GENDER

1. GENDER AND FERTILITY
Group three presentation

2. Group three members
1. Nansolo Sania
2. Acam Dorothy
3. Aciro Dorcus
4. Muhumuza Wilson
5. Akol David Olupot
6. Kasana Francis
7. Wambatsu Ivan

3. Objectives
By the end of this presentation; members should be able to;
1. Define key terms in relation to gender and fertility
2. Outline the determinants of fertility in gender
3. Discuss the dimensions of gender and fertility

4. Gender:
Gender refers to the social, cultural, and psychological attributes that are
associated with being male, female, or other identities, often in relation to
societal roles, behaviors, expectations, and norms. Unlike biological sex
(which is based on physical and physiological traits), gender is about how
individuals identify themselves and how they express themselves in terms
of masculinity, femininity, or other gender identities.
Gender identity can be shaped by a combination of factors including
cultural norms, personal experiences, and biological influences. It is a
deeply personal, individual experience that may or may not correspond
with one's biological sex.

5. Cisgender: People whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were
assigned at birth (e.g., a person assigned female at birth who identifies as
a woman).
• Transgender: People whose gender identity differs from the sex
they were assigned at birth (e.g., a person assigned male at birth but
identifies as a woman).
• Non-Binary/ Genderqueer: Individuals who don’t identify strictly
as male or female, and may identify with aspects of both, neither, or a mix
of genders.
• Gender Fluid: A person whose gender identity shifts over time or
depending on the situation.

6. Fertility:
Fertility refers to the natural capability to conceive and produce offspring.
It is primarily a biological concept that involves the reproductive system’s
ability to function in terms of producing eggs or sperm and successfully
achieving conception and pregnancy.
Fertility can be described in the following ways:
Female Fertility: In biological females, fertility involves the release of
eggs (ovulation), the ability to become pregnant, and the successful
carrying of a pregnancy to term. Fertility generally peaks in the late teens
to late 20s and declines with age, especially after age 35.

7. Male Fertility: In biological males, fertility is determined by the
production and health of sperm. It is influenced by factors like sperm
count, motility (movement), and morphology (shape). Men can often
remain fertile into older age, although sperm quality can decrease with
age.
Infertility: When a person or couple is unable to conceive after a year or
more of regular, unprotected sexual intercourse, they are often considered
to have infertility. Both men and women can experience infertility, which
can be caused by various factors including hormonal imbalances, physical
conditions, age, or lifestyle choices.

8. Determinants of fertility in gender
The determinants of fertility are factors that influence an individual's or a
population's ability to reproduce. These determinants can be biological,
social, cultural, economic, and environmental. Below are the key
determinants of fertility:
1. Biological Determinants
These are factors related to the reproductive health and physical
capabilities of individuals.
• Age: Female fertility typically peaks in the late teens to late 20s and
starts to decline in the early 30s, with a more significant drop after age
35. Male fertility also declines with age, particularly after 40, although
the decline is more gradual.

9. • Hormonal Factors: In women, fertility depends heavily on hormonal
regulation, including the levels of estrogen, progesterone, and
luteinizing hormone. Disruptions in these hormones can cause issues
with ovulation and menstruation, affecting fertility.
• Menstrual Health: Conditions such as irregular menstrual cycles or
the absence of menstruation (amenorrhea) can impair a woman’s
fertility. Disorders like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and
endometriosis can also interfere with fertility.
• Sperm Health: In men, fertility depends on sperm count, motility
(movement), and morphology (shape). Poor sperm quality due to
factors like low sperm count, slow-moving sperm, or abnormal sperm
shape can lead to infertility.

10. • Health Conditions: Various conditions can affect fertility, including
diabetes, thyroid disorders, obesity, and autoimmune diseases. For both
men and women, these conditions may impair reproductive health.
• Reproductive Anatomy: The health and functionality of the
reproductive organs (such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and testes)
play a key role in fertility. Any damage, infection, or congenital
abnormalities can affect fertility.

11. 2. Social and Economic Determinants
These are external factors influenced by society, economics, and lifestyle
choices that can impact fertility.
• Education: Higher levels of education, particularly among women, are
often associated with delayed marriage and childbearing, which can
result in lower fertility rates. Education also increases awareness of
family planning methods and contraception, leading to lower fertility in
some contexts.

12. • Socioeconomic Status: Economic stability plays a significant role in
fertility decisions. Higher-income individuals or those with better
economic security may delay childbearing to pursue careers or other life
goals. Conversely, lower socioeconomic status, lack of access to
healthcare, or financial insecurity can limit fertility options or access to
reproductive healthcare.
• Urbanization: People living in urban areas often have fewer children
compared to those in rural areas, often due to lifestyle choices, higher
living costs, career demands, and access to contraception and
reproductive health services.

13. Cultural and Religious Norms: Cultural and religious beliefs play a
strong role in shaping attitudes toward family size, marriage, and
childbearing. In some societies, having large families is highly valued,
while in others, smaller family sizes are preferred due to economic or
environmental reasons.
Social Support Systems: Family structures and social support can
influence fertility. For example, in societies where extended families or
community support is common, having children may be seen as more
feasible and desirable. In contrast, in societies with fewer social safety
nets, individuals may delay or limit childbearing.

14. 3. Environmental Determinants
Environmental factors, including exposure to pollutants and lifestyle
choices, can affect fertility.
Pollution and Toxins: Exposure to environmental toxins (such as
chemicals, heavy metals, and pesticides) can impair fertility. For example,
endocrine-disrupting chemicals like bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates have
been linked to reduced sperm quality and other reproductive health issues.
Climate Change: Rising temperatures and environmental stressors, such
as drought or natural disasters, can influence fertility patterns by impacting
food security, health systems, and migration patterns. Some studies suggest
that environmental stressors may contribute to declining fertility rates in
affected populations.

15. 4. Psychosocial Determinants
Psychological and emotional factors can also play a role in fertility.
• Stress: Chronic stress, whether due to personal, economic, or
environmental factors, has been shown to impact fertility. Stress can
disrupt hormonal balance, interfere with ovulation, and decrease sperm
production.
• Relationship Factors: The quality of relationships, especially marital
or partnership stability, can influence fertility. Couples who experience
strong emotional and social support are more likely to have children,
while those in conflict or unstable relationships may delay or forgo
childbearing.

16. • Mental Health: Psychological disorders, such as depression or anxiety,
can affect fertility by altering hormonal balance and reducing sexual
desire or the ability to engage in reproductive activities.
5. Access to Healthcare and Family Planning
Access to medical care, including reproductive health services, plays a
major role in fertility.
• Contraceptive Use: Access to and use of contraception allows
individuals and couples to plan their families and avoid unintended
pregnancies. This can lead to lower fertility rates, as individuals can
delay or limit childbearing.

17. • Infertility Treatments: Availability of fertility treatments such as in
vitro fertilization (IVF), fertility drugs, and artificial insemination can
help people overcome fertility challenges. However, these treatments
are often expensive and may not be accessible in all regions.
• Maternal Health Services: Access to prenatal and postnatal care, as
well as general reproductive health services, ensures better outcomes for
mothers and children and can affect fertility patterns. In areas where
healthcare is inadequate, higher maternal and infant mortality rates may
result in different fertility decisions.

18. 6. Government Policies
Policies enacted by governments can significantly influence fertility rates.
• Pro-Natalist Policies: Some governments, especially in countries
facing aging populations, implement pro-natalist policies that
encourage higher fertility through incentives such as tax breaks, paid
parental leave, and childcare subsidies. These policies aim to increase
birth rates.
• Family Planning Programs: Many countries have government-led
family planning initiatives that provide education, access to
contraception, and reproductive health services to reduce unintended
pregnancies and allow people to control their fertility.

19. Immigration Policies: Immigration policies can also affect fertility rates,
particularly in countries that experience high immigration. Immigrant
populations may have different fertility patterns compared to the local
population, which can influence overall fertility trends.

20. 7. Cultural Attitudes and Fertility Preferences
Cultural norms around family size, gender roles, and the value placed on
children can also impact fertility rates.
• Family Structure and Expectations: In cultures where extended
families are common, there may be greater pressure to have children to
fulfill family obligations or to provide for aging parents. In contrast, in
societies where nuclear families are the norm, fertility preferences may
be different.
• Gender Norms and Fertility: In societies with traditional gender roles,
women may be expected to have children early and in large numbers,
while men may have different expectations placed on them. Changes in
gender roles and expectations around work and family life can influence
decisions about childbearing.

21. Dimensions of Gender and fertility
The relationship between gender and fertility is a complex and
multifaceted subject that involves biological, social, cultural, and
psychological factors. It’s important to recognize that both gender identity
(how individuals perceive themselves) and biological sex (the
physiological traits that differentiate male and female bodies) play roles in
how fertility is understood and experienced.
However, fertility is primarily linked to biology, while gender involves a
broader range of social and cultural dimensions.

22. 1. Biological Foundations of Fertility
Fertility refers to the ability to conceive and reproduce. The biological
processes surrounding fertility are strongly tied to sex chromosomes,
reproductive organs, and hormones. Here’s how biology influences
fertility:
• Females (Biological Sex): In females, fertility is primarily determined
by the menstrual cycle, which involves the release of eggs (ovulation),
the ability to support a pregnancy (uterine lining development), and the
hormonal environment (estrogen and progesterone). A woman’s fertility
is at its peak in her late teens to late 20s, with a gradual decline
beginning in the early 30s.

23. • Menstruation and Ovulation: Every month, in the absence of
pregnancy, the female body undergoes a menstrual cycle. During this
cycle, an egg is released from the ovaries and travels down the
fallopian tubes. If it encounters sperm, fertilization can occur.
• Age and Fertility: Women's fertility generally declines with age,
especially after the age of 35. This is due to a decrease in the number
and quality of eggs. Additionally, menopause, which typically occurs
around age 50, marks the permanent cessation of fertility.

24. • Males (Biological Sex): Male fertility is associated with sperm
production, which occurs in the testes. Testosterone and other hormones
regulate sperm production, and sperm count typically remains relatively
high throughout a man’s life, although quality may decline as men age,
particularly after 40.
• Sperm Quality: Male fertility is influenced by sperm count, motility
(how well the sperm move), and morphology (the shape of the sperm).
Lifestyle factors like smoking, alcohol consumption, and exposure to
toxins can negatively impact sperm health.

25. 2. Gender Identity and Fertility
While biological sex plays a key role in fertility, gender identity—an
individual’s deeply felt sense of being male, female, a blend of both, or
neither—adds complexity to the fertility experience.
• Transgender and Non-Binary Individuals: For transgender
individuals (those whose gender identity differs from their assigned sex
at birth), fertility can be a complicated issue.

26. Cont…….
Transgender men (assigned female at birth but identify as male) may still
have functioning ovaries and the ability to conceive, but transitioning
(through hormones or surgery) can significantly affect fertility.
Similarly, transgender women (assigned male at birth but identify as
female) may not be able to naturally conceive but can consider options like
sperm preservation before transitioning or assisted reproductive
technologies.

27. • Social and Psychological Impact: The experience of fertility is
influenced by gender identity, as individuals may face societal
expectations about their roles in reproduction. For example, cisgender
women may feel pressure to conform to traditional expectations of
motherhood, while transgender men and non-binary individuals may
face challenges when navigating fertility options that align with their
gender identity.

28. 3. Fertility Preservation and Assisted Reproductive Technologies
(ART)
Advances in reproductive medicine have allowed people to preserve
fertility and access reproductive assistance, particularly those who are
experiencing fertility challenges or who are undergoing gender-affirming
treatments.
• Egg/Sperm Freezing: Individuals who may lose their fertility due to
medical treatment or transitioning may opt to freeze eggs or sperm
before undergoing procedures like chemotherapy, hormone therapy, or
gender-affirming surgeries. This provides the option to later use ART to
conceive when desired.

29. • In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): IVF allows individuals or couples to
combine eggs and sperm outside the body and implant the resulting
embryo into a uterus. This has become a standard fertility treatment for
those who have difficulty conceiving naturally. It also allows for
options like genetic screening or the use of donor eggs or sperm for
those who cannot produce viable gametes.
• Surrogacy: Surrogacy is a method where another woman carries a
pregnancy for someone who cannot carry a pregnancy themselves. This
may be an option for cisgender women who face fertility challenges or
for transgender men and non-binary individuals who do not have a
uterus.

30. 4. Social and Cultural Perspectives on Gender and Fertility
Cultural norms and societal expectations around gender have a profound
influence on how fertility is perceived and experienced.
• Patriarchal Societies: In many societies, traditional gender roles
position women as primary caregivers and child bearers. In these
contexts, fertility can be seen as a significant aspect of a woman's
identity. This view can place immense pressure on women to conform
to the roles of motherhood, especially in cultures that prioritize
reproductive success.

31. • Infertility Stigma: Fertility challenges can carry significant emotional
and psychological burdens, especially for women in cultures where
motherhood is closely linked to their identity. Infertility can be
stigmatized, leading to feelings of shame or inadequacy. This stigma
may be less intense for men, who may face different cultural
expectations around reproduction.
• Male Fertility: In many societies, there is less emphasis placed on male
fertility and its social significance, which can delay men from seeking
help when facing fertility problems. The idea that men’s fertility is less
tied to their masculinity is prevalent in certain cultures, but it’s shifting
as more men address reproductive health issues.

32. • Changing Gender Roles: As gender roles evolve, so do perceptions of
fertility. Increasing numbers of men are participating in reproductive
health discussions, and there is growing recognition of fertility equality.
Gender-inclusive language in reproductive healthcare (e.g., referring to
"people with ovaries" or "people with sperm") reflects a broader
understanding of gender diversity.

33. 5. Health Factors Affecting Fertility Across Genders
Certain health conditions can affect fertility regardless of gender, although
they may present differently.
• PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome): PCOS is a common condition
in people assigned female at birth that can lead to hormonal imbalances,
irregular periods, and ovulatory dysfunction, all of which can affect
fertility.
• Endometriosis: A condition where tissue similar to the uterine lining
grows outside the uterus, causing pain and infertility in some women.

34. • Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs): Untreated STIs can lead to
infertility in both men and women. For example, chlamydia and
gonorrhea can cause pelvic inflammatory disease in women, leading to
infertility.
• Chronic Health Conditions: Conditions like diabetes, thyroid
disorders, obesity, and autoimmune diseases can negatively affect
fertility in both men and women.

35. References
1. Barri, P. N., Brugh, V. M., & Ryan, S. (2015). Fertility preservation in
transgender individuals: A review of current practices and considerations.
Fertility and Sterility, 104(3), 635-642. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.06.042
2. Bergmann, M. (2017). Family policies and fertility outcomes. Journal of
Comparative Policy Analysis, 19(3), 265-280.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13876988.2017.1291780

36. Cont…..
3. Budge, S. L., Adelson, J. L., & Howard, K. A. (2013). Anxiety and
depression in transgender individuals: The roles of transition status, loss,
social support, and coping. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
81(3), 545-557. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031774
4. Meyer, I. H. (2016). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in
lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research
methods. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674-697.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
5. Hoffman, S. D., & Young, L. A. (2014). Education, fertility, and gender
roles: Implications for population policy. Population Research and Policy
Review, 33(3), 379-402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-014-9333-6

37. Thank you for listening …