This document is a 2907 word essay examining the relationship between gender and security in Israel through a biopolitical framework. It explores how constructs of motherhood advance the pursuit of Israeli existential security through demographics. The essay analyzes how gendered bodies and norms are important in constructing security discourse and practice in Israel, revealing gendered insecurities within the Jewish Israeli collective. It focuses on women's experiences of security and insecurity related to norms of motherhood, fertility, and pregnancy termination policies. The essay is divided into sections on demographics, territory/military, and resistance.
Ken and Katie Hauck of Hauck Homes, Inc. discuss the lessons they learned and the mistakes they made as this couple grew from one community with only 77 sites to now owning 12 communities with just over 1700 sites. Community Owners will hear practical advice about how to the issues and challenges facing our industry. You will leave this session with tips for avoiding some of the mistakes they made along their dramatic growth curve.
Ken and Katie Hauck of Hauck Homes, Inc. discuss the lessons they learned and the mistakes they made as this couple grew from one community with only 77 sites to now owning 12 communities with just over 1700 sites. Community Owners will hear practical advice about how to the issues and challenges facing our industry. You will leave this session with tips for avoiding some of the mistakes they made along their dramatic growth curve.
The paper explores masculinity and / or femininity and their relationship to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe. The paper implicates both masculinity and femininity as accomplices in spreading HIV and AIDS. The purpose of the paper is to highlight the growing concern that cultural practices contribute to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe and beyond. The paper further argues that whereas the masculine (male or female) may impose themselves on the feminine (female or male), the latter also contributes to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS by willingly accepting the imposition as a societal ‘norm’ or value to use Taylor’s (2003) theory of scenarios. The unquestioned acceptance of the masculine’s demands becomes the norm or scenario that should be viewed as ‘natural’ by both the hegemonic masculine and the subaltern feminine in a relationship. To carry out the study, a case study design was adopted as the operational framework for data gathering. Data was collected from Mount Zion, Temeraire Baptist Church in Mashava, Masvingo province by engaging Practice As Research (PAR) and participant observation. The sample comprised 20 adolescents made up of 10 boys and 10 girls. The results gathered from the research confirmed that to a greater extent, societal norms and attitudes influence one’s behaviour towards life in general and sex to be specific. These findings demonstrate the need for academics, government, families and other interested stakeholders to re-evaluate cultural practices and specifically, gender roles.
Development through Gender Equity and Women EmpowermentIJAEMSJORNAL
Gender has been conceptualized from different perspectives, but whether in social or cultural terms, the evil connotation tends towards gender inequity or inequality which culminate in gender discrepancy and discrimination. The cultural values of Nigeria place women in the home passively subordinate to men in every sphere of life. The inferior status of the women cautions and sensitizes them to the possible consequences of violating social norms. Women in Nigeria have indeed been denied equal rights to basic education, economic advancement, always alienated in matters of governance through discriminatory and often times harmful traditional practices that have deliberately humiliated them. Women tend to be more sensitive to issues of affiliation, inclusion, loneliness and acceptance. They have greater tenderness, understanding and better control of emotions, which is why there can be no effective development strategy hi which women should not play a central role. Development is a process of change to a better, more advanced and highly organized conditions (Osim 2007). No full development can be attained without utilizing the potentials of the women population that constitute the substantial fraction of the total population, but women must close ranks for the total liberation and empowerment of women so that they can contribute their quota to our national development.
Running Head RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS 1T.docxjeanettehully
Running Head: RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS 1
Title: Research Question and Hypothesis
Student’s Name:
Date:
Scholars and researchers spend a lot of time doing studies on a particular topic. This gives them an experience on the topic of research that they are dealing with. In my annotated bibliography I have provided several sources that provide a lot of reliable information about aviation safety. All the sources were written by professional authors who provide intensive research techniques about air safety and the benefits of a safe aviation sector (Salkind, 2012). Aviation safety topic is what I am currently dealing with and which I am basing my research on. This topic is has been discussed over and over and it seems that no enough research has been done to answer questions related to the required standards of safety in the sector.
The problem to be addressed in this study is the improvement of aviation safety in the country. The aviation sector is one of the biggest industries in the country and even in the world all over. Safety in the sector is, therefore, a very big issue that needs to be reviewed and stressed. In my research, I will base my research on the improvement of the services in the aviation industry to improve safety and reliability in the sector.
I have developed three questions which if answered will accomplish the goals of my research problem. One of the questions is, what is the impact of an insecure aviation sector to the people and economy of the county. This is because if the sector is not secure, people might get hurt and the economy of the country will be affected as people and customers might develop a negative attitude towards an insecure aviation sector. The second question which will aid in my research if answered is, what are the key factors which promote and allow risks to occur in the aviation sector. Having many risks occurring will promote insecurity in the sector. The third question is about the change of eh policies in the aviation sector. A change of policy might assist to improve aviation safety in the country.
In my proposed study, I will look at the importance of privatizing the aviation sector as being a good strategy of improving services than having it being run by the government (Wiggins & Stevens, 2016). Privatizing the sector will ensure that safety measures have been considered in the sector. A board of directors would run the sector more effectively than the government running. A lot of researches and strategies will be put in place to promote the safety of the sector and ensure the usage of quality equipment to ensure the safety of the employees and the clients of the sector.
References
Ferguson, M., & Nelson, S. (2012). Aviation Safety: A Balanced Industry Approach. Cengage Learning.
Salkind, N. J. (2012). 100 Questions (and Answers) About Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Wiggins, M. W., & Stevens, C. (2016). Aviation Social Science: Research Meth ...
The paper explores masculinity and / or femininity and their relationship to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe. The paper implicates both masculinity and femininity as accomplices in spreading HIV and AIDS. The purpose of the paper is to highlight the growing concern that cultural practices contribute to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS in Zimbabwe and beyond. The paper further argues that whereas the masculine (male or female) may impose themselves on the feminine (female or male), the latter also contributes to the prevalence of HIV and AIDS by willingly accepting the imposition as a societal ‘norm’ or value to use Taylor’s (2003) theory of scenarios. The unquestioned acceptance of the masculine’s demands becomes the norm or scenario that should be viewed as ‘natural’ by both the hegemonic masculine and the subaltern feminine in a relationship. To carry out the study, a case study design was adopted as the operational framework for data gathering. Data was collected from Mount Zion, Temeraire Baptist Church in Mashava, Masvingo province by engaging Practice As Research (PAR) and participant observation. The sample comprised 20 adolescents made up of 10 boys and 10 girls. The results gathered from the research confirmed that to a greater extent, societal norms and attitudes influence one’s behaviour towards life in general and sex to be specific. These findings demonstrate the need for academics, government, families and other interested stakeholders to re-evaluate cultural practices and specifically, gender roles.
Development through Gender Equity and Women EmpowermentIJAEMSJORNAL
Gender has been conceptualized from different perspectives, but whether in social or cultural terms, the evil connotation tends towards gender inequity or inequality which culminate in gender discrepancy and discrimination. The cultural values of Nigeria place women in the home passively subordinate to men in every sphere of life. The inferior status of the women cautions and sensitizes them to the possible consequences of violating social norms. Women in Nigeria have indeed been denied equal rights to basic education, economic advancement, always alienated in matters of governance through discriminatory and often times harmful traditional practices that have deliberately humiliated them. Women tend to be more sensitive to issues of affiliation, inclusion, loneliness and acceptance. They have greater tenderness, understanding and better control of emotions, which is why there can be no effective development strategy hi which women should not play a central role. Development is a process of change to a better, more advanced and highly organized conditions (Osim 2007). No full development can be attained without utilizing the potentials of the women population that constitute the substantial fraction of the total population, but women must close ranks for the total liberation and empowerment of women so that they can contribute their quota to our national development.
Running Head RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS 1T.docxjeanettehully
Running Head: RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS 1
Title: Research Question and Hypothesis
Student’s Name:
Date:
Scholars and researchers spend a lot of time doing studies on a particular topic. This gives them an experience on the topic of research that they are dealing with. In my annotated bibliography I have provided several sources that provide a lot of reliable information about aviation safety. All the sources were written by professional authors who provide intensive research techniques about air safety and the benefits of a safe aviation sector (Salkind, 2012). Aviation safety topic is what I am currently dealing with and which I am basing my research on. This topic is has been discussed over and over and it seems that no enough research has been done to answer questions related to the required standards of safety in the sector.
The problem to be addressed in this study is the improvement of aviation safety in the country. The aviation sector is one of the biggest industries in the country and even in the world all over. Safety in the sector is, therefore, a very big issue that needs to be reviewed and stressed. In my research, I will base my research on the improvement of the services in the aviation industry to improve safety and reliability in the sector.
I have developed three questions which if answered will accomplish the goals of my research problem. One of the questions is, what is the impact of an insecure aviation sector to the people and economy of the county. This is because if the sector is not secure, people might get hurt and the economy of the country will be affected as people and customers might develop a negative attitude towards an insecure aviation sector. The second question which will aid in my research if answered is, what are the key factors which promote and allow risks to occur in the aviation sector. Having many risks occurring will promote insecurity in the sector. The third question is about the change of eh policies in the aviation sector. A change of policy might assist to improve aviation safety in the country.
In my proposed study, I will look at the importance of privatizing the aviation sector as being a good strategy of improving services than having it being run by the government (Wiggins & Stevens, 2016). Privatizing the sector will ensure that safety measures have been considered in the sector. A board of directors would run the sector more effectively than the government running. A lot of researches and strategies will be put in place to promote the safety of the sector and ensure the usage of quality equipment to ensure the safety of the employees and the clients of the sector.
References
Ferguson, M., & Nelson, S. (2012). Aviation Safety: A Balanced Industry Approach. Cengage Learning.
Salkind, N. J. (2012). 100 Questions (and Answers) About Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Wiggins, M. W., & Stevens, C. (2016). Aviation Social Science: Research Meth ...
ABSTRACT: Gender issue dominates the 21st century discourse both in the developed world and in the developing countries. It is a top priority of United Nation policy and World Bank commitment to invest on any programmes that guarantee full participation of women. Gender inequality or discrimination has been blamed on the steady increase on poverty, unemployment and other related issues. It is by no means a Western concept aimed at liberating women from perceived discrimination. Gender equality is perceived as a meaningful guarantor of development. However, academic query on this important issue left some gap to be filled on the irony of gender equality. What does the concept stand for, where is it coming from, what is the motive of gender equality, does it really guarantee women freedom without subjecting them to forms of exploitation and dehumanization? This piece is critical in answering these questions and in accessing the economic development agenda behind the campaign on gender equality. In order to achieve this, Marxist position is utilized, while upholding Structural functionalist theory to maintain the status quo and with certain modification and improvement on the condition of women. However, the study indicted capitalist economic system as the major causes of gender inequality.
Expression of Underlying Conflicts through Genitals A Comparative Analysis be...ijtsrd
This article explores the intriguing phenomenon of expressing underlying psychological conflicts through the genitals, comparing the manifestations between childhood and adulthood. Drawing insights from clinical studies and psychological research, the analysis reveals a fascinating interplay between the mind and the body. In childhood, emotions can manifest physically, often seen in instances such as bedwetting, which is linked to stress and insecurity. As individuals transition to adulthood, sexual dysfunctions like erectile dysfunction and vaginismus emerge as potential indicators of unresolved emotional conflicts. Despite the developmental differences, both stages demonstrate the bodys unique ability to communicate distress nonverbally. Recognizing these expressions holds clinical significance, offering early intervention opportunities for mental health professionals. Tailored therapeutic approaches, such as play therapy for children and cognitive behavioral therapy for adults, facilitate conflict resolution and potentially mitigate physical manifestations. Overall, understanding the connection between psychological turmoil and genital expression unveils a captivating dimension of human experience, highlighting the intricate relationship between our internal struggles and bodily reactions. Jisha P Mohammed | Thara Xavier | Babitha Mathew | Nithara George | Arun James "Expression of Underlying Conflicts through Genitals: A Comparative Analysis between Childhood and Adulthood" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-7 | Issue-4, August 2023, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd59752.pdf Paper Url:https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/nursing/59752/expression-of-underlying-conflicts-through-genitals-a-comparative-analysis-between-childhood-and-adulthood/jisha-p-mohammed
Emerging Moral Issues and their Influence on African Studies: An Interpretati...AJHSSR Journal
The discourse on the incipient ethical themes is not novel in the context of African studies. The
moral issues that this paper interests itself with are abortion, capital punishment, and euthanasia. The
employment of the locution emerging moral issues is in the loose sense tinctured with acaveat as some of these
societal quandaries are as antique as humanity itself. The underlying tenet of these three subjects‟candidature
threshold qualification for deeming is due to their vitiation of the core of human life. The comprehension at this
juncture ought not to be that they are the exclusive ones. Whenever we are faced with this realism, the nagging
enquiry endures being what the conceivable approaches through which the African studies could ameliorate the
status quo are? The problematic facet is that there appears to be a privation of a viable approach by which these
two sorts of cultures might fertilely interact with a telos of nourishing each other instead of being in a melee of
antagonism. In pursuing the conceivable mode out to this, the exposition utilizes the phenomenological method
coupled with hermeneutic in the deciphering of the available literature. The upshot of this endeavour realized
that the apt resolve to this competition of these two cultures which are alien to each other is through the doctrine
of interculturality. The intercommunication of values, consequently, remains to be the most apposite remedy in
the preservation of African culture(s) since the point of departure of any culture ought to be the pursuit of truth.
It is this veracity that unifies humanity as the human intellect is predisposed to the verisimilitude whose sequel
is human emancipation. Additionally, human beings derive the gist of their lives from values.
Objective Look at Abortion Legalization The Case of Nepalijtsrd
bortion remained one of most debatable issue across the globe. In most countries there exist pro and anti abortion groups. In countries where abortion is regarded as abominable act, there are some window of opportunity for women to terminate pregnancy based of medical ground While others made termination of pregnancy null and void. But in all situations the moral and human right issue underpinning abortion is how the act is classified a murder or not murder . The anti abortion movements support the right of fetus to life and pro abortion movements support the right of mother as the determinant of the right of fetus to life or not. Researchers have further expanded the argument to the point of where does life begins If life begins in the womb, then abortion can be classified as murder. Legalizing abortion is religiously unacceptable but pro abortion groups tried to established the fact that, what is in the womb is not yet human, it has no human name and cannot enjoy human right. pro abortion movements have achieved some successes as many countries have fully legalized or conditionally permit abortion. Currently countries around Asia, Africa, Europe, America which does not allow abortion have softened their stands against. China, Nepal and other have removed any barriers against abortion and with the creation of enabling environment that enhances it. This review paper examined abortion law in Nepal under very section and pinpoint some of the gains and the shortfalls. Lokmani Giri | Ahotovi Thomas Ahoto "Objective Look at Abortion Legalization: The Case of Nepal" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-4 | Issue-5 , August 2020, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd33034.pdf Paper Url :https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/33034/objective-look-at-abortion-legalization-the-case-of-nepal/lokmani-giri
The Blame of Infertility in Families amongst the Ikwerre People of Rivers StateAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : Infertility, the inability to get pregnant after twelve months or more regular unprotected sexual
intercourse is a global phenomenon but among the Ikwerre people of Rivers State, the blame of infertility in the
family is always shifted to the woman despite the discovery of modern diagnosis that reveals that men and
women can be responsible for childlessness. This research brings to bear the fact that modernity has not affected
the Ikwerre people on the blame game of infertility in families. Thus, this paper looked at the problem of
infertility using a structured questionnaire of 4-point Likert scale, analyzed the data with a descriptive statistics
and simple percentage for the socio-demographic distribution of respondent while mean and standard deviations
were used to analyze the research questions. It adopted the use of Fertility Awareness Methods Theory as a
panacea to the blame of infertility and concludes that knowledge of the reproductive anatomy and physiology of
couples as it relates to fertility will help them make informed decisions concerning childbearing. (keywords:
Infertility, Blame, Marriage, Pregnancy)
The Blame of Infertility in Families amongst the Ikwerre People of Rivers State
Gender and Security in Israel
1. Emily Judson 538445
AS1
‘Examine the relationship between gender and
security in Israel.’
Israeli Politics
Deadline: 12/12/2014
Word Count: 2907
2. ‘It is our legitimate right to try and maintain the Jewish majority and hegemony of the state.’
(Knesset statement 2005 in Kravel-Tovi 2012:751)
Securityisa complicatedconceptthat can be understoodinmultiplewaysdependingonthe
group(s) of people andissue(s) atstake. Forexample national security;familyeconomicsecurity;or
global energy security all use the conceptof securitywithdifferentimplications.Itisimportantto
note that no definitionof securityis'neutral'.All definitionshave political implicationsandare
locatedin historical contextandwiderworkings of power.The achievementof securityby acertain
collective isoftenpremiseduponthe insecurityof others.Thisisnota staticbinaryand
security/insecuritychangesdependingoncontext andlensof analysis.A subjectmay also
simultaneouslyexperiencebothsecurity and insecurityoveraspectrumof factors.Finally,itis
importantto note thatactors strivingforsecurityandactors perceivedassecuritythreatsare rarely
uncomplicated,unifiedsubjects.
Thisessaywill explore the conceptof 'existential'securityinIsraelthroughabiopolitical framework.
By existential securityIreferto the securingof the continued existence of Israel asa Jewish-majority
state.Biopoliticscanbe definedas “anentire seriesof interventionsandregulatorycontrols”that
shape the social body(Foucault1991 in Kravel-Tovi2012:740). In otherwords,the biopoliticsof
existential securityreferstoa fluidmatrix of ideasandpracticesthatproduce and reproduce Jews
(physical populationnumbers); Jewishness;andthe conceptof Israel (asa legitimate,Jewish-
majoritystate). Existentialsecurityhas bothinternal andexternal elements intermsof the state.
Thisessaywill refermostlyto internal elements,howeveritisimportanttonote that Israel’s
existence isalsopartlyrelianton recognitionbynon-Israeli actors suchas the Jewish‘diaspora’ or
the US government.
3. It isimportanthere to mentionthe context inwhichIsraeliexistential security isconceptualised.The
stakesof maintainingthe existence andidentityof Israel are relativelyhigh. Changes could
potentially discreditthe political ideaof Zionism;challenge the meaningof the Jewishidentity; and
alterregional andglobal politicaldynamics.Currently Israelisuniqueinitsidentityasa Jewish-
majoritystate itand it liesamidstaregionof non-Jewishstates.Identitiesbetweenandwithin
neighbouringnon-Jewishstatestendtobe amalgamatedinto one ‘Arab’identitythatposesa
‘threat’to Israel.Asa result,“Israel perceivesitself tobe undera constantand general threattoits
existence”(Toft2012:21). Furthermore,the presence of anArabpopulationwithhighfertilityrates
inside Israeli territorymeansthatthis demographicandidentity ‘threat’isalsoan integral partof
Israel itself. Currentlythe populationof Israel (excludingthe contestedterritories) is75% Jewish,
20.7% Araband 4.2% ‘other’,whilstbirthratesare 1.7 childrenper womanforJewsand2.2 children
perwomanfor Arabs(JewishVirtual Libraryanon.2014). If the contestedterritoriesare included
thenthe non-Jewishpercentageof the populationissubstantiallyhigher.Takingthe above into
account,maintenance of a Jewish-majority state posessignificantchallenges.
GenderAnalysis
I will use genderasananalytical tool to demonstrate how genderedbodiesandnorms are important
inthe constructionof securitydiscourse andpractice. Furthermore,thisanalysisreveals anumberof
gendered insecurities within the JewishIsraeli collective thatare nominally being‘secured’.This
essaywill use Khalili’s(2010:3) definitionof gender/genderingas “a setof practicesanddiscourses
that constitute ‘men’and‘women’ and masculinitiesandfemininitiesinparticularways.Gendering
isneitherabout womenalone,norisita pure and autonomousdichotomy”. Myanalysis willbe
orderedintothree inter-relatingsections:demographics,territory/militaryandresistance.
4. Thisessaywill focuson ‘women’1
andwomen’sexperiences,howeverIdonotwishto suggestthat
genderanalysisislimited tothisfocus.Ialsodo notwishto uncomplicatedlyequatewomenwith
biologicallyfemale bodies; by‘women’Ireferto a heterogeneous collectivethatissocially
constructedandis thus fluidandcontested.Thisessayisnotan attempttodefine womenor
womanhood,howevertheseconcepts(inall theirvariety) are active inlivedexperience whichiswhy
I am choosingtouse them.
Demographics
Thissectionwill explore the ideaof women as“bearersof the collective”(Halperin-Kaddari and
Yagdar 2010) that secure the future presence of aJewish-majorityIsraeli state.Toreiterate,it isnot
sufficienttodiscuss‘women’withreference solelytobiological female sexandreproductive
function. Constructionsof gender,(femininities and masculinities) transcendbiological sex2
andare
influential inexplainingothersocial norms, behaviours andconstructions.Here Iwill specifically
addressconstructionsof ‘motherhood’ withrelationtosecurity.
Firstly,motherhoodcan be seen asa legitimisingfactorforwomen’spublicandpolitical voices
(ShalevandLemish 2013). Thisrelatestoideasof a republican‘social contract’whereby citizenshipis
achievedby contributingtothe nation.Women,throughbirthandmotherhood, contribute tothe
national goal of maintainingIsrael asaJewish-majoritystate byreproducingbothphysical human
bodiesand‘Jewishness’. Transmission of Jewish identityismatrilineal,conferringcertain
responsibilities specifically towomen (Halperin-Kaddari andYadgar2010:911). For example,the
state sponsorsJewishconversionfor people whohave migrated toIsrael viathe expanded law of
return3
. These free conversionsare particularlytargetedatyoung,single womenwhoare potential
1 I will use‘’ throughout the essay to indicatecomplicated and contested concepts.
2 which in itself is not a male/female binary
3 In 1970 people with a Jewish grandparent (and their spouse/chil dren) also becameentitled to citizenship.
5. mothers andthus potential reproducersof Jewishidentity andthe Jewish-majority nation(Kravel-
Tovi 2012). The role of motherhood inestablishing‘Jewishness’and‘Israeliness’alsoconcerns
socialisationandeducation.Womeninthe family(genderedasthe feminine sphere) andinother
‘mothering’rolesmake up the majorityof primarycarersandeducators.4
They are therefore largely
responsible forsocialisingchildrento‘fitin’withIsraeli society. ‘Motherhood’ canherebybe
understood both asbiological reproductionof children, andasperformingotherroles that
(re)produce JewishnessandJewishlives.Thisphysical andsocial reproductionadditionally
contributestosecuritybyproducing ‘future soldiers’whodefend the nation territorially (Herbst
2012). Women’smembershipof national society asachievedviamotheringistherefore directly
connectedtostate security.
Thisvaluationof motherhoodandbirth hasstrongconsequences forwomenwhoare unable or
unwillingtofill thatrole. Herbst(2012) arguesthat mothersare idealisedandthose who donot fit
thisideal type are condemned. Intermsof physical reproduction,fertilityis prized andinfertilityis
‘punished’;infertile womenare shamedandblamedfortheir owncondition (ShalevandLemish
2013). To ‘help’infertilewomen, the Israeli state offersalarge range of verylow-costfertility
treatments5
.Until recentlythisincluded unlimitedcyclesof IVFupuntil the birthof 2 healthy
childrenorthe womanturning 45. However,inFebruary2014 state IVFpolicy changedtopermita
maximumof 8 cycles(or 3 if a womanisover42), resultinginsubstantial backlash(Prusher2014). In
additiontoIVF,surrogacyis alsopermitted bythe state,alongside egg/spermdonationandfreezing.
Despite these reproductive technological options,astrongsocietal preferenceisstill indicatedfor
biological parenthoodand the conventional nuclearfamily (ShalevandLemish 2013).Shalevand
Lemishargue that if thishostilityweretobe overcome, reproductive technologies thatallow
‘infertile motherhood’have potential tosubvertgenderhierarchies.Forexample,if aheterosexual
4 For example in 2010 (the lasttime the World Bank collected this statistic for Israel) 85%of primary school
teachers in Israel were female (World Bank data 2014)
5 Availableto singleand non-heterosexual women as well as married women
6. couple have a babythrougha surrogate ‘gestationalcarrier’ thenbothpartiesin the couple
experience pregnancy ina‘male’way;havinga babywithoutthe physical embodiment,‘labours’
and painsof pregnancyand birth (2013:333).
Finally,the pushfora highbirth rate may have implicationsonstate pregnancy-termination policy.
Terminationispossible inIsrael andrecentlythe state expandedsubsidisedtermination toinclude
womenbetweenthe agesof 20 and33 (Kamin2014). Whilstthisservice isnow available,women
seekingaterminationmusthave theircasesapprovedbefore a3 personpanel.Statisticssuggest
that between96-98%of casesare approved, howeverthismaybe due toself-selection (Steinfeld
2014). Onlythose whoknowtheircasesare likelytobe approvedwillstandbefore the panel,and
reportedlyhalf of all terminationsinIsrael take place illegally6
.Thisappearstoindicate thatavariety
of factors,linkedtothe social andnational discipliningof womenintomotherhoodasdescribed
above,still limitthe ‘acceptability’of termination.
In summarythissectionhasexplored constructs of motherhood,inrelationtobiological andsocial
reproduction, thatadvance the pursuitof Israeli existential securitythrough demographics.Usinga
genderlenstoexplore howbiopoliticalsecurity practicesaffectthe livesof women alsoreveals
several genderedinsecurities.Firstly,womenwhofail toembodyandperform the ideal-type of
motherhood (bothbiological andsocial) face ‘punishment’throughsocial disciplining.Secondly two
groupsof womenwhodonot ‘fit’the ideal-type of motherhood canbe identified;infertile women
and womenseekingpregnancyterminations.Alongsidesocial insecurity thatmayresultfrom
transgressionof ‘mothering’norms,thesegroups of womenface potential physical andmental
healthinsecurities.Infertile womenare encouragedtoengage witharange of fertilitytreatments
that involve large dosesof hormones;canbe physicallyinvasive;maylastforan extendedtime
period;andmay ultimatelybe unsuccessful.Thiscanhave substantial effectsonparticipants’ mental
6 Many by privatedoctors, for a fee of NIS 2,099 – 2,912, no questions asked (Steinfeld 2014)
7. health.Furthermore, fertilitydrugs mayalsobe linkedtoincreasedhealthrisks suchascancer,
thoughscientificresearch investigatingcausalityiscurrently inconclusive.Finally,women seeking
pregnancy terminationmay additionally face economicinsecurity if theyare unlikely tobe approved
by the terminationpanel and insteadseekexpensiveprivate/illegalterminations.
Territory and Military
The followingsectionwill elaborate onthis discussion of motheringfemininity inthe contextof the
military,focusingonexpectationsof female soldiers andhow these are constructedwithinfluence
fromwidergenderednorms insociety.The aimof thisisto demonstrate how genderedstructures,
normsand discourse connectdemographicandterritorial elementsof security.Inexploringthis,I
wishto drawattentiontoconflictingexpectationsof womenintheir motheringcapacityas“bearers
of the collective”and intheirmilitarycapacityas defendersof the collective.If conscripted military
service isconsidered integral inthe pathtofull citizenshipandsocietalparticipation,militarywomen
face a clashbetween ‘solder-citizen’ (Levy2010) and mother-citizenidentities.
If a liberal-feministapproachtowardsequal rightsistakenthenthe Israeli militarycanbe seenasan
institutionwhichhasbeen ‘progressive’withregardto genderequality.Forexample,since 2000
womenhave beenable toserve incombatpositions.Althoughsomerolesare still restrictedtomen
and female participationincombatrolesisstill low,(womenoccupied 3% of combat rolesin2008
and 60% of combat rolesare still closedtowomen, BergerandNaaman2011:273,) thisapproach
wouldconsiderthe pathtoequalitytolie in breakingdownthese remainingbarrierstoequal
participation.
However,amore radical lenschallenges the militaryinstitutionandmilitarisedpracticesas
themselvesgendered. Masculinity,specificallythe formof masculinitydeemedtobe desirable
8. (Khalili 2010),isprivileged withinthe militaryandentrenches patriarchal structuresof power that
extendbeyondthe militaryinstitution. Despite increasingnumbersof professional femalesoldiers,
assimilatingwomenintothe military isunlikelytosubstantiallychange the institution’sgendered
construction if bydoingso itsocialiseswomento emulate‘correct’masculine behaviours.Military
personnel are still channelledintogendered,hetero-sexualisedroles thatfavourthe formof
masculinityembodiedinthe figure of the ‘Sabra’or ‘new Jew’(Natanel 2012:83, Harris 2012). This
construction of educated butpowerful masculinitycanpossiblybe comparedtothe ‘soldier-scholar’
figure thatbeenconstructedto define ‘desirable’masculinityinothermilitary contexts;specifically
contextsof (neo)imperialism (Khalili 2010).
Militarywomenexperience a‘double blind’betweentwopathsthatbothequally subjectthemtoa
‘male gaze’heterosexualsexualisation(Levin2011).On one hand,a womancan emphasise her
professionalism;relyingonher abilitytoemulateideal-masculinebehaviour.Inthiscase,her
sexuality and‘womanliness’ maybe questioned (Levin2011).Simultaneouslyshe mayexperience
sexualisedcomments orbehaviours thatfunctiontodelegitimise her professionalskills by‘reducing’
herto a passive sexualbody.Onthe otherhand,ratherthan seekingprofessionalrecognitionby
complyingwith ideal-masculinecriteria,womenmaynavigate the military experience viadifferent
aspectsof femininity. Firstlyawoman’s sexual ‘desirability’ maybe emphasised;forexample
enjoyingthe sexual‘attention’paidtoherina male-majorityenvironment,orusing‘feminine wiles’
to heradvantage by gainingextrahelpfrommale superiors/colleagues (Levin2011).Womenwho
behave inthiswaycan be subjecttonegative labelling,bymenandotherwomen,aspromiscuousor
provocative.Alternatively, amore traditional femininitymaybe emphasised;there are stereotypes
that the militaryfunctionsasa‘datingsite’ forwomentofinda husband(Levin2011).
All of these constructionsof female behaviourare definedinrelationto male-gazeheterosexual
‘approval’ andprioritise awoman’sgenderoverotheraspectsof heridentity. Theyalsopositionthe
10. that lookto endpatriarchal structuresof militaryoccupationand indeedthe militaryaltogether
(Levy2010)7
. Furthermore,there isdebate overwhetheractivismthatusesprivilege or‘strategic
straightness’/’dissidentcitizenship’(Sparks1997 inKotef 2011:556) to enable political actionis
constructive;orwhetheritfailstosubvertandactuallyfurtherentrenchesstructuresof oppression.
For example,CheckpointWatchisan organisationmade uplargelyof middle-class,middle-age
womenwhouse the privilegeof theirsocietalpositionand favourable‘motherly’attributestogain
access to andmonitorcheckpoints.Theiractivismmayhelpimprovetreatmentof Palestiniansat
checkpoints,howeveritmay unintentionallyimply thatcheckpointsare acceptableif theyare
humane ratherthan workingtoabolishthe systemof checkpointscompletely(Kotef:2011).
Otherelementsof resistance take amore ‘everyday’form.Forexample,Kotef (2011:564) addresses
howwomenbehavingas‘badmothers’mayactuallyopenpossibilitiesforalternativeconceptionsof
motherhoodandthe family.ShalevandLemish’s (2013) conceptof ‘infertilemotherhood’ also
challenges genderednormsof reproductionandparenting.Reproductivetechnologydraws
attentiontohowmultiple women(andindeedmen)maybe partof the creationof one new life
(biological andparenting),potentially subvertinggendered societal preferencesforbiological
parentsand the nuclearfamily.
Conclusion
Thisessayhas demonstratedhowgenderis essential tounderstandingthe wayinwhichIsraeli
existential security isconstructed. Ithasdrawnattentionspecificallytogendereddiscourse and
practice regardingtwoareas of security: demographyandterritory.Withinthis ithasillustrated the
7 Feminism(s) that take this approach may also address howthe Israeli -Arab conflictand associated security
concerns have over-ridden other social concerns and activism(Halperin-Kaddari and Yadgar 2010)
11. wayin whichmilitarywomenembodya gendered locationof clashbetween thesetwoaspectsof
securityasexpressedthrough the mother-citizenand soldier-citizenmodels.Finally,ithasbriefly
addressedpossibilitiesforresistance and potential contestation between differentformsof
resistance. A consistentobservationthroughoutthispiece isthatthatgenderandsexualityare sites
of powerandcontestation.Asafinal note,genderingispervasive and thisanalysishas been
relativelyshallow; focusingmostlyon‘women’ andassociatedfemininities.Tofurtheranalyse
existential securityinIsrael genderingcanbe appliedmore deeply,forexampletoexaminedynamics
of militaryoccupationoruse of space.
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