPT) and the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). 47
These states will play an important role in nuclear weapons security in the future and
continue to play a role in modern world events.
START I-II Treaties and Test Ban Treaties.
The START I treaty was proposed in the 1970s with the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
by President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Primer Mikhail Gorbachev as a way for both countries to
reduce their nuclear stockpiles and prevent the development of new nuclear weapons. The talks
were abandoned by the Soviets when they protested the deployment of intermediate-range
missiles in Western Europe. Talks resumed in 1985 and were successful. President George H.W.
Bush signed them in 1991. START I limited both countries to 7,950 warheads and maximum of
1,900 delivery vehicles to be achieved by 1999.48
47
"India, Pakistan Redraw Nuclear Map of the World A Gaping Hole has been Punched
in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 and, According to most Regional Experts,
Nuclear War is More Likely Now Following the Bomb Tests than it Ever was in the Cold War,
Writes Jonathan Schell," 1998.Irish Times, Jun 01, 14.
48
“New START Treaty,” US Department of State (accessed May 13, 2016)
http://www.state.gov/t/avc/newstart/index.htm.

Whitlock 25
The START II Treaty was proposed in 1990s to further the reduction of arms. These
treaties were accepted by the United States and Russia and made each country reduce their
stockpile to 2000 warheads. The treaty eliminated multiple independent reentry vehicles
(MIRVs) on their ICBMs. 49
Fall of the Soviet Union 1991
The fall of the Soviet Union was a huge turning point in world history. Up until this
point, the Soviet Union was a paper giant but it was declining rapidly. The Cold War took a toll
on the Soviet and Eastern European economy. While the Soviet government concentrated on
building massive weapons, other technology, infrastructure and wealth were neglected. 50
The Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev decided to fix the problem with the Soviet
economy by allowing the eastern European countries more leverage and make the Soviet Union
more open to the West. The United States government encouraged Gorbachev’s reform efforts,
hoping that the Soviet leader would succeed in shifting the USSR toward a democratic system
and a market-oriented economy.51
These reforms gave countries independence and ended the Soviet Union. The Berlin
Wall came down and Germany reunited. The fall set up a new age in the realm of nuclear
security. There were new nuclear security challenges as well.
Post Atomic Culture (1992 – Present)
There were new challenges for the atomic culture after the fall of the Soviet Union. The
rise of Islamic Fundamentalism and the securing of nuclear material from former Soviet
49
“START II and Its Extension Protocol at a Glance,” Arms Control Association,
(accessed May 13, 2016). https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/start2.
50
“Collapse of the Soviet Union - 1989-1991,” globalsecurity.org, (accessed May 13,
2016) http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/soviet-collapse.htm.
51
Ibid.

Whitlock 26
republics became a priority. Challenges included a resurgence of Russian nationalism and North
Korea becoming a nuclear state as well as Iran trying to achieve nuclear status. The United States
saw some “black eyes” by nuclear mishaps by its nuclear forces. These events shaped the new
United States nuclear doctrine.
The challenges of securing Cold War stockpiles
Since the end of the Cold War, the United States and Russia account for 93 percent of the
world’s stockpile in nuclear arms. Today, these two countries maintain around 2,000 nuclear
weapons. These weapons need to be secure. The old Soviet states of Ukraine, Belarus and
Kazakhstan gave up the weapons they inherited in the breakup of the Soviet Union. The policy
of cleaning up these weapons is a task designed for the United States Department of Energy
National Nuclear Security Administration or NNSA. The number of weapons dropped since the
Cold War has increased so national security summits are held to deal with securing nuclear arms.
Securing these weapons remains an important priority for the world’s security to prevent an
unauthorized nuclear detonation. 52
A risk of drawdown of nuclear weapons is Pakistan and India who refused to sign the test
ban treaties and continue to develop new nuclear weapons. These two countries have a rivalry
over their disputed boarders. 53
Rise of terrorism
Terrorism is a growing problem for the world. Terrorism started in the late 1970s with the
end of colonialism by the European nations. This led to bitter regional, national and ethnic
rivalries by groups trying to further their agenda. The fear that terrorists get a nuclear weapon
52
“The Nuclear Threat,” Nuclear Security Summit Progress Report, (accessed May 13,
2016) http://www.nti.org/learn/nuclear/.
53
Ibid.

Whitlock 27
poses a huge nuclear danger to the Middle East, Northeast Asia, South Asia and elsewhere.
According to NTI, there are around more than 1,800 metric tons of weapons-usable nuclear
materials-highly enriched uranium (HEU) and plutonium—stored in hundreds of sites across 25
countries, some of them poorly secured. This threat allows terrorist groups to potentially gain
enough nuclear material to build a small bomb. The nuclear countries of the world must work
together to secure these materials.54
Non Proliferation Treaties
The Non Proliferation Treaty is a United Nations policy. The purpose is to make sure
nuclear weapons are not traded and sold to non-state or state actors who want a nuclear weapon.
The United Nations set up an office to deal with the threat of nuclear proliferation.55
The United States ratified this treaty and set up a state department mandate to deal with
non-proliferation to support the United Nation. This treaty was ratified in the 1970s and is
reviewed every five years to update its processes. There are two goals of the United States Non
Proliferation treaty. One goal is to allow countries with nuclear weapons to move towards
disarmament. The other goal is to prevent countries without nuclear weapons from acquiring
them. The ultimate goal is for all countries to access peaceful nuclear technology. 56
These two entities allow the world to safely manage nuclear material and prevent those
who shouldn’t from gaining a nuclear weapon. These offices actively support the world’s
mission of minimizing access to nuclear weapons.
54
“The Nuclear Threat,” Nuclear Security Summit Progress Report, (accessed May 13,
2016) http://www.nti.org/learn/nuclear/.
55
“United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs,” UNODA, (accessed May 13, 2016)
https://www.un.org/disarmament/about/.
56
“NuclearNonproliferation Treaty,” U.S.Department of State,(accessed May13,2016)
http://www.state.gov/t/isn/npt/.

Whitlock 28
North Korea, the new nuclear threat
A major threat to the United States is North Korea. Since World War II, the North
Koreans have dreamed of a nuclear bomb to evict the United States from South Korea and claim
control of the Korean peninsula. The Koreans tried to unify the Koreas in 1950 with an invasion.
The Korean War ended with Korea split into two separate countries at the 38th
Parrell. Since the
end of the Korean War, the United States has stationed troops along the border of North Korea
known as the DMZ. To gain a technological edge against the Americans, the North Koreans
developed a nuclear bomb. 57
The United States and China led Six-Party Talks which began in 2003 with the goal of
denuclearizing the Korean Peninsula. These talks were unsuccessful in stopping North Korea so
tougher sanctions were forced on North Korea. In response, the North Koreans launched an
ICBM test which outraged the international community.58
The North Koreans remain a credible
threat to world nuclear security. Since they are a state sponsor of terrorism, they could
potentially provide weapons to terrorist groups.
Mishaps and incidents
The United States has done great things to protect world from nuclear war but there are
some black marks on the United States nuclear enterprise. These mishaps cause the world to be
concerned about the United States ability to protect its own stockpile.
As a result of these incidents and mishaps, the United States took steps to fix the
situation. The United States Air Force reorganized its nuclear forces under the Global Strike
Command. This command takes the SAC’s culture of zero errors and 100% accountability. The
57
“North Korea,” Nuclear Security Summit Progress Report, (accessed May 13, 2016)
http://www.nti.org/learn/countries/north-korea/.
58
Ibid.

Whitlock 29
military also improved training and awareness for nuclear security and provides more money to
people who fulfilled this role. 59
China and Russia Issues
Since 2010, the Russians and Chinese have been ramping up their nuclear programs and
becoming bolder toward United States foreign policy. Vladimir Putin was an ex-KGB officer
during the Cold War. His hardline policies and goals are to make the Russian people proud of
their country. He believes in a strong Russian military and nuclear force to achieve his goals. He
wants to regain some of Russia’s old lands to rebuild the Soviet Union. The United States
believes the Russian government is developing new weapons to challenge the United States and
modernize their strategic nuclear forces.60
The Chinese are acting bolder toward the United States. With huge amounts of money
from industrial output, the Chinese are modernizing their military. Their goals provide long-
term, comprehensive transformation of its military forces to improve its capabilities for force
projection and anti-access/area denial operations. China has also developed anti-satellite missiles
to shoot down potential United States satellites hindering United States battlefield
communications.61
These current threats are important to watch out for in the 21st
Century as these two
nations become stronger. They continue to test the power of the United States.
59
William Broad and David Sanger, “Race for Latest Class of Nuclear Arms Threatens to
Revive Cold War,” nytimes.com, (accessed April 19, 2016).
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/17/science/atom-bomb-nuclear-weapons-hgv-arms-race-
russia-china.html?_r=1.
60
Ibid.
61
Ibid.

Whitlock 30
Iran issue
Iran’s nuclear program causes international distress. The Iranian government has been
developing uranium enrichment for 18 years which was a violation of the nuclear Non
Proliferation treaty. Iran claims their program is for nuclear power. Despite this claim, the
Iranian Government stated “the international community is displaying double standards by not
doing anything about its arch-foe Israel, which is widely believed to have a nuclear arsenal”
They believe it is their right to have a bomb. 62
Iran cannot have a bomb. Along with a potential war with Israel, Iran supports and trains
terrorists. The United States and the United Nations put sanctions on Iran but have lifted some
with recent negotiations.
Nuclear Security Summit 2016
The Nuclear Security Summit 2016 continues defining nuclear security. This event
started back in 2009 with President Obama’s speech in Prague. Obama stated “that nuclear
terrorism “is the most immediate and extreme threat to global security.” This event allows
nations to work together on nuclear security to solve the nuclear question and regulate nuclear
weapons.63
Conclusion
For 80 years the world has dealt with the threat of nuclear weapons. Since the splitting of
the atom and the first test in the deserts of New Mexico, the United States has been charged with
keeping nuclear weapons safe and preventing nuclear war. While the United States has seen
some mishaps and incidents, it has successfully made the world a safer place. They continue to
62
“Iran Nuclear Crisis: Six Key Points,” bbc.news, (accessed May 13, 2016)
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32114862.
63
“The 2016 Nuclear Security Summit,” Nuclear Security Summit, (accessed May 13,
2016) http://www.nss2016.org/about-nss/history/.

Whitlock 31
lead the world on how to handle these weapons. Nuclear security will last into the future as new
issues are brought up. As long as the world takes steps to prevent a detonation, the world will be
a safe place and as Albert Einstein said, “I know not with what weapons World War III will be
fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones.” 64
It is everyone’s
responsibility to protect life on this planet. Nuclear weapons security is part of protecting this
life.
64
“Albert Einstein Quotes and Quotations,” Military Quotes, (accessed May 13, 2016)
http://www.military-quotes.com/albert-einstein.htm.

Whitlock 32
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