Fulbright Inquiry Project - Four X Four Model final

Running Head: THE FOUR x FOUR MODEL 1
The Four x Four Model of Optimum Conditions and Strategies for Learning
- Re-engaging Students at Risk of Dropping out of Education
Lynnette Brice
University of Indiana Bloomington
Author Note
Lynnette Brice is New Zealand recipient of the Fulbright Distinguished Awards in Teaching
This paper fulfils the Inquiry Project requirement of this award, completed at the University
of Indiana, Bloomington, Fall semester 2015.
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to: Lynnette Brice at:
Lynnettepbrice@gmail.com

THE FOUR x FOUR MODEL 2
Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank the Fulbright program for the opportunity to live and work in the United
States of America. I would especially like to acknowledge the work and personal efforts of
the staff of The Institute of International Education (IIE) in Washington and the staff of the
Centre for International Education Development and Research (CEIDR) at Indiana
University, Bloomington. I would also like to thank my host teacher Don Adams, at
Bloomington North High School and my Faculty Advisor Barbara Dennis, at the University
of Indiana for their ideas and support. I would wish to acknowledge the support and
friendship of the sixteen other Fulbright Distinguished Teachers from all over the world.
- A very sincere thank you, appreciation and affection to you all.
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Contents
Abstract...................................................................................................................................................4
The Four x Four Model of Optimum Conditions and Strategies for Learning - Background ..................5
The Overarching Structure of the Education Environment – Macro, Meso, Micro................................6
Underpinning Theoretical Framework....................................................................................................7
Research methodology .........................................................................................................................10
Literature Review..................................................................................................................................14
Focus Group Themes ............................................................................................................................21
Observation themes..............................................................................................................................30
The Four by Four Model of Optimum Conditions and Strategies for Learning ....................................35
Conditions and Strategies.....................................................................................................................39
Discussion..............................................................................................................................................41
References ............................................................................................................................................42
Appendix ...............................................................................................................................................45
Additional Resources ............................................................................................................................46
Table of Figures.....................................................................................................................................47
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Abstract
Many young people drop out of school without achieving educational success. This inquiry
focused on identifying and understanding the practices and strategies needed to re-engage
learners who have earlier dropped out of, and /or have not achieved success in traditional
learning institutions. The objective was to create a model of optimum best practice
conditions, specifically focussing on four elements of the education environment; Social,
Emotional, Physical/Material, and Pedagogy. The purpose of the Four by Four Model is to
articulate guiding strategies and conditions for traditional schools that wish to prevent
students’ underachievement or strengthen retention rates, or, for alternative education
environments seeking to re-engage young people in learning. Inquiry methodology included
school visit observations, focus group dialogical conversations with students from a variety
of education settings in the United States, and a literature review. Predominate themes from
the three methods were identified and categorised to inform the best practice conditions and
strategies for the four elements of an education environment.
Key words; enhanced education environment; re-engagement, social, emotional, physical,
pedagogy, student well-being.
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The Four x Four Model of Optimum Conditions and Strategies for Learning -
Background
Many young people drop out of education without experiencing success, this
is a well-documented factor common in many Western countries, including New Zealand and
the United States of America. The early termination of education is often linked to life
outcomes of poverty, benefit dependence, low paid employment, crime, and teenage
pregnancy.
Author and researcher Paul Tough (2014) identifies success in education as
dependent upon two key factors: identity as learner and a sense of belonging. Students’
identity as a learner -their beliefs about their own abilities - is formed by multiple experiences
from early childhood through to adulthood. This identity is often connected to emotions
associated with learning. Whether those emotions are joy or fear will have bearing on that
identity. A sense of belonging in a school environment is also formed by multiple
experiences but directly relates to relationships with other people; peers, teachers, and
community. The environment also offers messages or cues that relate to and influence
experiences of belonging and identity. Tough and other researchers (Dweck, 2008) have
noted that vulnerabilities around belonging and identity are especially prevalent in times of
educational transition.
In identifying and documenting the practices and strategies that can address
these vulnerabilities, the project assumes an intergenerational positive impact when applied to
a teen parent learning environment but does not limit itself to that demographic. The practices
and strategies should have relevance in any form of alternative education and may also be
used to enrich traditional education environments.
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This inquiry project places the student at the centre of the research and
examines the interconnections between four key elements of the environment; Emotional,
Physical/Material, Social and Pedagogy all of which are placed within, and influenced by,
macro, meso and micro policies and practices. The theories of Socio-Culturalism, Social
constructivism and Connectivism inform this project because of their emphasis on the social
context and interconnectedness of elements of the learning environment.
This inquiry focussed on four key elements and sought to understand:
1. The key social conditions and strategies for Enhanced Education Environments:
identification of the nature of relationships and interventions that enable successful
learning and life outcomes.
2. The impact of emotion on learning for students and teachers.
3. The key physical/material conditions and strategies for Enhanced Education
Environments: Identification of the elements, conditions and materiality that enable
successful learning and life outcomes.
4. The key pedagogical practices that produce improved learning outcomes for all students
including those disadvantaged and/or at risk of dropping out of school.
For each of the above elements the model develops one guiding concept and brings together
four simple strategies or conditions that link back to each of the elements examined. In order
to be appropriate in any education setting the strategies needed to be easily understood,
adaptable, and easily implemented. I looked for strategies and conditions that were
uncomplicated, inexpensive and simple.
The Overarching Structure of the Education Environment – Macro, Meso, Micro
The delivery of education is influenced at three levels; Macro, meso and
Micro. In the United States of America the macro level includes the policies and directives
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of the federal Government, the Department of Education, the State Government and the
District Corporation. In New Zealand this includes policy directed by the national
government and specifically the Ministry of Education. From a socio-cultural perspective this
might also include the underlying values and beliefs of the dominant culture within society.
The influence of the meso level could be identified as the values, visions and aims of the
school, the demographic profile of the members of the community and the resourcing and
infrastructure of the setting. The micro setting would be identified as the classroom, the
teacher perspectives, the immediate social setting, and the instructional design or pedagogy.
The practices and strategies of any educational environment are directly
influenced by the directives and expectations of these three interconnected structures. There
may be dissonance between these directives and the needs and aspirations of the student who
is at the centre of this project. The model, therefore, should combine strategies and conditions
that will fit within the constraints and opportunities of these structures.
Underpinning Theoretical Framework
This project is underpinned by the theories of Social Constructivism, Socio-
culturalism, and Connectivism.
Those students who enter second chance education such as teen parent or
alternative education units may do so because they have not experienced success in
traditional institutions. The context of this enhanced education must therefore be different
from their previous experiences. Some research suggests that improved learning outcomes
are generated through a constructivist methodology (Brown, 2005) with emphasis on the
social context of the learning environment (Cuyvers, et al, 2011).
Social Constructivism and socio- cultural theories are useful for guiding
understanding of the contextual environment of education settings. Social Constructivist
theories emphasise the interdependence of social and individual processes in the co-
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construction of knowledge, positioning the social dimension as of primary influence and the
individual dimension secondary (Palincsar, 1998). Learning is thought to be enhanced when a
learner works alongside a more experienced peer (Vygotsky, 1978 as cited in Lysaght, 2007).
Increased cognitive development and improved quality of relationships – both peer to peer
and teacher student- are also seen to be interrelated (Palincsar, 1998) in socio-cultural based
learning environments.
Situational analysis studies have shown that traditional educational norms that
support a competitive environment may be in conflict with socio-cultural forms of
development, and by extension, may be in conflict with the natural process of learning and
development of many people, especially those from minority groups. Collaborative teaching
methods may address these concerns.
Constructivism, however, with its emphasis on the social context of learning
does not specifically address social inequalities within the classroom. Learners of low status,
minority groups and those lacking self-esteem and confidence may continue to be
disadvantaged in heterogeneous collaborative pedagogy. If learning occurs through
interaction, negotiation and collaboration then individual growth and development, alongside
status, may influence participation and active involvement and, therefore, outcomes. Another
limitation of Constructivism is that it views the learner as active and the environment as
passive (Lippman, 2010). The influence of the interaction between learner and physical
environment in the development of the individual is not specifically recognised. The theory
may also assume a psychologically safe classroom environment guided by respect, autonomy
and choice (Rogers, 1983 & Maslow, 1987, in Bonk & Khoo, 2014).
Social constructivism has three key principles that link to this project: Firstly
the idea that reality is socially constructed through interaction with others (Kukla, 2000).
Secondly, that knowledge is also constructed by individuals through both social and cultural
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processes (Gredler, 1997; Vygotsky, 1978), and thirdly, that learning and thinking is a social
process developed through interactions with others (KIm, 2001).
The key principles of Socio- culturalism that link to this project include the
role of language, psychological tools, artefacts, the physical environment and other symbol
systems. The function of social interaction in the development of the human brain is also
recognised as important. Knowledge, in socio- cultural theory, is co-constructed between the
individual and social and cultural processes - shared understandings, common interests, and
agreed beliefs systems foster contexts, both formal and informal, in which learning occurs
(Rogoff, 1990).
These theories are useful in providing a framework of analysis for this project.
Constructivism places more emphasis on the individual in the process of learning while
socio-culturalism places greater emphasis on the individual within social action (Hall, 2007).
While Connectivism is linked to social constructivism and activity theory it was initially
developed as a framework for learning in the on-line learning environment and reflects the
need for theories to evolve as our conditions and practices of learning change. Connectivism
holds the view that knowledge is now continuously changing, that it resides not only within
the minds of individuals but is distributed across networks, both human and non-human.
Knowledge creation is a dynamic, interdependent process involving communities of learning:
The central idea in connectivism is that of learners connecting to a learning
community and benefiting from it while also feeding it with information. The
learning community is a group of people learning together through continuous
dialogue because of their similar interests. (Boitshwarelo, 2011, p. 163)
In this theory, the role of community is emphasised and the key to an effective
community of learning is the participation and contribution of all its members. This view
suggests a re-imaging of teaching and learning away from traditional environments with
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hierarchical structures and top-down teaching methods to a collaborative environment with
delegated responsibilities. Connectivism also places emphasis on the influence of emotion on
cognition, focussing on the interconnected brain processes that serve as both literal
representation of the ‘whole of learning’ and as metaphor for the external connections,
communities and processes that enable and facilitate learning. In this way, the brain might be
seen as a micro representation of the macro social, physical and digital elements that operate
through processes of interconnectivity.
The often repeated phrase ‘interaction with others’ links to all aspects of the
student at the centre of this project. A fractured sense of identity and belonging, a social or
cultural context out of step with others, a poor quality interaction with peer or teacher may
inhibit the students’ further interactions and/or produce a negative construction of reality,
thus discouraging the process of learning.
In approaching this project through the lens of these theories I hope to
demonstrate that the optimum practices and conditions of learning identified here are
grounded in theories of learning that are also evolving and developing in the context of the
21st
Century.
Research methodology
Literature review: I began the literature review for this project before
commencing the Fulbright Program. I read extensively on the topic of the Neuroscience of
Emotion in order to understand the importance of emotion in the process of learning. When I
began this inquiry I thought this would be the main aspect the project but as I read more
extensively I began to see how emotions were influenced by other aspects of the learning
environment which then influenced the learning process. After beginning the project I
widened the literature review to include the other elements of social, physical and
pedagogical. I also included readings on educational theory. I looked for and recorded
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common themes and ideas from across the range of literature and synthesised these to
complete the literature review. Of the forty- five texts included in this review I found no
texts that included studies similar to mine, none that analysed the same four elements of the
education environment in a holistic manner. This suggests a need for further study and
research in this topic.
Observations from school visits: While participating in the Fulbright program I
have been fortunate to have been able to visit a range of education environments in the
United States. I have visited a total of eleven schools, six as a member of the group of
Fulbright teachers, these visits arranged for us by CEIDR, and five additional visits as an
individual. The schools included a range of educational environments; traditional public
schools, a private school, charter school, project based, new tech, a careers college, two drop
out recovery programs, an alternative public school, and a teen parent education academy.
During the visits I made notes from visual observations, recorded some quotes from
conversations, and took photographs of key environmental features. The opportunity to visit
such a broad range of education environments was invaluable to this project and revealed
many key insights that inform this inquiry.
Focus groups: I undertook six focus groups in five different educational
environments. Participants of the focus groups volunteered to be part of the research and
included students from freshmen to seniors in High schools and adults aged up to 34 years in
the drop out recovery programs. The participants, a total of 39 students, were of mixed race
and gender. I used the same four open ended questions (appendix A) in each of the Focus
groups and sometimes used prompts like “could you explain that more?” or, “what do you
mean by that?” for clarification. The focus group data provided rich insight into students’
perspectives of the experience of education and in particular, a common metaphor emerged.
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This metaphor, described later in the project, suggests a need for further study across other
countries to verify whether the experience is the same or different.
Data analysis and synthesis: The final element of methodology was to bring
the three sets of data together – literature, observations and focus group, synthesising it to
find the common elements by identifying and describing patterns and themes. From this step
I reduced the data further in order to find the optimum strategies and conditions for re-
engaging students at risk of under achievement or dropping out of education. I recognised
that these conditions needed to be, and in fact were, remarkably simple and easy to
implement, and could be applied in any education environment.
Expected outcomes: The aim of this project was to develop a model of key
best practices in establishing and maintaining an “enhanced environment” for student success
in learning and life outcomes. The aim was deliver a model of the key conditions and
strategies that could support teachers in guiding classroom practices that connect and
motivate learners who are at risk of underachievement or dropping out. This model would be
supported by a set of resources and suggestions and a presentation for use as a professional
development seminar.
This project brings together many of the elements of my work in Young
Parent Education as well as my personal commitment to strive for continuous improvement,
to look for and trial innovative and creative solutions to problems and difficulties faced by
staff and students in second chance education settings.
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Figure 1. The Four x Four Concept Map
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Figure one above, “The Four by Four Concept Map” is a visual representation of all the aspects of the
inquiry. The student is placed at the centre of the map as s/he is in the inquiry. The overarching
macro, meso and micro structural influences are seen above the student and directly influence each
other as well as the surrounding aspects of social, emotional, physical and pedagogical elements of
the environment. The arrows represent how each element or aspect of the environment impacts on
every other aspect and connects to the student at the centre. The cloud around the drawing
represents the theoretical influences that encase the educational framework, the practices and
processes of learning. From each of the four elements; social, emotional, physical, pedagogy, one
key concept emerges and from that concept four strategies or conditions that serve the student at
the centre of the inquiry are identified.
Literature Review
The literature revealed notable interconnections between the four elements of
the education environment selected for this study.
Social conditions: Student relationships with supportive, caring teachers who
know their students well is found to be a critical element in the social, emotional and
pedagogical aspects of learning. In literature specifically related to students in alternative
education - including teen parent schools – these personal, empathetic relationships with
teachers are identified as of prime importance to the success of those students (Cozolino,
2013; Hawkins, 1980; Hindin Miller, 2012; van Pelt, 2012). Student outcomes are improved
when students feel their teachers care about them as people (Tough, 2008; van Pelt, 2012).
The social conditions are directly influenced by the quality of the relationships
within the context of the learning environment. Cozolino (2013), writing on findings from
neuroscience, discusses the social determinate of the evolving brain and the understanding
that ‘the human brain evolved as a social organ that is interwoven with the other brains and
minds that surrounds it’ (p. xxv). Our ability to learn is interwoven with and dependent upon
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the quality of our relationships not only with teachers, but also with our families, friends, and
classmates. Healthy early relationships allow optimum forming of neural networks that
enable higher self-esteem, emotional regulation, and the ability to apply our intellectual and
emotional intelligence in decision making experiences. Good relationships increase feelings
of well-being and self-esteem; they support social, emotional and cognitive development
(Cozolino, 2013, p. 111). Relationships also play a key role in activating a sense of
belonging which influences student behaviours in school (Zins, Weissberg, Wang, &
Walberg, 2004). Other researchers (Rossouw, 2011; Ramachandran, 2011; Arden &
Linsford, 2009) state that the brain is shaped by the quality of the relationships that connect
us. During adolescence, social relationships are primarily concerned with belonging and
acceptance and the adolescent becomes proficient at reading social and emotional cues, and
moderating his or her own affective responses (Yurgelun-Todd, 2007; Willis, 2006) in order
to fit with a peer group.
Traditional classroom practices that separate students from each other and are
led by an authoritarian teacher may be in conflict with optimal brain development and
learning (Dean, 2011; Willis, 2006). In a teenage parenting unit or alternative education
setting, teachers may have a greater awareness of the impact of negative relationships
suffered outside school than teachers can have in a conventional school setting as more is
known about the learners and openly shared (Hindin Miller, 2012). The learners are
contained together in one unit, having the opportunity to bond with and attach to significant
adults. The alternative education unit can act as a ‘Tribal Community,’ (Cozolino, 2013)
fostering bonding and attachment as a way to avoid the potential isolation experienced by
many young people and create an enhanced learning experience. From the premise that
learning is motivated by group survival, this tribal classroom has the potential to tap into
primitive social instincts and create a learning environment deliberately modelled on these
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instincts; tribal learning principles include physical safety, emotional security, and ecological
or real world relevance. Modelling, daily activities and practices that involve emotions,
body, and mind (Cozolino, 2013, p. 252) can be practiced in conventional school settings.
Gibbs (1994, p. 186) outlines sequential steps for implementing such practices; establishing
norms, building inclusion, influence and community.
The power of peer relationships is emphasised in current research (Tough P. ,
2014). One very effective strategy is to utilise the experience of older peers in guiding
younger students, either in letter form or face to face interaction. In New Zealand, this is
referred to as a Tuakana/Teina relationship, embedded in Maori Tikanga. It is also a central
feature of Vygotsky’s idea of Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978).
Emotional conditions: Attachment based learning is a key concept
underpinning the optimal emotional conditions for learning. Research highlights the
importance of attachment as a protective factor in the early years, leading to positive
outcomes later in life (Gluckman, 2011). Secure attachments are known to play a key role in
brain development during the first year of life (Kandel, 2006; Rossouw, 2011; Rogoff, 1990)
and form neuron networks that enable emotional regulation. Essentially, it is now known that
these early attachments shape networks linked to feelings of safety, attachment, and well-
being (Cozolino, 2013) and this knowledge may become the entelechy that guides the
development of theories of teaching and learning for future generations. We know and
understand the importance of attachment for infants but we may be seriously underestimating
its significance for adolescent learning.
Researchers in neuroscience identify the impact of social interaction and
relationships in regulating emotion in order to create optimum conditions for learning
(Cozolino, 2013; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004; Ochsner & Feldman Barrett,
2000; Monk, et al., 2003; Willis, 2006). Emotions, from a psychological point of view, are a
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product of our interpretation of the world; how we interpret or appraise events, or the
meaning of events, will influence how we feel; happy, sad, etc. (Ochsner & Feldman Barrett,
2000). Automatic emotion driven neurological processes quickly categorise people, objects,
environments and events as positive or negative, enabling rapid detection of threats or
rewards. Studies show the impact emotion has on attention and focus in adolescents, to the
detriment of non-emotional engagement (Monk, et al., 2003; Willis, 2006). More complex
processing is believed to be generated by an emotional response activated by the presence of
enhanced features in the environment. Ochsner ( 2000) notes that by intentionally observing,
activating and processing emotions, one may also intentionally re-construe the meaning of an
experience and respond differently. This idea has significance in an educational environment
when working with young people who may retain negative emotions associated with
learning. Emotion drives attention, learning and memory. But because our understanding of
emotion is limited, teacher professionals may identify too much or too little emotion as
misconduct, delinquency, or some form of learning difficulty. Brain research shows that
there are more neural fibres projecting from the brain's emotional centre into the rational
centre than the reverse, (Sylwester, 1994) which suggests that emotion is an influential factor
of behaviour and learning.
Neuroscience researchers (Cozolino, 2013; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, &
Walberg, 2004) emphasise the interconnected nature of teaching and learning, and
potentially, the ability to reshape the neurological development of others.
We are beginning to understand how our brains link together, influence one another,
and the power that each of us has to impact and heal the brains of others. This
knowledge is vital to the process of teaching – when a teacher is harsh, critical,
dismissive, demoralised or severely stressed, their students attune to and come to
embody these anti learning states of brain and mind. (Cozolino, 2013, p. 14)
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Mirror neurons play an important role in the development of secure
attachment. It is a secure attachment with the primary carer (the dyad relationship), that
enables a child to establish effective neural pathways to facilitate speech, empathy, curiosity,
relationships and eventually, a sense of self (Rossouw, 2011). In classrooms, teachers are
working with the developing brains of young people. Giacomo Rizzolatti, the neuroscientist
who discovered mirror neurons, suggested that we can ‘grasp the minds of others not through
conceptual reasoning but through direct stimulation; by feeling, not by thinking.’ (Quoted in
Arden, 2009, p. 102). By understanding the importance of the empathetic potential of mirror
neurons teachers have a greater influence on the minds of their students than they may be
aware of. Research on plasticity is beginning to identify ways to shape the circuitry of
emotion through this potential to increase well-being and positive affect (Davidson, Jackson,
& Kalin, 2000) in young people.
Like the infant brain, the developing adolescent brain is primed to be
influenced by significant relationships; it is a time when young people, breaking away from
family and preparing to become adults themselves, shift their attachment focus to peers and
other adults (Willis, 2006). As their cortical development progresses, they enter a phase of
intense emotional responsiveness, experiencing rapid shifts in mood and emotions that can
effect learning and concentration (Cozolino, 2013). Teachers who demonstrate empathy,
warmth and understanding will be highly valued and sought out by adolescents.
Physical Conditions: The emotional climate of the school has strong links
between the physical environment and the development of pedagogy, while also connecting
to the social aspects of learning. Strength, fairness, and respect within a positive climate are
essential to facilitate engagement and connectedness of students (Hawkins & Wall, 1980; van
Pelt, 2012). Lippman (2010) suggests an interdependent relationship between environment
and learner; the learner is shaped by the environment and in turn shapes that environment.
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Further, education spaces “both shape and are shaped by wider social processes” (Theim, H.,
2009, quoted in Brooks, 2012, p. 6). Cuyvers (2011) links higher levels of wellbeing among
students in schools with higher levels of infrastructure. Lang (2010) argues that physical
spaces and social relationships are intertwined:
The built environment can be seen as a cultural artefact that is embedded in the
process through which individuals build and form their identities. Facilities embody
cultural values and imply standards of behaviour. (p3.)
Mater (2010) links physical environment to a positive impact on academic
achievement and increased creativity. Sustainability, flexibility, and awareness of
environmental issues that are reflected in school buildings also contribute to the development
of learning and learner (Kuuskorpi & N., 2011). Carefully designed elements such as
windows, wall surfaces, lighting, air flow, common spaces and outdoor areas encourage
social participation, promote safety and comfort as well as facilitate a sense of belonging and
wellbeing (Cuyvers, 2011; Hawkins, 1980; Kuuskorpi, 2011; Van Note Chism, 2002).
The physical environment or material conditions of the school contain within
them an implicit curriculum. This is the unwritten and possibly unintended learning that
students experience from the often symbolic messages imparted through these facilities.
Researchers (Titman, 1994) have found that self-identity is related to place-identity and
changes in environment result in changes in behaviour. School environments contain
elements that convey a sense of belonging or not belonging.
Learning facilities that de-institutionalise the environment are more domestic
or homelike in character. Design themes that deliberately incorporate domestic features and
furnishings seek to “humanize” (Khan, 2012) learning and others that include open and
interconnecting spaces reflect the principles of project and inquiry based pedagogy (Hille,
2011). The importance of emotional and social experience within learning spaces is
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recognised in Brooks, et.al. (2012) with the idea that space is a location for identity
construction, transformation, and facilitates forms of participation. Further, Gratz and Goliber
(in Van Note Chism & Bickford, J. 2002, p16) note the psychological value attached to
classrooms and emphasise the associated emotional response students experience within these
spaces.
The integration of technology is another aspect of teaching and learning that
requires consideration. Social interaction in digital media, which is particularly popular with
teenagers, may not have the same learning benefits as face-to face interactions (Blakemore,
2010). Blakemore (2010, p744) asks the question: “What is the critical factor in social
interaction that is so evidently missing from video conferencing, and which makes it
incomparable to a meeting with real people.”
Pedagogical Conditions: Learning environments directly reflect and influence
pedagogy. If learning is viewed as a social process and collaboration the key to achievement
(Van Note Chism & Bickford, 2002; van Pelt, 2012) then learning spaces should reflect those
aims. Classroom configuration can either inhibit or facilitate learning both directly and
symbolically (Weinstein, 1979 in Van Note Chism, 2002, p17). While there is no single
perfect blueprint for effective pedagogy, collaborative learning fosters belonging and identity
and is directly linked to the theoretical underpinning of the project. Collaborative learning
changes the way in which students are asked to process and conceptualise material, it
demands the integration of different points of view, contains processes for summarising and
comparing, explaining and elaborating, enriching the learning experience and deepening
understanding and metacognitive skills (Davidson & Worsham, 1992). The principles of
collaborative learning contain multiple, flexible instruction methods that integrate the social,
emotional and physical components of the environment (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, Whitt, 2005).
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The power of peer culture and shared purpose is harnessed through effective
collaborative learning that sets clear expectations, contains effective scaffolding and pre-
determined criteria for evaluation and, often, real-world, open ended problems (Hmelo-
Silver, Chinn, Chan, & O'Donnell, 2013). Also significant in optimum learning conditions is
the use of visible learning strategies. Hattie’s (2009)meta-analysis work describes the need
for clearly identified learning goals, success criteria and feedback processes.
The literature reviewed reveals that optimum learning requires well regulated,
positive emotions facilitated through strong social relationships. Optimum learning
conditions are facilitated through effective pedagogy and cohesive physical space, both of
which, in turn, are influenced by, and influence, the social and emotional aspects of learning.
Khan (2012) states that people become educated through their own commitment to learn, but
also notes the complex inter-relationship between other aspects of culture and social values
that are embedded in the goals of education.
Focus Group Themes
Focus group responses were analysed to identify common themes. From the
student comments I looked for the aspects of their education experiences that had the most
impact on their sense of belonging and identity as a learner. Two focus groups were held in
traditional public High School settings, one in a non-traditional or alternative public High
School, one in a vocational college and two in Drop-out Recovery Programs. Student ages
ranged from 14 to 38. At each focus group I asked the same four open-ended questions
(appendix 1.) and allowed the discussion to digress where students led.
Social:
A strong relationship with a teacher was a recurring comment from students in all
focus groups. They particularly value teachers “who get to know them as people.” Some
students were highly critical of teachers who treated them, in their view, as less than human
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or “retarded”. Taking a genuine interest in the students, knowing what was going on in their
lives, showing empathy, respect, patience, humour and enthusiasm were qualities that
students expressed as important.
“A teacher’s got to be your parent. You’re with your teachers 8 hours a day, they got
to be your parent; protect you, teach you, correct you, guide you, discipline you, they
got to provide for you and care about you.”
Also highly valued was friendships with peers which students recognised as strongly
contributing to their sense of wellbeing and belonging.
“Having friends here, that’s the most important thing.”
“Friends, your peer support group, everyone needs to feel they have friends
when they come to school.”
Having the support of a community within the school, such as tutor groups,
morning meetings, advisory groups, peer support, life skills programs, and being part of that
community, also gave students feelings of inclusion, belonging, and improved wellbeing.
Students made links between school and family in recognition of the importance of the
relationships within schools:
“School and family are like the same, some people haven’t got much at home so they
need more at school. If they don’t have more at school then they don’t have
anything.” “It’s kind of like our miniature family.”
Democratic principles within schools were strongly advocated by young
people in focus groups, some because they felt there were none operating in their school
environment and some because they did experience them and value them. Being able to have
‘voice and choice’ was highly valued. Schools that had strongly enforced and rigid
procedures were found to be disempowering and produced a negative effect on students’
identity and learning:
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“You got five minutes to get from one class to another and say you got to go to
the bathroom, you don’t make it. Then they shut the door and lock it and you
were left outside. Then security came and ‘swept up’ the lock outs, making us
go into a room where we had to stay until the next class. I felt like I was
missing out. You felt like you were almost jailed. The feeling was like; you do
this or else. It crippled people.”
Emotional:
A strong relationship with a teacher also linked to the emotional aspect of learning as
students recognised that a negative relationship with a teacher impacted on their ability to
learn in that class:
“She doesn’t like me.”
“How do you know that?”
“She’s real impatient, threatening – ‘if you don’t do this you’re gonna fail’, it’s like
she wants me to fail.”
“Your mood is affected by the environment, I don’t even want to get out of bed when
I know I have that class.”
“Some teachers treat you like you’re retarded, they all irritated, the way they explain
with a tone of voice like you are stupid.”
Stress was identified as an emotion that contributed negative outlooks to
school and students across all focus groups described feelings of being ‘overwhelmed.’
“In finals week stress levels are off the charts, girls let themselves go, there’s people
in pyjamas with their hair not brushed, I’ve seen people curled up in the foetal
position on the floor, I’ve seen others wrapped in a blanket rocking backwards and
forwards, people crying or sleeping, huge flasks of coffee everywhere.”
23

One student who had been in an honours class dropped out of school in his
senior year because of the pressure of too much work. Feelings of loneliness, depression,
anxiety, hostility, helplessness, powerlessness, boredom and tiredness were among those said
to be experienced. Loss of self-esteem resulting from school failure was identified:
“It made me feel like I was a failure, that I wasn’t good enough, or smart enough. It
made me feel worthless.”
Being able to talk to a teacher, have them listen, was considered important in
mitigating these feelings of failure and distress.
“Teachers get to know you as a person, treat us like we are human, it’s a different
world, you can really connect with the teachers.”
Students recognised that enjoyment was key aspect of powerful learning
experiences:
“You have to be having fun to learn.”
“When it’s fun it makes it easier to learn, you can be yourself and it has meaning for
you. Don’t tell us, let us do it ourselves.”
Teachers who smiled and encouraged laughter in the classroom, who were
enthusiastic and excited about their subject, who moved around the room and varied their
tone of voice were recognised as positively influencing the learning experience and the mood
of the students.
“Teachers who have a chat with you before the lesson begins are us showing they
care; you care about our academic success, but you also care about us as people.”
Students in one school appreciated that teachers there were very supportive
and wanted the best for them. A relationship based on trust between student and the teacher
made it easier for students to actively participate in lessons, ask questions and take risks.
Physical/material:
24

The lack of windows in classrooms was a significant recurring theme from the focus
groups, as was overcrowding in classrooms.
“It makes me feel like a slave again, all stacked in a dark room with all those bodies
and you can smell them.”
The florescent lighting was considered harsh or too bright and the lack of
natural light made students feel tired and many experienced feelings of being trapped:
“No natural light, no air in the rooms, it feels like being trapped in a box.”
“Not having any windows, as soon as you walk in the door it affects your mood, its
hostile, there’s an automatic tension, the doors are shut and you’re trapped.”
“I felt trapped, it’s like a jail cell, you feel like you’ve got shackles on, it makes you
depressed, angry. They are bad classrooms.”
The concrete blocks of classrooms were considered a negative feature and one
student had attached feelings of failure to this aspect of the classroom environments:
“The concrete blocks are depressing. When I see the concrete blocks in here it
reminds me of the walls in the school and I get the same bad feelings. I’d just sit in
class and stare at the walls because I didn’t understand stuff, now when I stare at the
walls I feel the same”
Students appreciated the efforts some teachers went to make their rooms more
interesting, using colour and visually interesting displays or posters. Using a quote board for
recording funny or interesting things said in class was highly valued as contributing to a
sense of wellbeing and belonging. Bright colours and variation between rooms was also seen
as a positive factor contributing to feelings of wellbeing. Feelings of homeliness were also
valued:
“They should make them more homely, more comfortable, so you feel safe.”
25

“Having windows lets you connect with the outside, you feel free, like being in school
but also out of school.”
Carpet, soft chairs, round tables, bright colours, space to move around,
windows, natural light and air circulation were identified as features that made students feel
more relaxed and engaged in classrooms.
Pedagogy:
Focus group participants identified “too much work’ and ‘busy work’ as contributing
to feelings of stress and despair. The need for processing time and teaching methods that
allowed ‘hands on’ learning with choice and variety were valued.
“We need more time to process stuff, not always reading and writing, I don’t learn
that way, getting to choose the work, I have to enjoy the work - labs are fun because
its hands on.”
Students also valued real life experiences as central to their engagement in
learning, along with face to face interaction with teachers. The use of film clips and DVDs
was not especially enjoyed and some students experienced frustration when teachers used
these methods without further face to face explanations.
“They expect you to watch a video and learn from that, then when you don’t get it
they tell you to just watch the video again. I really need face to face, that’s how I
learn, the video doesn’t work for me.”
Many students enjoyed project work and highly valued real world context and
visible learning strategies. Students want to know why they were learning something and
what they will use it for. Male students often identified ‘hands on’ as their preferred learning
methods while female more frequently identified ‘discussion’. One male student identified
the need to create drama or be involved in fights as a response to boredom and feelings of
failure at school. To him, this was entertainment, and fun.
26

Students said they were most excited and engaged in learning when they were
focussed on work that simulated their own interests and passions. Enthusiastic teachers
helped students engage and attention to sensory experiences were also identified as powerful
in aiding the learning process:
“If I play music while I’m studying I can remember everything I learned when I listen
to that music again.”
Having access to additional support and time was central to students who were at risk of
dropping out of school. Many students felt teachers went too fast and they got left behind,
then more work was piled onto work not yet completed until the experience was one of
hopelessness.
“You’re a failure. If you have to work after school till 9 o’clock like I was and then
you start school again at 7.40am and you’ve got homework in every class and you get
behind and then they give you another lot and then another lot – it’s just bad. I
couldn’t do it.”
Assessment based on conferencing, performances and project work rather than
grading and testing were seen as liberating and motivating for students who experienced
these alternatives.
“We have to be self-motivated or we won’t succeed here.”
The focus group participants responded openly and very candidly to the
leading questions in the discussions. Student responses suggest a range of difficulties that
should be explored in more depth in further studies. The expression of the struggle with
identity as a learner and a sense of not belonging in the school environment are evident in
many of the comments and give some understanding of the motivations for dropping out of
school. The dominant metaphor to emerge from the focus groups is the experience of school
as ‘prison’. This experience is perhaps more common for those that are economically or
27

socially disadvantaged but further data would be required to substantiate this supposition.
The metaphor suggests that ‘social control’ is a hidden curriculum in education and may have
become a dominant and driving influence in some schools’ policies and practices. The images
of students ‘swept up’ from corridors to be contained in closed rooms, excluded from
learning and isolated from peers is one that raises questions about the impact of such
practices and the underlying motivations behind them. Victor Hugo once wrote: “He who
opens a school door closes a prison.” For some students, school is experienced as prison and
this was an unexpected and shocking finding that emerged from this inquiry. Figure 2.
below describes some of the reasons students gave for dropping out of school.
28

Figure 2: Why students drop out of school.

Observation themes
Observation data comes from a range of schools that includes the sites where
the focus groups took place, plus an additional two charter schools, a private school, and a
Project school. These additional sites were single day visits as part of the Fulbright
Distinguished Teacher school visit program. I also visited a teenage parent education facility.
Social:
All schools I visited placed considerable emphasis on the social support of
their students by having in place a pastoral care structure that, in theory, provided that
support. Examples included; morning meeting, circle of power, advisory group, tutorial or
den, counsellors and peer support programs. In some schools these systems proved
extremely effective but in others, less so. Additional programs such as a ‘life skills academy’
sort to bridge that gap by combining peer mentoring and additional teacher support in a
wraparound process that identified students who were at risk. It also allowed additional time
for goal setting, processing, catching up on homework, and motivational activities. This
additional support was viewed very positively by the students who identified increased
wellbeing and belonging from their inclusion in this group.
I observed other strategies that sought to foster a sense of belonging for
students and families: meeting and greeting the students at the door of the school as they
enter in the morning and at the door of the classroom, community outreach program, parent
reading group.
Schools that set a high emphasis on establishing ‘norms’ or ‘ethos’ and
maintaining those standards showed high levels of student engagement and belonging.
Restorative practices and democratic processes that included student voice also seemed to
contribute to high engagement and link to effective pedagogy -“Students have voice and
choice.” These practices required buy-in from the students and the community. A high level

of emotional engagement and belonging was evident from students who accepted these norms
and worked within them.
Schools that placed emphasis on equity, and the importance of relationships
between teachers and students that reflected that equity, appeared to have high levels of
inclusiveness and engagement. In schools where teachers were collaborative, students were
also collaborative and this was reflected in the social environment as well as the pedagogy.
One school identified social support for individuals as a collective
responsibility and students spoke of a sense of safety and community that came from working
collaboratively and allowed them “to be accepted, open to new people, free to be myself in a
tight knit community.” In areas of poverty or disadvantage, schools sought to address many
of the barriers to learning by including a range of external supports around transport, food,
housing and clothing.
Social inclusiveness was also reflected in the arrangement of some classroom
spaces, particularly those that deliberately sought to ensure each person could make eye
contact with every other person in the room.
Emotional:
In most classrooms I visited teachers seemed to recognise that their
relationship with students was important, kindness and empathy being central to that
relationship. Students demonstrated most engagement when they respected the teacher and
interacted in more informal ways. In one school, teachers had been instrumental in creating a
new charter school because they felt that aspects of the public school system were detrimental
to the well-being and outcomes of the students. This resulted in a strong sense of ownership
on the part of the teachers that was evident in their commitment to the wellbeing of the
students.
31

Emphasis on security within schools appeared to have a bearing on feelings of
well-being, some had high levels of security and there was a tension around that, others had
no security and a noticeably more relaxed atmosphere.
Schools in underprivileged areas focused on creating opportunities for students
to feel acceptance and belonging regardless of their circumstances. These schools and
teachers demonstrated knowledge of the students and their personal circumstances. This
enabled them to identify barriers to learning and take steps towards mitigating those barriers.
Teachers and administrators fostered family and community involvement to directly address
barriers and create an inclusive community. Teachers who understood the power of their
relationships strategically forged strong connections with students as an attempt to diminish
the impact of past hostilities and discriminations and help re-imagine the student’s identity as
a learner. Teachers and leaders in schools with smaller roll size acknowledged that they were
able to focus more on wellbeing and relationships because of that smaller roll size.
Physical:
The implicit curriculum of the physical or material environment directs us to
look at the messages that are contained in the physical spaces of a school or classroom.
Essentially, the spaces are a metaphor for how we teach and learn, and the values and beliefs
that underpin that learning. In many classrooms I visited teachers had attempted to
personalise dull and uninteresting spaces to make them engaging and interesting, students
expressed appreciation for these efforts, though some classrooms, to me, had been overdone
and appeared to be cluttered and dominated by a teacher’s personality (e.g. hundreds of soft
toys).
It seems obvious that people enjoy spaces that are clean, colourful, and open.
However, many classrooms I visited were crowded, dull and dark. Noticeably, a high
number had no windows and therefore no natural light, a condition that the students
32

frequently complained about. The confining nature of the classrooms led to feelings of
entrapment, hostility, anxiety and tiredness. The metaphor of being ‘jailed’ recurred many
times. In one school the idea that teaching and learning should be open, public, and
transparent, was expressed in the architecture of the building, long walls of glass had replaced
the traditional solid walls and classrooms were designed to facilitate collaborative learning,
being three times bigger than standard classroom spaces. Some schools also made use of
corridor spaces as collaboration spaces (collaboradors) by including informal ‘Starbucks’
style booths and casual group seating arrangements.
Inclusive positioning of furnishings within a room facilitates greater
engagement and equity as students can make eye-contact with each other and teachers are
removed from the ‘front of the room’ pedestal. One school made a very conscious decision
to reject traditional school and classroom furnishings and left each teacher to create a
teaching and learning space that was comfortable for them and reflected both their
personality and the pedagogical style.
The move away from separated rows of desks to flexible groupings highlights
the move from an industrial, teacher directed model of education towards interdependent and
independent learning, organised around agency, ubiquity and connectedness.
Pedagogy:
I observed a range of teaching and learning activities in the many classrooms I
visited. The most commonly used is the teacher driven lesson that involves a standard initiate,
respond, evaluate style of questioning.
Students in project based or collaborative learning experiences generally
demonstrated higher levels of engagement but, importantly, were clearly more active
participants in the process of learning than those in traditional classroom environments.
33

Technology appears to be utilised in many classroom settings but often in
quite superficial ways, teachers use audio visual equipment to show PowerPoints of lesson
information and link YouTube clips. Students use portable devices for writing notes that the
teacher has displayed on the PowerPoint and for quick google searches. Some students
expressed discomfort and frustration with the use of digital technology and preferred more
traditional ways of recording information and face to face interaction with teachers.
Schools that modelled collaboration between teachers had clear processes in
place to facilitate student learning that included group norms, scaffolding and evaluation
procedures that students were familiar and comfortable with. Students in these classrooms
demonstrated high levels of self-directed and intrinsic motivation, reflecting the high
expectations of the teachers.
Emphasis on 21st
Century skills characterised schools working with
collaborative pedagogy which also demonstrated higher technological capabilities. Students
were engaged in problems with real world significance and encouraged to pursue their own
passions and interests. Collaborative learning has the potential to increase student belonging
through the opportunities it gives to enhance social interaction and relationships. It also has
the potential to facilitate enhanced identity as learners contribute in group situations where
they are valued and trusted.
34

The Four by Four Model of Optimum Conditions and Strategies for Learning
The Four by Four Model developed in this inquiry ties together the four
elements of the education environment with four optimum conditions or strategies for each of
the elements. In the following diagrams I describe how each element interconnects with, and
is influenced by, each of the other elements. In order to give authentic voice to the model, the
diagrams include quotations gained from students during the focus group conversations.
Figure 3: Social Conditions Map
The social conditions map highlights the importance of relationships and
democratic principles that help foster a sense of belonging. For the student, the most
important element is the friendships they create and maintain. The construction of effective
35

social conditions is linked to the style of pedagogy that encourages social interaction,
arrangement of the furnishings in the physical environment, and the emotional safety and
security experienced.
Figure 4: Emotional Conditions Map
The emotional conditions map emphasises the importance of connected
relationships that include friendships with peers, and trusting, strong relationships with
teachers. Attachment based learning stresses the profound importance of student teacher
relationships in impacting on the students’ sense of belonging and identity as a learner. The
emotional conditions link to the social conditions as both teachers and students come to know
each other beyond their assigned situational roles. The physical environment contributes to
36

feelings of wellbeing that also impact on the learning experience. The emotional conditions
are profoundly important in the processes of learning; positive emotions being directly linked
to positive learning experiences.
Figure 5: Physical Conditions Map
The physical/material conditions map describes how the environmental
conditions impact on the students’ sense of belonging and identity. By creating opportunities
for her identity to be reinforced, the physical environment connects the student with the
social group and the learning experience. The physical/material aspect of learning directly
stimulates or is stimulated by emotional associations that reinforce values of safety, security
and inclusiveness. Elements of the physical environment can trigger memories or feelings
37

that link directly with students’ experiences of school and learning, and have the potential to
create and develop identity as well as strengthen wellbeing, connection and belonging.
Figure 6: Pedagogy Conditions Map
Collaborative Learning opportunities create the optimum pedagogical
conditions to enhance students belonging and identity as a learner. In collaborative learning
the student is able to experience success as member of a group and as an individual. The
process and practices of collaborative learning are inherently social and help all students
develop their relationships with others as well as enhance their social skills. The pedagogy is
also intrinsically interrelated with the physical environment which must support and reflect
the social aspect of learning. As students gain confidence and acceptance within the group
38

experience their emotional wellbeing is enhanced and their connection to the school is
strengthened.
Conditions and Strategies
The conditions and strategies developed in the model are synthesised from the
process of this inquiry; literature, observation, and focus group comments, and underpinned
by the theories of Social Constructivism, Socio culturalism and Connectivism.
At the centre of the model is the student who may be at risk of
underachievement at school, dropping out of school, or, may have previously dropped out
and seeks to re-engage in education. Some of the students I spoke to in the focus groups had
dropped out of school, others said they had considered it many times. It is the focus group
information that provided the most compelling data to inform the project. Perhaps because I
was a visitor to the United States the participants expressed their experiences of school in a
very open and honest way. They offer an authentic voice that should be honoured and acted
upon.
The Four x Four Model of Optimum Conditions and Strategies for Learning
directly addresses the student’s sense of belonging and connection to the learning
environment. The strategies and conditions described are easy to implement, can adapt to any
education environment and link to best practice teaching and learning research.
All the strategies and conditions of the Four x Four model were observed
during the school visit observations, discussed by students in focus group conversations, and
reinforced in the literature review. These strategies and conditions, which really are very
simple, directly target the student’s need to feel strongly connected to the environment and a
valuable member of the school community while strengthening her identity as a learner,
reinforcing self-efficacy and supporting her academic aspirations and expectations. OF
OPTIMUM CONDITIONS AND STRATEGI
39

Social
•She receives a letter from one of last year's graduating students
telling her what to expect and how to be successful in school
•She participates in the construction of the 'ethos' or 'norms' that
sets the social expectations and responsibilities of the classroom
•She has a peer mentor or coach, and a supportive network of
relationships - life skills, "circle of power" morning meeting,
whanau group.
•You smile & greet her when she arrives and take the time to
chat.
Emotional
•She knows you care about her as a person when you take an
interest in her and know about what matters to her, connect
through sports, camps, productions she is involved in.
•She knows you respect her by your choice of words & tone of
voice
•She enjoys being in your classroom because there is laughter and
fun; you use ice-breakers, games and warm ups
•Predictability in norms & routines in your classroom minimises
her stress and enables her to feel safe enough to take risks
Physical
•The environment has space for her experiences and participation
to be celebrated: quotes board, photo posters, project displays
•She understands her responsibility for an environment that is
safe, inclusive, comfortable & public
•Her sensory experiences are stimulated by light, colour, sound
and objects/ images of interest
•The furnishings are arranged in a ways that are flexible and
collaborative, she can see outside
Pedagogy
•She understands the expectations and norms for collaborative
learning ( "The first 20 days" resource)
•She is asked to write a letter: "Things I wish my teachers knew
about me"
•She understands her own learning styles and knows you do too. -
(any number of on-line resources are available)
•The visible learning strategies ensure she knows what she is
learning and why - learning goals are displayed, learning is
scaffolded, there are consistent structures & routines, formative
as well as summative evaluation opportunities
The Four by Four Model of Optimum Conditions and Strategies for Learning
40

Discussion
This project, completed as a requirement for the Fulbright Distinguished
Awards in Teaching 2015, is presented in this paper and as a professional development
workshop. It provides a model of strategies and conditions aimed at re-engaging a learner
who has dropped out of education, or, who may be at risk of underachievement in education.
The aim of the project was to understand how different elements of education
impact on student identity as a learner and their sense of belonging to a learning community,
and how features of those elements could be enhanced to strengthen that identity and
belonging.
Student voice, gathered from focus groups within a range a school
environments in the United States, strongly influences the strategies and conditions described
in the Four x Four Model. It had not been my intention to specifically seek reasons why
students drop out of school, but focus group discussions provided some insight into this.
Key concepts for each of the elements of the education environment emerged
from the literature review and I sought to link those ideas to the student responses in order to
bring together theory and student centred practical application. Further study in the veracity
of these concepts and/or the addition of further ideas would strengthen this model.
Further studies could also replicate the focus group methodology in other
countries and compare student responses. – Are the motivations and influences the same or
different? What underlying cultural, political or economic factors are influencing these
motivations? Further studies verify the model and provide a broader discussion on the
reasons why students drop out of school.
Additionally, I would like to have the opportunity to test the model, both in
traditional and non-traditional education settings.
41

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Appendix
Appendix A.
Focus group questions:
1. What makes you feel good about school, what do you really like about
being here?
2. What makes you feel not so good about school?
3. What things do you notice about the school environment, how do you feel
about it?
4. How do you like to learn?
45

Additional Resources
The first 20 days Resource (Fisher & Frey)
http://fisherandfrey.com/uploads/posts/First_20_Days.pdf
46

Table of Figures
Figure 1. The four x four concept map..................................................................................................13
Figure 2: Why students drop out of school. .........................................................................................29
Figure 3: Social Conditions Map............................................................................................................35
Figure 4: Emotional Conditions Map ....................................................................................................36
Figure 5: Physical Conditions Map........................................................................................................37
Figure 6: Pedagogy Conditions Map .....................................................................................................38
47

Fulbright Inquiry Project - Four X Four Model final

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