1. 1
Elizabeth Waite
Bath Spa University
PS6002-40 Psychology Dissertation
Masculine or Feminine? Disney, Pixar and the Presentation of Gender
In partial fulfilmentof the requirementsforthe awardof a BSc (Hons) Degree in Psychology at
Bath Spa University 2014-2015
Word count: 10,941
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Acknowledgements
I wouldlike tosaya big thankyouto my friends,especiallyRosie,EmmaandDave,forall their
moral supportand proof-reading.Thisprojectwouldnothave beenmade possible withoutthe
helpof my tutorAlison,andwithoutthe presence of myparents,whohave always encouraged
me to do well.Thisisthe hardestthingIhave everdone,soI hope I make youproud.
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Contentsof Tables and Figures
Figure 1 – Histogramof Masculinity Score forPixarCharacters………………...... 22
Figure 2 – Box Plot forFemininity Scorewith All Predictor Variables ……………… 23
Figure 3 - Bar Chartof Sex Typing in Pixarand Disney Films forMale
and Female Characters ……………………………………………………………..….. 29
Table 1 – Skewnessand KurtosisStatisticswith Standard Errorfor
Masculinity and Femininity Score ……………………………….………………... 23
Table 2 - Means,Standard Deviationsand 5% Trimmed Meansfor
Masculinity and Femininity;and Males, Females,Pixarand
Disney …………………………………………………………………………………….…….. 24
Table 3 - Meansand Standard DeviationsforMasculinity and Femininity;
and Gender and Production Company …………………………………………… 25
6. 1
Abstract
The effectof the mediaonchildrenisdiscussedindepthwiththe applicationof theorysuchas
genderschematheory,social learningtheoryandcultivationtheory.The importance of
animationandthe waygenderisportrayedinDisneyandPixar ispresented.Disneyis
establishedasa dominantfeature inchildren’spopularculture andithasbeensuggestedby
previousresearchthatDisneyisstereotypical of females,while Pixarpresentsanew model of
masculinity.The effectthese portrayalscouldhave on children’sbeliefsaboutgenderis
discussedthroughout.However,previousresearchshowsadistinctlackof focusonrecent
releases,especiallyfromPixar,andadisproportionatefocusonfemales.The researchquestion
was therefore:Isthe waycharactersare portrayedinDisneyandPixardeterminedbythe
genderof the character or by the productioncompanywhomade the film?A 2x2 designwas
used,withtwopredictorvariablesbothwithtwolevels:gender(male,female) andproduction
company(Disney,Pixar);testedontwodependentvariables:average masculinityand
femininityscore.The scale used tomeasure thiswasthe BSRI-30.The sample wasof principal
characters from10 Pixarfilmsand 10 Disneyfilms.Total N=70.The data was exploredusinga
mediansplittogroupcharacters intofoursex type groupsbefore conductingaMANOVA.
Whenthe adjustedalphawasused(.025), there wasno significantmaineffectforgenderor
productioncompany,oran interactioneffect.Furtherresearchshould use more thanone
scorer,and control for speciesof character.It isconcludedthatalthoughthe resultsof this
researchwere notsignificant,manydifferenceswere highlighted.
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1. Introduction
The mediaisan extensive,ever-presentinfluenceinoureverydaylives.Itevolvesandchanges
to reflectsocietyandinturnsocietyisinfluencedbythe media.Especiallyintoday’ssociety,
the mediahasa majorinfluence onthe stereotypesandattitudespeople develop(Michael et
al., 2012). Genderisonlya small part of the messagespresentinthe mediabutthe mixture of
differentmessagesaboutmenandwomenmeansithasbecome a focusof research.The more
someone engagesinthe media,the more theytake onthe messagesitpresents.Whenmaking
mental judgements,peoplewhoview alotof TV use these messagesasatype of cognitive
shortcut,rather thanthinkingforthemselves(Morgan etal.,2009). Shrum (1995; 1999)
demonstratedthisbyshowing thatheavyTV viewersgive fasterresponsestoquestionsabout
social reality.A quickerresponsesuggeststhe answerismore readilyavailable withlittle effort
required. Thisshowsthe mediais asignificantinfluenceona person’sindividual beliefsabout
reality. Whentraditionalgenderrolesare presented,thiscanleadtostereotypedviews.
Hedley(1994) foundthatwhenmenviewedmovieswhere conflictbetweenmenandwomen
resultedinthe male beingdominantandthe female beingsubordinate,theyhadthe same
expectationsforconflictinreal life.
1.1. Childrenand the Media
Mediadesignedforchildrendisplaysgenderinthe same systematicwayasprogramsfor
adults(Lemish,2010),and createsa social worldwhere the gendersare distinctlyseparate.
Thishas a strong impactuponchildren,because theyare more impressionable(Michael etal.,
2012). This isreflectedinthe kindsof attitudeschildrendevelopaboutgenderandpersonality.
Bestet al. (1977) foundgeneral agreementamongchildrenthatwomenshouldbe emotional
and affectionate,while menshouldbe assertive anddomineering.Atage 11, children’s
stereotypingof personalityisalmostthe same asadults’(ShafferandKipp,2007). It has been
widelyestablished bypsychologists thatthe mediaaffectschildren,shapingtheirvalues,
behaviour,identity andknowledge aboutgender(Giroux,1995; Villani,2001; Davis,2012). This
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effectismore significantforchildrenthanforadultsbecause the imagesandstoriesinmedia
helpthemtonavigate the difficulttaskof understandingwhatgendermeans(Michael etal.,
2012). This is because childrenlearnmostfrominformationpresentedthroughvideo,whereas
adultslearn bestfromwritten information (WalmavonderMolenandvan derVoot,2000).
The issue of genderstereotypingisgettingmore seriousaschildrenbecomemore andmore
accustomedto the effortlessinfluence of the media(Michael etal.,2012). Childrenalsotend
to repeatedly watchthe same movies,suggestingthe contentcouldhave aparticularlystrong
influenceonthem(Michael etal.,2012). Excessive mediause,especiallywhenitis
stereotyped,causeschangesinachild’sview of the world(Villani,2001) and influenceshow
theylearnaboutgenderroles(England etal.,2011).
1.2. Learning Genderfromthe Media
Unlike sex,genderisnotsomethingapersonisbornwith.It is a setof understandingsabout
whatit meansto be a male ora female thatdictateshow apersonunderstandstheirbody
(Lemish,2010). Gender-rolestandards are valuesandbehavioursconsideredtypical or
appropriate foreachgender(ShafferandKipp,2007). These standardsdictate how malesand
femalesare expectedtobehave andbecome the stereotypes usedtocategorise andrespond
to each gender(ShafferandKipp,2007). Childrenare well aware of genderrolesata
significantlyearlyage andare aware of whatis appropriate,andinappropriatefortheirgender
(Davis,2012). At age three,childrenare aware genderisanunchangingpartof identity,
illustratedbyLeonardandArcher(1989), who foundchildrenthisage canidentify amanina
dressas a ‘pretendwoman’.Once childrenhave abasicgenderidentity,theylearntoapplythe
genderstereotypesinsociety(Gelman etal.,2004). Kuhn et al., (1978) showedamale and a
female doll tochildrenandaskedthemwhichone woulddocertainactivities.Almostall of the
two-year-oldsdisplayedstereotypical attitudes.
The powerof the mediacomesfromits abilitytosocialise childrenbyteachingveryspecific,
valuable lessonsaboutwhatisacceptable insociety(King etal.,2010). Itis suggestedthese
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lessons have atleastas muchcultural authorityas traditional waysof teachingsuchasschool
and religion(Giroux,1999 cited in: Kinget al.,2010). These lessonsbeginininfancy,assoonas
a childisexposedtomedia.The repetitivenature of the messagesresultinthembecomingthe
basisfor a child’svalues,ideologiesandbeliefs(Morgan etal., 2009). Children’svaluesare also
shapedbyportrayalsof stereotypes(Villani,2001; Towbin et al.,2003; Davis,2012), whichcan
twistthe waya childviewsthe world(Villani,2001; Smithand Grenados,2009). If thisis the
case,childrencandevelopnegative anddistortedattitudes,beliefsandperceptionsabout
gender(SmithandGrenados,2009). Thisis supportedbyThompsonandZerbinos(1995),who
foundchildrenwhorecognisedmore stereotypesincartoonshadmore genderedexpectations
aboutothers.Stereotypical portrayalsalsohave aneffectonhow childrendeveloptheirown
genderidentity.Lemish(2010) saysgenderimageslike thisplayasignificantrole inchildren
adoptingtraditional genderroles.
1.2.1. Theoriesof GenderLearning
There are several theoretical perspectivesthatsupportthe ideathatmediainfluencesthe way
childrenthinkaboutandlearngender.Cultivationtheoryisthe notionof how the media
specificallyaffectschildren.The argumentisthatviewingmedia‘cultivates’achild’sviewof
the world,havinganimpact ontheirperceptionof social realityunlikeanyotheravenue of
socialisation(Morgan etal.,2009). Cultivationtheoryarguesexposure tomediahelpschildren
to developtheirideasaboutsocial norms(Gerbner,1994 cited in: Englandet al., 2011; Graves,
1999 cited in: Michael et al.,2012). This suggestsviewinggenderstereotypesonTV will have
an effectupontheirbeliefsaboutgenderbehaviour(Swindler,1986; Graves,1999). The main
argumentof cultivationtheoryisthe more time achildspendswatchingtelevision,the more
likelytheyare tosee the real worldhow televisionportraysit(Morgan et al., 2009). A high
frequencyof genderedmessageswill have astrongersocialisationeffect onchildren(Klein et
al., 2000).
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Othertheoriesdevelopedtoexplainhow childrenlearngendercanbe applieddirectlyto
learningfromthe media.Anexampleisdirecttuition.Thisiswhere adultsteachchildrenthe
correct wayto behave byreinforcing sex appropriatebehaviourswhile alsopunishingor
discouraginginappropriate behaviour(Mischel,1970 cited in: Mithcell,1994; ShafferandKipp,
2007). This isreflectedinchildren’smedia,asthose whoactin a genderappropriate wayare
bothrewarded (SmithandGrenados,2009) anddisplayedpositively,while thosewhoactina
genderdeviantmannerare negativelyportrayed(Lemish,2010) and punished.Childrencan
easilyassociate the outcomesof filmswithconsequencesforthe characters’behaviour(Jose,
1990). A prime example isthe villainsof these films,whobecauseof theirgender
transgressionsreinforce the positivegenderqualitiesof the heroes (Li-VollmerandLePointe,
2009). This isthe optimal wayforchildrentolearngenderstereotypical attitudesand
behaviours(SmithandGrenados,2009),as together,these charactersdisplaytochildrenwhat
isnormal,expectedandacceptedinsociety.
The constructivistapproachsuggestschildrendeveloptheirbeliefsfromwhattheyobserve
and experience (Martin etal.,2002). The waytheyinterpreteventsintheirlife dependswhat
beliefschildrendevelop(Martin etal., 2002). Therefore,viewingthe waycharactersare
depicted inthe mediacanhelpa childtounderstandgender(Graves,1999 cited in: Michael et
al., 2012), byinfluencingtheirbeliefsandideasaboutgendernormsandbehaviour(England et
al., 2011). Therefore,stereotypesinthe mediacouldinfluencechildrentohave negative
beliefsaboutgender(Graves,1999).These setsof beliefsandexpectationschildrenhave
aboutmalesand femalesiscalledtheirgenderschema(ShafferandKipp,2007). Gender
schematheory(Martinand Halverson,1987 cited in: ShafferandKipp,2007) suggestsa child’s
genderschemadictateshowtheycognitivelyprocessinformationthe mediapresentsabout
gender(SmithandGrenados,2009), influencingwhattheyattendtoandremember(Shaffer
and Kipp,2007). Childrenwanttohave interestsandvaluesthatfitwiththeirgender,sothey
use the mediato gain knowledge aboutthe roles,attitudesandbehaviourappropriate for
malesandfemales(ShafferandKipp,2007).This beginswithchildrenlearningwhatpositive
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traitsare associatedwiththeirownsex,andnegative traitswiththe other(Serbin etal.,1993).
Theyuse thisinformationtoforma simple ideaof anin-groupandout-groupbasedongender
(ShafferandKipp,2007). As theirschemabecomesmore concrete,childrenuse the messages
inmediato judge whetherbehaviourisappropriate forthemtocopy (Huston,1983 cited in:
Smithand Grenados,2009). Childrenhave differentwaysof navigatinggenderdependingon
theirstage of development,butviewinggenderedmessagesdoesaffecttheirgenderschemas
(O’BryantandCorderBoltz,1978 cited in: Michael et al.,2012). Therefore,if the media
displaysstereotypical content,childrenwilluse thistoformtheirbeliefsabouthow gender
worksinthe real world.
Bandura (1986 cited in: SmithandGrenados,2009) believedchildrenlearnhow todisplaysex-
typedbehaviourfromobservationallearning- learningthatresults fromthe observationof
others.Therefore, whenchildrenobserve stereotypical portrayalsaboutgenderinthe media,
theywill recreate themintheirownbehaviour.Tohave anyinfluenceona child,acharacter
has to firstcatch theirattention.One aspectthatcan dictate a child’sattentionisthe
attractivenessof the model,andamodel whoisthe same sex as the childimmediatelymakes
themmore attractive to observe (SmithandGrenados,2009). Children identifywith same-sex
characters as theybelieve theyare similar(Jose andBrewer,1984; SmithandGrenados,2009).
Thismeansthey have more positive feelingstowards themandare more likelytoselectthem
as theirfavourites(JoseandBrewer,1984). Same-sex charactersare thereforebothhighly
attractive role modelsandhighlyeffective toolsof socialisation,aschildrenwill adopttheir
attitudesandbehaviourastheirown(ShafferandKipp,2007).Millerand Dollard(1941 cited
in: Mitchell,1994) believedchildrenimitatetheirsame-sex parent,whichresultsinreward.
However,Bandura(1969 cited in: Mithcell,1994) argued thatthis perspectiveistoo
deterministicandsuggestedchildrenonlyimitate anadultif they believeitisappropriate.The
appropriatenessof the behaviourthe characterexhibitstherefore hasevenmore influence
than theirsex (Bandura,1986 cited in: Smithand Grenados,2009). Leaper(2000) found
childrenobserve bothsexes,asthisgivesmore informationaboutgenderappropriate
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behaviour.Therefore,if justone genderisportrayedstereotypicallyinmedia,thishasaneffect
on bothboysand girls.Cognitive developmental theorysuggestschildrenmustreachastable
genderidentitybefore theycanbe influencedbysociety’sportrayals(Kohlberg,1996 cited in:
ShafferandKipp,2007). Once childrenachievethis,theyactivelysocialise themselvesby
seekingoutsame-sex modelsandinformationaboutgender(ShafferandKipp,2007), including
fromthe media.ThisissupportedbyLuecke-Aleskaetal.(1995), whofoundthatboys who
have achievedgenderconstancypaymore attentiontomale characterson TV.
1.3. Disneyand Gender
Animationinparticularhelpschildrentogainadeeperunderstandingof themselvesandtheir
environment(Artz,2002) because itisa primarysource of learning(Ebrahim, 2014). Disney
animatedfilmsare apart of children’smediathatis repeatedlyignoredasaformof
socialisationbecause parentsperceive Disneyasqualityfamilyentertainment(Buckingham,
1997). The impressioniscreatedthatDisneydoesnotneedtobe criticallyexamined(Artz,
2002) because itisnot reality,butrathera mixture of realityandfantasycreatedonlyfor
amusementpurposes(Mollenhoff,1989). Thislowersthresholdfordisbelief,meaningpeople
are primedfora higheracceptance of ideas(Artz,2002). However,these filmsneedtobe
examinedinthiswaybecause Disneyisanimportantpartof culture (Davis,2012) that
producesitsownjustfor children(Giroux,1995).Artz (2002) suggeststhismix of realityand
fantasyisin fact whatmakesDisneysuchan effective methodof teaching,becausefamiliar
storiesare presentedasif theycouldbe real. Anothertheoryarguesthatinthe past, story-
tellingtaughtchildrenabouttheirsociety’sbeliefs,historyandtraditions(Davis,2012).In
today’ssociety,animatedfilmsservethe same purpose,allowingchildrentolearnabouttheir
culture ina more focusedwaythansimplylivinginit(Davis,2012).
The authorityand legitimacyof these filmsstemsfromtheiruniquepresentation(Giroux,
1995). Disneyanimationspresentthe dominantcultural valuesandideologiescontinually,ina
wayno othermediadoes(Artz,2002). The consistencyof Disney’snarrativeshasledtoan
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emergingconsensusthatthese filmscontribute towardsthe socialisationof the younger
generation(Hansen,1993 cited in: Artz,2002). Disneyhasan enormousinfluence onwestern
culture,butparticularlyonthe culture of children(Giroux,1999),as the combinationof
enchantmentandinnocence helpsthemtounderstandwhotheyare and theirsociety (Giroux,
1995). It helpstofulfil abasichumanneedto learnaboutthe social world(Fluck,1987 cited in:
Artz,2002). Disneyprincessesare particularlypowerful characters,becausetheycreate new
expectationsforyounggirls,basedheavilyontraditionalfemininity(England etal.,2011). This
demonstrateshowDisneyfilmsandthe childrenwhowatchthemare involvedinatwo-way
socialisationprocess,butalsoemphasiseshow DisneyandPixarinfluence “children’sculture
and theireverydaylives”(Giroux,1999:2).
In Disneyfilms,malesare portrayed asaggressive,non-expressive,andasheroicsaviours
(Towbin etal., 2003). However,inthe Disneyprincessmovies,the menare muchmore
androgynousthanthe female characters. However,there islittlechange inhow theyhave
beenpresentedovertime (Englandetal.,2011). Due to the focuson political correctnessin
the 1990s, Disneysignificantlychangedthe waytheypresentedkeythemessuchaslove,
independenceandduty(Davis,2012). In the Disneyprincessfilms,genderstereotypesare
frequent,andthe princessesare presentedasthe ideal figure of femininity(England etal.,
2011). However,some portrayalswere stereotypical,andotherswere not(England etal.,
2011). Disney regularly presentschildrenwithmixedmessagesaboutgender(Towbin etal.,
2003), and character depictionshave becomeevenmore complexoverthe yearsasDisney
attemptsto reflectchanginggenderexpectationsinsociety(England etal.,2011). Since the
1990s, a newformof Disneycharacterhasemerged,the ‘toughgal’(Davis,2012). Thisisa
radical change from traditional Disneycharacterisationssuchasthe ‘princess’andthe ‘good
daughter’(Daivs,2012). In these more recentfilms,femaleshave beendisplayedasmore
heroic,courageous,independent,determinedandstrong;stayingtrue to themselvesby
makingtheirowndestinyandtheirowndecisions(Towbin etal.,2003; Davis,2012). The
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female protagonistsof neo-Disneyhave little incommonwiththe charactersof olderfilms,
withtheirtraditionallymasculine traitsbecomingtheirstrongestassets(Davis,2012).
While Disneyiscreatingmore masculinewomen,Pixarisportrayingmore femininemen,ina
waythat reflectscurrentcultural changes(GillamandWooden,2008).Pixarpromotesa new
model of masculinitythatdepartsfromthe traditional alpha-male (GillamandWooden,2008).
In the films,the protagonistgoesonajourneywithasignificanthomosocial other,resultingin
a developmentandacceptance of traditionallyfemininetraits(GillamandWooden,2008). For
thisreason,Pixarisperceivedasfresh,innovative,andprogressive(GillamandWooden,2008;
Ebrahim,2014). However,the portrayalsof malesandfemalesisgrosslyimbalanced(Michael
et al., 2012), as the female charactersare vastlyoutnumberedbythe males.
In comparisontothe olderfilms,the more recentanimationsdisplayslightlydifferent
representationsof genderroles,bothformalesandfemales(England etal.,2011), but
especiallywithregardtofemininity(ThompsonandZerbinos,1995; Kinget al., 2010). With
each film,female charactershave more choices,andthe decisionstheymake become more
relevant(Davis,2012).These newerfilmsillustrate the wayDisneyandPixarare makingvast
progressinthe way theyportraygender(Towbin etal.,2003). Althoughnewerfilmscontain
lessstereotypesandmore positiveportrayalsof gender,stereotypesdopersist(Towbin etal.,
2003). All of the Disneyprincessmoviesincorporate some stereotypical representationof
gender(England etal., 2011). Despite Disney’sefforts,the waygenderispresentedhasnot
keptup withchangesinsociety(Wiserna,2001 cited in: Englandet al., 2011). Theyare still
stereotypical,andhave notchangedsignificantlysincethe veryfirstfull-lengthanimated
feature in1937 (Wiserna,2001 cited in: Towbin,2003), althoughitis ina lessobviousway
(Towbin etal., 2003).
These portrayalsof gendernormsinDisneyhave beenshowntoinfluencechildren’sbeliefs
and theirbehaviour(England etal.,2011). Disney candirectlyinfluence the waypeoplethink
aboutgenderissues.Hendrick etal.(2000, cited in: Michael et al.,2012) foundthe wayDisney
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portrayedwomeninleadershippositionshadaneffectonwhetherthe viewershadapositive
or negative attitude towardswomen’sabilities.Disneyhasthe powerto“shape genderroles
and childhoodvalues”(Giroux,undated:10cited in: GillamandWooden,2008). These filmsare
popularamongchildren(Orenstein,2006 cited in: Englandet al.,2011), sotheirperceptionof
genderrolesandidentitycouldeasilybe influencedbythe portrayal of genderinDisneyand
Pixarmovies(Durkin,1985).Afterall,Disneyis“one of the mosteffectiveteachingtools
Americaoffersitschildren”(GillamandWooden,2008:3).
1.4. Limitationsof Current Research
There isonlya small amountof recentresearchfocusingonchildren’sculture (Giroux,1995)
and on childrenasa mediaaudience (Davis,2012),as it was establishedbefore 1990 that
mediadoesaffectchildren(Villani,2001).However,there are new typesof medianow
available,especiallyconcerningcomputer-generatedanimation.These have notbeen
adequatelystudied(Giroux,1995; Villani,2001),largelybecause the publicbelieve these films
shouldbe acceptedastheyare, notanalysedforresearch(O’Brien,1996).As a result,mostof
the researchintothe effectsof new mediafocusesonTV,ratherthan film(Davis,2012).
Most filmresearchfocusesonDisneybecause foralongtime,theywere the largestproducer
of animatedfilms.Otherproductioncompanieshave followed inDisney’sfootsteps,meaning
animationisbecomingincreasinglysignificantinchildren’sculture(King etal.,2010). In 1995,
Pixarcreatedthe firstcomputer-generatedanimatedfeature lengthfilm, Toy Story,heralding
the beginningof anewera infilm(Pallant,2010) and providingaudienceswithmore
sophisticated,emotional,three-dimensional characters(King etal.,2010). Since thisrelease,
the technologyusedtomake animationsandthe waythey are producedhas changed(King et
al., 2010), especiallyasDisneymovedawayfromtheirtraditional styleinanattempttoremain
relevantforthe newgenerationof children(Pallant,2010).Thisledto a change in how the
characters are involvedinchildren’severydaylives;theyare muchmore intense,andmuch
more present(King etal., 2010). Newerfilmshave more focusonthe charactersthemselves
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rather thanthe story. King et al. (2010) argue these characterscannot be comparedto the
older,simpler, two-dimensionalfilmsof Disney’spast,andthattheypresentchildrenwith
lessonsaboutgenderinaveryfamiliarbutmore effective way.Also,previousresearch
investigatinggenderinDisneyfocusesontheiroutof date representationsof women,leaving
the way male charactersare portrayedunexamined(GillamandWooden,2008).
1.5. The Value of This Research
It isimperative toconductcritical researchonthe type of lessonsDisneyandPixarpresent
aboutgender(GillamandWooden,2008), as ignoring the potential impactthese filmscould
have on childrenwillhave enormousimplications(Villani,2001).The perceivedpersistence of
genderstereotypesis of greatconsequence (Englandetal.,2011), as childrendonotintendto
use the messagesconveyed inthesefilms.Instead,itisahighlysignificantincidental learning,
socialisingchildrenusingamediumaimeddirectlyatthem(Lemish,2010). Noothermediahas
the same level of appeal;one of the mostsignificantconclusionsfromresearchongender
representationsisthe implicationsthismediacould have asa dominantagentof socialisation
(Lemish,2010). Because of the influenceDisneyandPixarhave onchildren,itiscrucial to
understandhowthese filmsshape the valuesandbeliefsof itsaudience (Giroux,1995).
The resultsof thisresearchwill be valuable toparents,teachers(Giroux,1995),children,and
the productioncompaniesthemselves.Childrentake genderveryseriouslybecausetheyare
still attemptingtolearnhowtonavigate this crucial part of society(ShafferandKipp,2007).
Whenchildrenare exposedtostereotypes,theirbehaviourreplicatestheminanexaggerated
way.Thisis to make theirnewbeliefs‘cognitivelyclear’(Maccoby,1998). Thisresultsin
childrenbecomingrigid intheirbeliefsaboutgender,andintolerantof genderrole
transgression,becausetheybelieve theymustconformtothe stereotypesgiventothem
(ShafferandKipp,2007). Therefore,if DisneyandPixarare foundtobe portrayinggender
stereotypes,itcouldbe arguedtheyare causingchildrentohave rigidbeliefsaboutgender,
resultinginthe displayof genderstereotypedbehaviourandattitudes.Thiswill have
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implicationsforadultswhoworkwithchildren,asitwill be achallenge toprotectthemfrom
spendingtoomuchtime watchingthese filmsand havingtheirbeliefsaboutgendershapedin
a negative way (Villani,2001),especiallyasDisneyandPixarare soprevalentinchildren’s
culture.Insteadof encouragingstereotypes,children’smediacan have a positive influenceon
theirbeliefsaboutgender(Calvert andHuston,1987; Leaper,2000). If thisresearch
demonstratesthere isalowlevel of genderstereotypesinDisneyandPixar,Disneycouldbe
playingasignificantrole inaddressingthe portrayal of genderstereotypesinthe media
(Englandet al.,2011).
1.6. Research Rationale and Aims
Althoughthese filmsare producedinAmerica,theyare aimedata worldwideaudience and
have a significantcultural presence inmostcountries(Morgan etal.,2009). Also,although
Disneymoviesare originallyreleasedinthe cinema,theythenbecome available towatchat
home.Once a childownsa video,theyare likelytowatchthemrepeatedly,sometimesseveral
timesinone day (Skouteris,2007) and withthe same frequencyasTV (Lin,2001 cited in:
Towbin et al.,2003). Hustonand Wright’stheoryof engagement(1983 cited in: Skouteris,
2007) arguesrepeatviewinggraduallyincreaseschildren’sengagementandtheirabilityto
processthe informationpresented,resultinginafacilitationof children’sunderstandingand
comprehensionaboutmessagescontainedinthe narrative.Thismeansthe contentcontained
inDisneyandPixarfilmscouldhave aparticularlystronginfluence onthe waychildrenlearn
aboutgender(Michael etal., 2012). ThisillustratesthatDisneyisadominantforce in
children’s media,soitisimperative toinvestigatethe kindsof messagespresentedinthese
films,especiallywithregardstogender(Giroux,1995; Towbin et al., 2003; Gillamand
Wooden,2008). The bestwayto investigate the relationshipbetweengendersocialisationand
animatedfilmsisthroughthe studyof how genderandgenderrolesare represented(King et
al., 2010).
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The previousfindingsof researchintomedia effectsgivesalogical justificationof researchinto
socialisationandnewmedia,especiallyasresearchsuggestschildrenare spendingmore time
than everwithmedia,anditisbecomingincreasinglysophisticated(Villani,2001).The media
ingeneral hasbeencriticisedforthe wayitreinforcesgenderstereotypes(Lemish,2010) and
Disneyhasgaineda wide-spread,unquestionedreputationforportrayingweak,passive
women(Davis,2012). Despite thisreputation,Pallant(2010) suggestsDisneyare more
progressive thanpeople realise,andarguesthatcharacters inthe neo-Disneyperiodare more
diverse thaninolderfilms.
Michael et al. (2012) statesthat itis safe to assume onlyslim, if any,evidence of gender
equalityinchildren’sanimatedfilms.However, researchshowsthe evidence isinconsistent,
especiallywiththe developmentof computer-generatedanimationandthe developments
withinsocietysince the 1990s.There is little researchonthisnew media,andwhatdoesexist
tendsto focusonlyon the wayfemalesare portrayedinDisney.However,the role of Disney
and Pixarinchildren’sculture isunrivalled;meaningthe messagespresentedinthese films
couldarguablybe the most significant inmedia.The aimof thisresearchistherefore to
investigatethe waygenderispresentedbothinDisneyandPixarfilms,andforbothmale and
female characters.
The researchquestionisassuch: Is the waycharacters are portrayedinDisneyandPixar
determinedbythe genderof the character,or by the productioncompanywhocreatedthe
film?If there isfoundtobe a gendereffect,thenthissuggeststhe character’spersonalityis
dependentontheirgender.These portrayalscouldtherefore be perceivedasstereotypical.If
an effectof productioncompanyisfound,thenthishasimplicationsforfuture research,as
DisneyandPixarwouldneedtobe exploredasseparate media,ratherthanasa whole,asit
usuallyis.
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2. Method
2.1. Design
The designusedinthisresearchwas2 x 2. Both predictorvariables werebetween-groups,asa
character couldonlybelongtoone categoryfromeach. The first,‘gender’wassplitinto‘male’
and ‘female’.The secondwas‘productioncompany’,whichwassplitbetween‘Pixar’and
‘Disney’.There were alsotwodependentvariables:average masculinityandfemininityscore.
It isa repeatedmeasuresdesignaseachcharacter has a masculinityandfemininityscore.
The scale chosento measure eachcharacter’slevel of masculinityandfemininityisthe Bem
Sex Role Inventory(BSRI) (Bem,1974).Before Constantinople’s(1973) research,the main
assumptionof genderinPsychologywasthatmasculineandfeminine wasonacontinuum,
withmasculine atone endandfeminine atthe other.The ideawasthat a person’sgender
couldbe placed somewhere alongthisline.Constantinople challengedthisview,proposing a
personcouldpossessbothmasculine andfeminine traits simultaneously,suggesting
masculinityandfemininityare separate dimensions.Asaresultof thistheory,Bemdesigned
the BSRI to measure androgyny.The BSRItherefore measuresbothaperson’slevel of
masculinity,andtheirlevel of femininity.
The BSRI was devisedthroughaskingjudgeshow sociallydesirable eachtraitwasformales
and females(Bem,1974). Itemssignificantlymore desirable forone genderoverthe other
were assignedtoeitherthe masculinityorfemininityscale,asappropriate.Bemwaslooking
for whatis sociallydesirable,ratherthanthe personal opinionof the judges,orhow theyview
themselves(Bem, 1981, cited in: Antill andCunningham,1982). Therefore,the BSRImeasures
sociallydesirable traits,ratherthantraitstypicallypossessedbyaman or woman(Hoffman
and Borders,2001).
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The BSRI is designedtobe usedasa self-reportmeasure.However, asthisresearchis
investigatinghowfictional charactersare representedinanimatedfilm,the scaleswill be filled
inbasedon observationof how the charactersare portrayed. Astraditional genderrolesare
sociallydesirable,the BSRIisan effective waytoexamine the levelof stereotypingin Disney
and Pixar. Also,the BSRIfocusesonaspectsof personality,ratherthaninstancesof surface
behaviours,suchaswouldbe quantifiedusingacontentanalysis.Therefore,the resultsof the
BSRI give a deeperunderstandingof the motivationbehindthe charactersbehaviour,and
consequentlymore insightintohow these characterscouldbe perceivedwhile actingasrole
models.
2.1.1. Relevance to Today’s Society
However,since the BSRIwasdevised40years ago, there have beenmanysocietal changes,
especiallywithinthe workplace;more womenare inwork,eveninmale-dominatedfields,and
menare movingintofemale-dominatedroles(AusterandOhm, 2000). Thisis evidentin
Twenge’s(1997) researchintoself-ratingsof genderbehaviours.Theyfoundgender
differencesonthe masculinityscale have beendecreasingovertime,withwomen’s
masculinityscoresincreasingsteadily.Therefore,itcouldbe arguedwhatisdeemedsocially
desirable formenandwomenhas changedasa resultof a more equalitariansociety.This
meansthe BSRI couldpotentiallybe outdated(HoltandEllis,1998).
In spite of this,researchhasshowntraditional genderrolesare still anintegral partof culture
inthe west(AusterandOhm, 2000; Harris, 1994). Studiesinvestigatingthe genderdesirability
of traitshave foundbothadolescentsandadultsstill endorse traditional stereotypesforboth
menand women(BergenandWilliams,1991; Twenge,1997), and ithas beensuggested
perceptionsof genderroleshave notchangedsince the 1970s, whenthe BSRIwas made
(BergenandWilliams,1991; Street et al.,1995; Austerand Ohm, 2000). For example,astudy
in2002 (Prentice andCarranza,2002) foundthe consensusisthatwomenshouldbe
compassionate andemotionallyexpressive,whilenotbeingdomineering.Onthe otherhand,
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menshouldbe assertive leaders,andshouldnotbe emotional.Inmostresearch,all of the
masculine traitsonthe BSRI are still viewedasmore desirable formen,and most,butnotall,
of the feminine traitsare still consideredfeminine (Harris,1994; Holtand Ellis,1998). This
supportsTwenge’s(1997) research,andsuggestsitis becomingmore desirable forwomento
be lesstraditionallyfeminine.Althoughmostof Bem’soriginal findings(1974) on desirability
have beenvalidatedforthisresearch,genderrole stereotypinghas become weaker(Holtand
Ellis,1998), and there are fewerdifferencesbetweenthe sexes.However,these changesare
not enoughtoinvalidate the BSRI(HoltandEllis,1998), as the changesinsocietyhave not
beenreflectedinthe findingsof research(AusterandOhm, 2000). Traditional genderrolesare
still operating,people’sperceptionsare still influencedbytraditional genderrole expectations,
and traditional masculine andfeminine traitsare still desirable (HoltandEllis,1998; Austerand
Ohm,2000). The BSRI istherefore stillavalidmeasure of masculinityandfemininityinthis
culture (Harris,1994).
2.1.2. Alternativesto the BSRI
Researchintothe alternatives showedthe BSRI(Bem, 1974) andthe Personal Attributes
Questionnaire (PAQ)(Spence etal.,1975) are the most popularmeasuresof gendertraitsused
inresearch(Lenney,1991). However,Antill andCunningham(1982) made a comparison
betweenthe BSRIandthe PAQ,and foundthatalthoughthe PAQshouldhave undivided
scales;underfactoranalysis,the masculine traitssplitintothree separate scales.Also,they
notedthat the correlationbetweenthe male-valuedandfemale-valuedscaleswas
“disturbinglyhigh”(Antill andCunningham, 1982:170). To measure masculinityandfemininity
as separate dimensionsrequiresthe differentgenderscalestobe independentfromeach
other(Small etal., 1979). In a comparisonbetweenthe BSRIandthe Helibrum’s
Masculinity/FemininityScales(HMAS/HFES) (Helibrum, 1976),Small et al. (1979) foundthe
HMAS and HFES scalesalsosignificantlycorrelated,whereasthe masculinityandfemininity
scalesinthe BSRI were significantlyindependent.Also,Ballard-ReischandElton’s(1992)
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resultsindicate Bem’soriginal factorsof separate masculinityandfemininityscalesare
reliable.These results,andthe proposal thatthe PAQshouldbe retiredfromuse (Antill and
Cunningham,1982), suggestthe BSRI isthe more validchoice forthisresearch.Inorderfor a
character to have a differentmasculinityandfemininityscore,these dimensionsneedtobe
distinctlyseparate.
2.1.3. BSRI-30
Insteadof the original BSRI,the shortform (Bem, 1981, cited in: Holt andEllis,1998), made up
of 30 itemsratherthan60, was usedinthisresearch.The BSRI-30 ismore internallyconsistent
(Bem,1981, cited in: Holtand Ellis,1998) than itsoriginal form, because itaddressesthe
problemof some itemshavingapoor correlationwithmasculinityorfemininity(Hoffmanand
Borders,2001). Some studies(HoltandEllis,1998; Maznah and Choo,1986) foundthatsome
of the traitswere notmore desirable foracertaingender.Itemssuchas‘loyal’,‘childlike’(Holt
and Ellis,1998), ‘ambitious’and‘athletic’(MaznahandChoo,1986) foundto have low
correlationshave beenremovedinthe shortform(Maznahand Choo,1986).
The BSRI-30 consistsof tenitemsfoundtobe more sociallydesirable foraman to exhibit,ten
sociallydesirable behavioursforfemales,andtenitemsgenerallysociallydesirable.These last
tenitemsare genderneutral,andare not includedinthe datacollectionoranalysisinthis
research.Bem(1981, cited in: Maznah andChoo,1986) recommendsthese itemsare not
scored,because theyare merelyfillersforthe questionnaire.Asthe researchercompletingthe
questionnairesisfullyaware of the rationale of the research,andthe genderneutral traitsare
not scored,there wasnoneedto include filler items.
2.2 Sample
Each Pixarrelease between1995-2012 was analysed. Sequelsare notincludedinthissample,
as the maincharacters largelyremainthe same,sothiswouldresultinmultiple scoresfor
these characters.The Disneyanimatedfeature fromthe correspondingyearswere chosenasa
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directcomparisonbetweenDisneyandPixar.Pixarreleased Carsin2006, but there isno
Disneymovie fromthe correspondingyeartomatchit to, as Disneyreleasedasemi-animated
filmthatyear (Dinosaur).Instead, the filmfromthe previousyear,2005, Chicken Little, will be
used.Thismeansthe sample consistsof tenPixarmoviesandtenDisneymovies,whichmakes
a total of 20 filmsforanalysis.
The two principal male andfemale charactersfromeachfilmwere chosenforanalysis.In
Disneyfilms,littleattentionispaidtocharacterswho are not the protagonist,the love interest
of the protagonist,orthe villain(Ebrahim,2014). Executive decisionswere made toensure
onlycharactersof consequence became partof the sample.Forexample,in Toy Story,BoPeep
isthe love interestof Woody,soisincluded,butotherfemale characterssuchasMrs. Potato
Headand Andy’sMom do notcontribute tothe storymuch andare leftout.Thisresultedin
the sample beingmade upof characters suchas: main male andfemale character,villain,and
one other,such as the bestfriendorsidekickof the maincharacter,or a character in a
motherlywise role.Insome instances,thereisnomore than one principal male orfemale
character. For example,in Up,Ellie isthe onlyfemalecharacterinthe film.Thismethodof
exclusionandinclusionresultedin19 male charactersand 15 female charactersforPixarfilms,
and 20 male charactersand 16 female charactersforDisneyfilms. Intotal,34 characters from
Pixarand 36 charactersfrom Disney,comprisingof 39 male characters and31 female
characters were analysed.The total sample isof 70 characters.
2.3. Materials
The BSRI-30 (Bem,1981, cited in: Bremsand Johnson,1990; appendix C) consistsof tenitems
foundto be more sociallydesirable foraman to exhibit,suchas‘assertive’,‘independent’and
‘forceful’,tensociallydesirable behavioursforfemales,suchas‘understanding’,‘sympathetic’
and ‘compassionate’,andtenitemsgenerallysociallydesirable,whichwill notbe scoredor
measured.Eachtrait ismeasuredona 7-itemLikertscale,rangingfrom1 = neveror almost
nevertrue,to7 = almost alwaysoralwaystrue.An average istakenof the scoreson
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masculinitytraits,andonfemininitytraits.Thismeansthe maximummasculinityorfemininity
score a character can have isseven,while the minimumisone (Lenney,1991).
Bemtestedthe BSRI(Bem,1974), and has founditto have hightest-retestreliability.Wayne
(1977) administeredthe BSRItoa setof studentsandcomparedthe resultstoBem’s original
sample.Itwasfoundthe reliabilitycoefficientsandthe meanscoreswere similar,evenwith
the introductionof extraneousvariablesrelatingtofamilysituation,suchasthe parentthe
participantwouldprefertobe mostlike.Thiscouldeliminatethe potential forBem’sresultsto
be perceivedasthe resultof investigatorbias,andshowsBem’sresultscanbe replicated.In
addition,Bem’sresearchwasconductedwithafour-weekgap.Yanico(1985) foundstrong
correlationswithscoresobtainedwithagap of fouryears.As a person’slevelof masculinity
and femininityshouldbe astable partof theirpersonality,havingahighlevel of test-retest
reliabilitysuggeststhe BSRIisan accurate measure of gender-typedbehaviour.
A popularmethodof measuringthe validityof the BSRIisthroughfactor analysis. Studies
utilisingthismethodhave suggested the itemsonthe BSRIdo not measure masculinityand
femininityas distinctlyseparate.Findingsonfactorial validity are consistentacrossthe board
(Maznah andChoo,1986). Usually,itemsloadondifferentfactors,suchas‘power’and
‘empathy’(WhettonandSwindells,1977),‘dominance’and‘tenderness’(Maznah andChoo,
1986) or ‘potency’and‘sensitivity’(Brems&Johnson,1990). However,Antill andCunningham
(1982) note generally,separate masculinityandfemininityfactorsemerge.The actualityof
onlytwofactors appearingsuggeststheycanbe viewedsimplyasaspectsof masculinityand
femininity(Bem,1981; Gruber and Powers,1982), notcompletelydifferentconcepts.Whetton
and Swindells(1977) supportthis,proposingthe twoscalescanbe pairedwithmale and
female traits.Where one factorhasa highcorrelationwithfemale items,the otherhasahigh
correlationwithmale items(MaznahandChoo,1986). This supportsBem’stheoryof separate
male and female elementsof behaviour(WhettonandSwindells,1977) and doesprovide
evidence thatthe BSRIisinternallyvalid.
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2.4. Procedure
The researcherwatchedthe filmsinorderof year.Thismeantstartingwiththe firstPixarfilm,
thenthe Disneyfilmfromthe same year,before watchingthe secondPixarfilmandthe
secondDisneyfilmetc.A BSRI-30,excludingthe genderneutral items,wasprintedforeach
character beinganalysedbefore watchingeachfilm.These wereusedduringeachfilmfor
reference,asthe researchermade noteswherethere were instancesof particulartraitsgiven
across stronglyby the characters. For example,withJohnSmith(‘Pocahontas’),‘leadership
ability’appeared frequently inthe preliminarynotes.Usingthese notesandthe general
impressionorknowledge of the charactersgainedfromwatchingthe film,the BSRIforeach
character was filledoutimmediatelyafter the filmhadfinished.
2.5. Ethical Considerations
As noparticipantswere usedinthe collectionof the data,ethical issuessuchasconsent,
withdrawal,andprotectionfromharmdonot applytothis research.
The outcome of thisresearchcouldbe perceivedtobe controversialif itisfoundthatDisney
and Pixarare presentinggenderstereotypedcharacters. Beingthe largestproducersof
animatedfilmsinthe world,aswell ashavingotherrevenuesof characterrepresentationsuch
as inmerchandise andtheme parks,DisneyandPixarcanbe seento be a large part of popular
culture intoday’ssociety.Itissuggestedtheystronglyinfluencechildren,becomingpartof
theirculture andtheireverydaylives(Giroux,1999).If these characterrepresentationsare
foundto be stereotypical,thenthe implicationsforthisresearchwillextendbeyondthe
personal choice of parentsandeducationprofessionals,andreachtoDisneyandPixar
themselves.Asanimportantcultural force (Davis,2012),Disneycouldbe heldresponsiblefor
any negative orstereotypical messagesthatare socialisingchildrenaroundthe world.
Paperworkoutliningthe ethical considerationsof the researchsuchasaims,rationale and
methodsof measurementwasapprovedbyanethicscommittee priortodata beinggathered.
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3. Results
3.1. Exploratory Analysis
A preliminaryinspectionof the normal probabilityplotsshowswhilethe masculinityscoresare
closerto the line of normal distributionthan femininityscores,the line isstraightinboth
graphs,whichsuggeststhere isnormal distribution.However,the detrendedplotsshow
masculinityscoreslargelydeviate fromthe zeroline,althoughthere are noclustersof scores
that suggestabnormal distribution.Onthe otherhand,the majorityof plotsforfemininity
scoresare clusteredabove the zeroline,soitdoesnotappearevenlydistributed.Further
analysiswasneededtodetermine exactlyhow the scoreswere distributed.
Withmasculinityscore,the histogramsformalesandfemaleswere reasonablydistributed,
while PixardisplayedanearperfectGaussiancurve.The symmetryof the box plotsalso
suggestsnormal distributioncanbe assumed.However,the histogramforDisneyhadsome
extreme scorestothe leftof the graph,suggestingsome charactersscoredverylow on
masculinityandalsodemonstratingthe potential foroutliers,althoughthe box plotwasfairly
symmetrical.Nevertheless,the histogramformasculinityscore with boththe predictor
variableswasreasonablywell distributed,butthe box plotdemonstratedthe majorityof the
scoreswere above the median.
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Figure 1
Histogramof MasculinityScore forPixarCharacters
Withfemininity,onlyPixardisplayedrelativelyevendistribution,althoughthe box plotshowed
it hada lowmedian.The histogramsforfemalesandDisneywere evenexceptfromone
extreme score oneach,althoughthe histogramforDisneywasskewedtowardsthe right,
suggestingsome Disneycharactershave ahighlevel of femininity.The histogramstherefore
suggestthe potential foroutliersinfemales’andDisney’sfemininity.The histogramformales
was random,withnoindicationof anormal distributionof data.Box plotsforall variables
apart fromPixardisplayedahighmedian,suggestingthe majorityscoredhighly.The histogram
for femininitywith all predictorvariablestakenintoaccountwasreasonablywelldistributed,
supportedbythe symmetrical box plot.However,the histogramdemonstratedpotentialfor
one outlier.
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Figure 2
Box Plot forFemininity Scorewith All Predictor Variables
Thisis reflectedinthe statisticsforskewnessandkurtosis.Average masculinityscores
demonstratedasmall flooreffect,alongwithaslightplatykurticdistribution.Incontrast,
femininityhadasmall ceilingeffectandaverylow kurtosisvalue.Thissuggeststhe majorityof
characters hada lowmasculinityscore andthe femininityscoreswere high,while bothhave
lotsof scoresinthe extremes,especiallyfemininity.Thiscouldmeanthe scoresare distributed
unevenly.However,asnone of the skewnessorkurtosisvaluesare more thantwice the
standarderror, normal distributioncanbe assumed.Thisisverifiedbythe Kolmogorov-
Smirnovstatistic,whichwasnon-significant(P=.20),indicatingnormalityof scores.
Table 1
Skewnessand KurtosisStatisticswith Standard ErrorforMasculinity and Femininity Scores
Skew Kurtosis
Masculinity .04 (.29) -3.7 (.57)
Femininity -.22 (.29) -6.9 (5.7)
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Exploratoryanalysisof the histogramssuggestedoutlierscouldbe presentinthe datafor
Disneyandmasculinity,andforFemalesandDisneyandfemininity.Noextreme scoresor
outlierswere foundinanyof the box plots.Thisisfurthersupportedbythe trimmedmean,
whichis close to the meanfor eachvariable.Thisshowsthe extreme scoressuggestedfrom
examinationof histogramsare notsignificant,astheyhave nothada strong influence onthe
mean.
Table 2
Means,Standard Deviationsand 5% Trimmed MeansforMasculinity and Femininity;and
Males,Females,Pixarand Disney
Gender ProductionCompany
Gender Males Females Pixar Disney
Masculinity 4.22 (1.12) 4.48 (1.11) 4.48 (1.1) 4.21 (1.14)
[4.23] [4.47] [4.49] [4.20]
Femininity 3.53 (1.49) 4.31 (1.45) 4.18 (1.51) 3.59 (1.47)
[3.52] [4.33] [4.21] [3.57]
Note:N = 70; Standard deviationspresented in rounded brackets,5% trimmed mean in square
brackets.
Data was collectedon70 characters. The majorityof the characters analysedwere male
(55.7%) andin a Disneyfilm(51.4%).55.6% of the Disneycharacterswere male,aswere 55.8%
of Pixarcharacters.Thissuggestsprincipal charactersinanimatedfilmsare more likelytobe
male thanfemale,especiallyinDisneyfilms.However,these percentagesonlydisplayaslight
inequality.
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Withmasculinityscores,the twohighestvalueswere forfemale characters.Withfemininity,
the three highestvalueswereforfemales,andthe fourlowestwere males.Thissuggestssex
typingismore prevalentwithfeminine traits,asthe highestvaluesbelongtofemale characters
and the lowesttomale characters,whereasmasculinityisgenerallymore mixed.The dataalso
impliesfemalecharacterswere scoredmore highlythanmalesinbothmasculinityand
femininity.Thissuggests maleshave more undifferentiatedsex typing,while femalesare more
androgynous. Withproductioncompany,extremescoreswere distributedfairlyevenly
betweenPixarandDisney,withthe exceptionof femininity. Of the highestfemininityscores,
fourwere inPixarfilms.ThissuggestsPixarcharactersare more feminine thanthose inDisney
films.
Table 3
Meansand Standard DeviationsforMasculinity and Femininity and Genderand Production
Company
Masculinity Femininity
ProductionCompany Males Females Males Females
Pixar 4.58 (1.09) 4.35 (1.15) 4.03 (1.57) 4.38 (1.48)
Disney 3.89 (1.08) 4.61 (1.10) 3.05 (1.28) 4.24 (1.47)
Note:N=70; Standard deviationsarepresented in brackets.
Thisis supportedbythe means.The standarddeviations(SD) forthe meansare relativelylow
and similaracrossthe variables,whichimpliesthe meansare representativeof the sample.
Accordingto the means,male andfemale charactersscore higheronmasculinitythan
femininity,while femalesscore higherthanmalesonfemininityandmasculinity. Thissupports
the suggestionabove thatfemale charactersare quite androgynous,andmalesare more
undifferentiated. PixarandDisneycharactershave highermasculinity thanfemininity scores,
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but Pixarcharactersscore more highlyonfemininityforfemalesandmasculinityformales
than inDisney.ThissuggestsPixar’scharactersare more sex-typedthanDisney’s.In
comparison,Disney’smalesscore low onmasculinity,andfemalesalsoscore low on
femininity.
3.1.1. Median Split
A mediansplitwasconductedtoexamine these findingsinmore depth.Thismethodwas
chosen because itisthe most successful waytoobserve sex-roleideology(Orlofsky,1977)
Also,itisuseful forcategorisingcharactersincomparisontoothersinthe sample and
investigatingthe relationshipsbetweenthe variables(Lenney,1991),whichfitsthe research
aimsof thisstudyperfectly.The sample wassplitaccordingtowhetheracharacter fell above
or belowthe medianforbothmasculinityandfemininity,resultingintwogroupsforeach
dependentvariable:highmasculinity,low masculinity,high femininity,low femininity.The
mediansusedwere derivedfromthe combined-sex score forthisparticularsample.Mdfor
masculinityscore=4.3(IQR:3.7, 52.3). Md for femininityscore=4(IQR:2.8, 4.9). Each character
therefore belongedtoone masculinitygroupandone femininitygroup.Once the sample had
beensplit,the characterswere categorisedintoone of foursex-typesaccordingtohow they
had scoredwiththe median.A highmasculinityandfemininityscore meantacharacter was
androgynous,whilealowscore on bothindicatedtheywere undifferentiated.A high
masculinityandlowfemininityscore typedacharacteras masculine,while the opposite
showedtheywere feminine.Thismethodfollowsthe approachusedbyBemto analyse the
resultsof researchusingthe BSRI (Lenney,1991). The findingswere assembledinbargraphsin
orderto compare the groupsdirectly.Percentageratherthanfrequencywasusedsothe
resultswere more representative andcouldpotentiallybe generalisedbeyondthe sample
usedinthisresearch.For example,if ‘x’% of charactersinthe Pixarfilmsstudiedhere are
masculine typed,thenthiscanbe appliedtootherfilms,anditcouldbe saidthat ‘x’% of
characters inPixarfilmsare masculine typed.The graphsshowedoverall,there wasalarger
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percentage of androgynousandundifferentiatedcharactersthanmasculineorfeminine,which
were representedinequal amounts.
The oppositespresentinthe waygenderisportrayed are almostequal;malesandfemalesare
presentedinanequallyopposite wayinbothandrogynous/undifferentiatedgroupsand
masculine/feminine.Whenordered,it becomesclearfemalesare representedlargelyas
androgynous,followedbyfeminine,masculineandundifferentiated.Malesfollow the
opposite pattern:undifferentiated,thenmasculine,feminine andandrogynous.Femalesmake
up the majorityof androgynousandfeminine characters,while malesdominatethe
undifferentiatedandmasculine groups.The androgynousgrouphadboththe highestand
lowestpercentagesoverall,inthatfemaleswhoscoredasandrogynouswere the biggest
group,and malesonthis score were the smallest.However,itisworthnotingthere wasa
higherpercentage of feminine malesthanmasculine females. Withproductioncompany,the
oppositeswere situatedinthe masculine/undifferentiatedandfeminine/androgynousgroups,
inthat the percentagesforPixarinmasculineandandrogynouswasalmostthe same as
Disney’sforundifferentiatedandfeminine.Pixarhadthe mostmasculine characters,followed
by androgynous,feminine andundifferentiated.Disneyhadalarge numberof undifferentiated
characters,followedbyfeminine,androgynousandmasculine.Pixarhadthe majorityof
masculine andandrogynouscharacters,whereasDisneydominatedthe feminine and
undifferentiatedgroups.Disneyhadthe highestpercentageof charactersina group –
undifferentiated –and the lowest,masculine.PixarandDisneywere more similaron
percentage of feminine charactersthanmasculine,whichshowedthe largestdifference.
A bar chart containingbothproductioncompanyandgenderwasassembledtoexamine how
these predictorvariablescombineinthe foursex-typinggroups.Inthe Pixarfilms,females
were presentedequallyasmasculine andfeminine,followed closelybyandrogynous.A small
numberwere portrayedasundifferentiated.The maleswerepresentedaspredominantly
masculine,followedbyandrogynous.There isonlyasmall differencebetweenthe amountof
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characters portrayedasfeminine andundifferentiated.Thisiscontrastedbythe Disneyfilms,
whose male charactersare undifferentiatedalmosthalf the time.The secondlargest
percentage of maleswere masculine,followedbyfeminine,andjustovertenpercentwere
androgynous.Again,thiscanbe contrastedwithDisney’sfemales,whowere predominantly
androgynous,followedbyjustover30% presentedasfeminine,andonlyaverysmall amount
portrayedas masculine andundifferentiated.InbothDisneyandPixarfilms,there isanequal
amountof feminine male charactersandmasculine female characters.The wayPixarpresents
genderismore evenlyspreadoverthe foursex-type groupsthanDisney,especiallywith
females,althoughthe portrayal of malesasmasculine isstereotyped.Disneyportraymore
undifferentiatedandandrogynouscharactersthananyothertype,and more than Pixar,
suggestingDisney’smalesare gender-less,andtheirfemalesare bothmasculineandfeminine.
Disneyhasmore femininecharactersthanPixarandportrays far more feminine menthan
masculine women,suggestingfemalesare presentedmore stereotypicallythanmales.
However,feminine isnotthe largestgroupforfemales,androgynousis.This,alongwiththe
large percentage of malespresentedasundifferentiated,suggestsgender isnotverypresent
or stereotypical inDisneyfilms,andbecause of Pixar’sportrayal of male charactersasvery
masculine,Pixarcouldbe seenasmore sex-typedthanDisney.
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Figure 3
Bar Chartof Sex Typing in Pixarand Disney Films forMale and FemaleCharacters
3.2. Inferential Analysis
In orderto explore whetherproductioncompany andgenderhada statisticallysignificant
effectonmasculinityorfemininityscore,Multivariate Analysisof Variance (MANOVA) was
chosenforinferentialanalysis.ThismethodissuperiortoconductingmultipleANOVAs
because runningmore thanone analysisona setof data increases the riskof makinga type 1
error (Pallant,2013).However,MANOVA controlsforthis(Pallant,2013) as it isa multivariate
test(Field,2013).Also,MANOVA isbetterthanANOVA because itcantake intoaccount the
correlationsbetweenthe dependentvariables(HubertyandMorris,1989), whereas
conductingseparate ANOVAsmeansthisrelationshipisignored(Field,2013).
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Before analysis,the datawastestedtosee if itconformedtothe assumptionsneededto
conduct MANOVA.The firstassumptionconcernedsamplesize.ToconductMANOVA,there
mustbe more casesin eachcell thandependentvariables(Pallant,2013).In thisstudy,the
minimumnumberof casesineachcell istherefore two.The lowestnumberof casesinone cell
is15, so the sample size ismore thanlarge enough.The secondassumptionisnormality,as
MANOVA isbasedonthe multivariatenormal distribution(Pallant,2013). Inorder to proceed,
the data shouldhave bothunivariate andmultivariate normality.Asdiscussedinthe
exploratoryanalysis,normal univariatedistributioncanbe assumed.Tocheckfor multivariate
normality,the mahal.distance foreachcharacterwas comparedto a critical value ina chi-
square table.Inthiscase,the numberof dependentvariableswasusedinplace of df,withan
alphavalue of .001. The critical value was13.82, and the maximummahal.distance was7.36.
As the mahal.distance value was smallerthanthe maximum ineachcase,it can be assumed
there are no multivariate outliers.Thisleadsontothe thirdassumption,there are nooutliers.
As MANOVA issensitive tooutliers(Pallant,2013),a check forunivariate andmultivariate
outliersneedstobe conducted.Asestablished,multivariatenormalitycanbe assumedasno
outliers were present.There are alsonounivariate outliers,asdemonstratedbythe box plots
inthe exploratoryanalysis.The nextassumptiontobe satisfiedisof linearity.Thatis,a straight
line relationshipbetweeneachpairof dependentvariables.Toinvestigate this,amatrix of
scatterplotswascompleted.These plotsdidnotshow anyevidence of non-linearity.For
MANOVA,dataneedstohave equal variance.The Levene’sTestwasinsignificantforboth
masculinityscore (p=.997) and femininity(p=.94).Thismeansthe variabilityof scoresineach
groupis similar.MANOVA alsoneedstohave homogeneityof variance-covariance matrices.
The significance of Box’sM=.98. As thislevel islargerthan.001, the assumptionof
homogeneityhasbeensatisfied.The final assumptionisthe dependentvariableshave neither
multicollinearitynorsingularity.Todeterminethe correlationbetweenthe dependent
variables,acorrelational analysiswascompleted.The scatterplotappearedtoshow no
correlationbetweenmasculinityandfemininityscore.The relationshipwasthenfurther
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investigatedusingPearsonproduct-momentcorrelationcoefficient.There wasasmall
negative correlation:r=-.14. r²= 1.96, so there isbarelyanyoverlapbetweenmasculinityand
femininityscore.WhileithasbeensuggestedMANOVA worksbestwithamoderate
correlation(Pallant,2013), some researchhasfoundpowerdecreasesasthe correlation
increases(Field,2013).In thiscase,due to whatwas foundinexploratoryanalysis,alarge
effectis notexpectedsothe dependentvariablesdonotneedtobe highlycorrelated.
As the assumptionswere satisfied,MANOVA wasconductedonthisdataset.The statistical
testchosento investigatedifferencesbetweenthe variableswasWilk’sLambda,because itis
the most widelyused(Pallant,2013).This wasstatisticallysignificant(p=.03) forgender,and
productioncompanycombinedwithgender(p=.05),butnotproductioncompanyonitsown
(p=.94). Thisindicatesthere isasignificantdifference inhow malesandfemalesscoredon
masculinityandfemininity,andalsothere isa significanteffectof the productioncompanyon
masculinityandfemininityscoresformalesandfemales.Thisledtoaninvestigationof gender
and genderwithproductioncompanywithreference tomasculinityandfemininityscores
separately.Asthisinvolvedseparate analyses,ahigherlevel of alphawasappliedtoreduce
the likelihoodof makingatype 1 error. AsrecommendedbyPallant(2013),a bonferroni
adjustmentwasthereforecompleted,meaningthe new alphalevel was.025. Withthisnew
alphalevel,the maineffectforgenderwasnotstatisticallysignificantoneitherdependent
variable (F(1,66)=.89,p=.35; F(1,66)=4.9, p=.03), and nor wasthe interactioneffectof gender
and company(F(1,66)=4.02, p=.07; F(1,66)=3.00, p=.24). Althoughnosignificanteffectswere
found,optionsforfurtherresearchwill be discussed.
4. Discussion
No significantmaineffectswere foundforeithergenderorproductioncompany,andneither
was an interactioneffectbetweenthe two.Thissuggestsneitherthe genderof the character
or the companythat made the filmhasanysignificanteffectonthe character’smasculinity
37. 241265
32
and femininityscore onthe BSRI.However,the exploratoryanalysisandmediansplitdid
highlightkeydifferencesinthe waythese characterswere represented.
It iswidelybelievedDisneyportraysitsfemale charactersasweakandpassive (Davis,2012),or
inotherwords,as stereotypicallyfeminine.Thiswasthe case inthis research,as a large
amountof femalesinDisneyfilmswere typedasfeminine.However,anevenlargernumber
were portrayedasandrogynous,meaningtheyscoredhighlyonbothfemininityand
masculinity.ThissupportsPallant(2010),whoarguedDisneyis more progressive thanpeople
realise.However,Lemish(2010) wouldview thisasa way of depictingstrongfemalessothe
newaudience issatisfied,while atthe same time notchallengingtraditionalgenderroles.This
meanschildrenare beingpresentedwithconflictingideasaboutgender,asTowbin etal.
(2003) suggested,assome femalesare presentedasbeingonlyfeminine,while manyare both
feminineandmasculine.These effectsmayhave beendue tothe time periodthese films were
releasedin,asin pastresearch,thishas notbeenthe case.This issupportedbyDavis(2012),
whosaidfemalesinnewerDisneyfilmsare more masculine.These findings,alongwiththe
observationthatmale charactersinDisneyare predominantlygender-less,suggestDisneyis
not as sex-typedasitiswidelyperceivedtobe,as mostof itsprincipal characterswere either
undifferentiatedorandrogynous.These resultsreflectthe changingcomplexityof gender
expectationsinsociety(England etal.,2012).
Pixaron the otherhand,isperceivedasportrayingprogressive,feminine imagesof males.
Althoughsome maleswere presentedasandrogynous,supportingthe suggestionthatmale
Pixarcharactersbecome more acceptingof femininitythroughoutthe film, the majorityof
maleswere typedasmasculine.Pixar’sfemaleswere almostequallyrepresentedacrossall
fourgroups,so thisdoesimplyfemalesare notsex-typed.Thiscouldbe due tothe fact that
childrenare more tolerantof gender-role violationsbygirls.Whenboysbehave likegirls,
childrenviewthisasalmostasbad as violatingamoral rule (ShafferandKipp,2007). There is
greaterpressure onboysto conformto genderrolessoperhapsmasculine malecharacterswill
38. 241265
33
be more acceptedbythe audience.However,theirdepictionof malesdoessuggest Pixaris
more sex-typedthanDisney.Nosignificanteffectswere found, sothislow levelof
stereotypingsuggeststhesefilmscouldbe playing acritical role inaddressingthe portrayal of
genderstereotypesinthe media(Englandetal.,2011).
4.1. Implications
Sex role identificationdependsonwhata childperceivesasappropriate sex-typedbehaviour.
If this beliefchanges,thensowill theirsex-role identification(Mitchell,1994).Thisis
supportedbyMasters et al. (1979), whoagree it isthe appropriatenessof the behaviour
childrenpayattentionto.Thissuggeststhe wayDisneyandPixarpresentstheircharacters
couldcause childrentoperceive genderinanon-stereotypical way.ThisissupportedbyDurkin
(1985), whofoundwhenchildrenare shownnon-traditional representationsof genderinthe
media,theyare lesslikelytoadoptstereotypical viewsof gender.Thismeansthe charactersin
these filmscouldbe helpingchildrentoadoptlesstraditionalbeliefsabout genderand
become more acceptingof gendertransgressions.DisneyandPixarcouldtherefore potentially
be a keyresource forsocial change (Coombe andDavis,2013), especiallyasitischildren,who
are more impressionablethanadults,whowillbe viewingtheseimages.
However,thiswill be adifficultprocesstocomplete,asthe growingvariationsof gender
representationsinthe mediablurthe linesbetweenwhatitmeanstobe a man or woman,
offeringanarray of genderoptions,some of whichare contradictory(Lemish,2010).Thisis
displayedinthe resultsof thisresearch,suchasthe highnumberof bothfeminine and
androgynousfemalesinDisney.Thismeanslearningaboutgenderbecomesmore complex for
children.Thisiscomplicatedby the nature of genderschemas,asthismeans once a child
learnsgenderstereotypes,theyare more likelytoattendtoand remember things consistent
withtheirbeliefs(MaccobyandJacklin,1974 cited in: ShafferandKipp,2007), eitherforgetting
non-stereotypical informationcompletelyordistortingitsoitfitswiththeirgenderschema
(Calvert,1999 cited in: Smithand Grenados,2009; ShafferandKipp,2007). Thiswas
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34
demonstratedbyDrabman et al. (1981), who showedchildrenaclipof a female doctorand
male nurse.Afterwards,theyaskedchildrentopicknamesforthe characters froma list.The
childrenpickedmale namesforthe doctorandfemale namesforthe nurse.Onthe other
hand,DisneyandPixarare dominantforcesinchildren’spopularculture,soitislikelythe
messagespresentinthese filmswillaffectchildrenmore thanimagesinothermedia.
4.2. Assumptionof Passivity
Thisapproach issomewhatreductionistanddisplaysadegree of textualdeterminism,asit
assumeschildrenblindlyanduncritically take onwhatevermessagesare presentedtothemin
the media.BrunsdonandMorely(1980 cited in: Gill,2007) state there are three differentways
mediacan be understood;the firstisa dominantreading,where achildfullytakesonthe
messagesthe mediaintendedthemto;the secondisa negotiatedreading,whichinvolves
changingthe preferredreadingslightly,butnot completely rejectingitsoriginal meaning;an
oppositionalreadingiswhere the audiencesee alternative messages thatwere notintended.
Thisshowsthere are many differentwaysmessagesinthe mediacanbe interpreted,and
suggeststhe wayDisneyandPixarpresentsgendercannotbe givenasingle meaning(Giroux,
1995) forits audience.
Anotherfactorthat couldaffectthe applicability of these researchfindingsisthatthere is
some disagreementaroundhow muchchildren take inwhentheywatchmovies(Davis,2012).
Collinsetal. (1978) statesunderstandingmessagesfullytothe extentwheretheycanapply
thembeyondthe filmrequiresacontinuouseffortonthe part of the child.Thismeansitis
unlikelychildrenof preschool age willhave the processingspace andselective attentionskills
needed toselectandorderthe information (Collins etal.,1978). Skouteris(2007) suggeststhe
abilitytomake complex inferencesaboutafilmdevelopsaroundthe age of sevenoreight.
Evenif theycan understandfullyandinfermeaningfromit,childrendonotnecessarilyapply
informationfromfilmstoreal worldproblems(Richert etal.,2009).
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4.3. Limitations
Althoughresearchintothe BSRIsuggesteditisa validmeasure formasculinityandfemininity,
duringdata collectionsome issueswithusingthisscale became apparent.The problemwas
because the characterswere animated,thismeanttheywere notalwayshuman,andthis
causedissueswithscoring.Forexample,some charactersfrom A Bug’sLife scoredlow on
independencebynature of the fact theywere ants,whoare membersof astrong community.
There were alsosome issueswiththe measure of ‘loveschildren’.Inmostfilms,unlessthe
maincharacter was a childthemselves,there waslittleinteractionbetweenchildrenand
principal characters.These characterstherefore scoredverylow onthismeasure,asthey
couldwell be the type of personwhowouldlove children,butthe filmgivesnoevidence of
this.Anothercase where thismeasure presentedproblemswasinscoringforcharactersfrom
Toy Story.Asthe maincharacters were Andy’stoys,andspentthe whole movietryingtoget
back to theirowner,theyscoredveryhighly,astheyevidentlyloveAndy verymuch.Although
thisisa potential confoundingvariable,the mainissue withscoringwasthe constructvalidity.
Due to the nature of the researchreport,onlyone person’sview of the characterscouldbe
collectedforanalysis.Thismeansthe scoringcouldbe biasedtowardsthe investigator’sideas
of Disney,Pixarandgender.
Althoughthese filmsare marketedtowardsaworldwide audience,the waythe genderimages
are perceivedcouldvarybetweencountries.Forexample,Antill andCuningham(1982) found
AustralianandBritishnotionsof masculinityare differentfromAmerican.Asthe BSRIisbased
on Americansocial desirabilityof traits,the resultsof thisresearchcouldpotentiallybe
inapplicablebeyondanAmericanaudience.Onthe otherhand,researchhasshownUS films
are a significantcultural presence all overthe world (Morganet al.,2009).
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4.4. Further Research
Researchthat replicatesthisstudyshoulduse more thanone scorerif possible.The average
masculinityandfemininityscore frommultipleresearcherswouldbe more representative of
the actual portrayal and therefore boostthe validityof the results.Anotherapproachwouldbe
to ask membersof the publictofill outthe scalesforcharacters andthenuse the mean,but
thiscouldprove problematicasnoteveryone will have watchedthe films,anditwouldnotbe
time-efficienttoaskeach persontocomplete 70 BSRIs.It wouldalsobe fascinatingto
investigatedifferencesinthe waythese charactersare perceivedoverdifferentcountries,as
thiscouldsuggest DisneyandPixarhave a differentinfluence onchildreninculturesother
than American.Furtherresearchmayalsobenefitfromthe use of anothervariable –speciesof
character. Thiscouldbe valuable asa predictorof masculinity/femininityortocontrol as an
extraneousvariable.Whetheracharacter isa human,car, toy or animal couldchange the way
theirgenderispresented.
The designof thisstudydemonstrateswhatkindsof charactersare presentinDisneyandPixar
films,butdoesnotdetermine whatmeaningsthese portrayalshave forchildrenbeyond
extrapolationof theoriesandresearch.Whetherthese filmshave anymeaningandwhether
these meaningshave anyinfluence ontheirbeliefsaboutgenderremainstobe seen.As
previouslydiscussed,childrenare notpassive learners,sofurtherresearchshouldbe
conductedtodetermine exactlyhow childrenperceive andadoptgenderimagesinthesefilms.
A qualitativeapproachsuchas interpretive phenomenological analysis(IPA) of afocusgroup
wouldbe beneficial becauseIPA investigatesthe personal meaningof the subject,sothe
childrencandiscusstheirfeelingsandperceptionsof Disney,Pixarandgenderintheirown
words.A factorthat affectshow childrenperceive genderthatcouldemerge fromthis
researchisthe genderof the audience member.Researchhasshownthere are gender
differencesinthe waychildrenencountergender.Forexample,girlshave beenshowntoscore
loweronmeasuresof sex-typing,suggestingtheyare more acceptingof gendertransgressions
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(SmithandGrenados,2009), and boysare expectedtobe more rigidintheirconformationto
genderrolesthangirls(ShafferandKipp,2007).
Althoughthe resultsof thisresearchwere notsignificant,manydifferenceswere highlighted
and furtherresearchoptionshave beendiscussed.Thisstudypresentsagoodfirstlookat the
relationshipsbetweenDisney,Pixar,genderandmasculinity/femininityinchildren’sanimated
films.
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AppendixB – Table of Films
Pixar Disney
Film Male Female Film Male Female
Toy Story
(1995) Woody Bo Peep Pocahontas(1995) JohnSmith Pocahontas
Buzz
Governor
Ratcliffe
Grandmothe
r Willow
A Bug's Life
(1998) Flik
Princess
Atta Mulan (1998) Mushu Mulan
Hopper Dot Li Shang
Monster's
Inc. (2001) Sulley Boo
Atlantis:The Lost
Empire (2001) Milo Kida
Mike Celia
Commander
Rourke
Lieutenant
Sinclair
FindingNemo
(2003) Marlin Dory BrotherBear (2003) Kenai Tanana
Nemo Coral Koda
The
Incredibles
(2004)
Mr.
Incredible
Elastagi
rl
Home on the Range
(2004) Buck Maggie
Dash Violet
Alameda
Smith
Mrs.
Calloway
ChickenLittle (2005)
Chicken
Little Abby
Cars (2006)
Lightning
McQueen Sally Runt
Doc Hudson
Ratatouille
(2007) Remy Colette
Meetthe Robinsons
(2007) Lewis Doris
Alfredo Wilbur
WALL-E
(2008) WALL-E EVE Bolt(2008) Bolt Mittens
CaptinB.
McRea Rhino Penny
Up (2009) Carl Ellie
The Princessandthe
Frog (2009) Naveen Tiana
CharlesF.
Muntz Louis Charlotte
Brave (2012) KingFergus Merida
Wreck-It-Ralph
(2012)
Wreck-it-
Ralph Vanellope
Queen
Elinor Fix-it-Felix
Sergeant
Tamara
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AppendixD – SPSS Output
Codebook
Descriptives
Report
Production Company Femininity Score Masculinity Score
Pixar Mean 4.182 4.476
Std. Deviation 1.5139 1.1024
Median 4.050 4.550
Gender
Value Count Percent
Standard Attributes Label Gender
Valid Values 1 Male 39 55.7%
2 Females 31 44.3%Company
Value Count Percent
Standard Attributes Label Production
Company
Valid Values 1 Pixar 34 48.6%
2 Disney 36 51.4%
Report
Gender
Femininity
Score
Masculinity
Score
Male Mean 3.526 4.221
Std. Deviation 1.4915 1.1275
Median 3.800 4.200
Females Mean 4.306 4.484
Std. Deviation 1.4480 1.1133
Median 4.600 4.400
Total Mean 3.871 4.337
Std. Deviation 1.5130 1.1208
Median 4.000 4.300
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Disney Mean 3.578 4.206
Std. Deviation 1.4730 1.1377
Median 4.000 4.150
Total Mean 3.871 4.337
Std. Deviation 1.5130 1.1208
Median 4.000 4.300
Masculinity
Value
Standard Attributes Label Masculinity
Score
N Valid 70
Missing 0
Central Tendency and
Dispersion
Mean 4.337
Standard Deviation 1.1208
Percentile 25 3.700
Percentile 50 4.300
Percentile 75 5.200
Explore
Descriptives
Statistic Std. Error
Masculinity Score Mean 4.337 .1340
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 4.070
Upper Bound 4.604
5% Trimmed Mean 4.333
Median 4.300
Variance 1.256
Std. Deviation 1.1208
Minimum 1.9
Femininity
Value
Standard Attributes Label Femininity
Score
N Valid 70
Missing 0
Central Tendency and
Dispersion
Mean 3.871
Standard Deviation 1.5130
Percentile 25 2.800
Percentile 50 4.000
Percentile 75 4.900
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Maximum 7.0
Range 5.1
Interquartile Range 1.6
Skewness .039 .287
Kurtosis -.372 .566
FemininityScore Mean 3.871 .1808
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 3.511
Upper Bound 4.232
5% Trimmed Mean 3.881
Median 4.000
Variance 2.289
Std. Deviation 1.5130
Minimum 1.0
Maximum 6.9
Range 5.9
Interquartile Range 2.1
Skewness -.220 .287
Kurtosis -.686 .566
Tests of Normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnova
Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Masculinity Score .052 70 .200*
.992 70 .932
FemininityScore .081 70 .200*
.971 70 .109
*. This is a lower bound of the true significance.
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction
Extreme Values
Case Number Gender Value
Masculinity Score Highest 1 70 Females 7.0
2 50 Females 6.7
3 10 Male 6.3
4 56 Male 6.3
5 14 Male 5.8a
Lowest 1 42 Male 1.9
2 33 Females 2.1
3 61 Male 2.2
4 49 Male 2.5
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5 2 Females 2.7
FemininityScore Highest 1 24 Females 6.9
2 55 Females 6.4
3 57 Females 6.4
4 58 Male 6.3
5 49 Male 6.1
Lowest 1 35 Male 1.0
2 10 Male 1.0
3 6 Male 1.0
4 32 Male 1.3
5 70 Females 1.4b
a. Only a partial listof cases with the value 5.8 are shown in the table of upper
extremes.
b. Only a partial listof cases with the value 1.4 are shown in the table of lower
extremes.
Extreme Values
Case Number
Production
Company Value
Masculinity Score Highest 1 70 Disney 7.0
2 50 Pixar 6.7
3 10 Pixar 6.3
4 56 Pixar 6.3
5 14 Disney 5.8a
Lowest 1 42 Disney 1.9
2 33 Pixar 2.1
3 61 Disney 2.2
4 49 Pixar 2.5
5 2 Pixar 2.7
FemininityScore Highest 1 24 Pixar 6.9
2 55 Disney 6.4
3 57 Pixar 6.4
4 58 Pixar 6.3
5 49 Pixar 6.1
Lowest 1 35 Disney 1.0
2 10 Pixar 1.0
3 6 Disney 1.0
4 32 Pixar 1.3
5 70 Disney 1.4b
58. 241265
53
a. Only a partial listof cases with the value 5.8 are shown in the table of upper extremes.
b. Only a partial listof cases with the value 1.4 are shown in the table of lower extremes.
Gender
Descriptives
Gender Statistic Std. Error
Masculinity Score Male Mean 4.221 .1805
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 3.855
Upper Bound 4.586
5% Trimmed Mean 4.226
Median 4.200
Variance 1.271
Std. Deviation 1.1275
Minimum 1.9
Maximum 6.3
Range 4.4
Interquartile Range 1.9
Skewness -.041 .378
Kurtosis -.733 .741
Females Mean 4.484 .2000
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 4.076
Upper Bound 4.892
5% Trimmed Mean 4.471
Median 4.400
Variance 1.239
Std. Deviation 1.1133
Minimum 2.1
Maximum 7.0
Range 4.9
Interquartile Range 1.4
Skewness .163 .421
Kurtosis .128 .821
FemininityScore Male Mean 3.526 .2388
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 3.042
Upper Bound 4.009
5% Trimmed Mean 3.517
Median 3.800
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Variance 2.225
Std. Deviation 1.4915
Minimum 1.0
Maximum 6.3
Range 5.3
Interquartile Range 1.8
Skewness -.086 .378
Kurtosis -.765 .741
Females Mean 4.306 .2601
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 3.775
Upper Bound 4.838
5% Trimmed Mean 4.332
Median 4.600
Variance 2.097
Std. Deviation 1.4480
Minimum 1.4
Maximum 6.9
Range 5.5
Interquartile Range 1.7
Skewness -.425 .421
Kurtosis -.290 .821
Production Company
Descriptives
Production Company Statistic Std. Error
Masculinity Score Pixar Mean 4.476 .1891
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 4.092
Upper Bound 4.861
5% Trimmed Mean 4.485
Median 4.550
Variance 1.215
Std. Deviation 1.1024
Minimum 2.1
Maximum 6.7
Range 4.6
Interquartile Range 1.4
Skewness -.114 .403
Kurtosis -.295 .788
Disney Mean 4.206 .1896
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95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 3.821
Upper Bound 4.590
5% Trimmed Mean 4.201
Median 4.150
Variance 1.294
Std. Deviation 1.1377
Minimum 1.9
Maximum 7.0
Range 5.1
Interquartile Range 1.7
Skewness .196 .393
Kurtosis -.192 .768
FemininityScore Pixar Mean 4.182 .2596
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 3.654
Upper Bound 4.711
5% Trimmed Mean 4.213
Median 4.050
Variance 2.292
Std. Deviation 1.5139
Minimum 1.0
Maximum 6.9
Range 5.9
Interquartile Range 2.0
Skewness -.342 .403
Kurtosis -.338 .788
Disney Mean 3.578 .2455
95% Confidence Interval for
Mean
Lower Bound 3.079
Upper Bound 4.076
5% Trimmed Mean 3.574
Median 4.000
Variance 2.170
Std. Deviation 1.4730
Minimum 1.0
Maximum 6.4
Range 5.4
Interquartile Range 2.1
Skewness -.171 .393
Kurtosis -.929 .768
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Descriptive Statistics
Gender Production Company Mean Std. Deviation N
FemininityScore Male Pixar 4.026 1.5670 19
Disney 3.050 1.2784 20
Total 3.526 1.4915 39
Females Pixar 4.380 1.4732 15
Disney 4.238 1.4687 16
Total 4.306 1.4480 31
Total Pixar 4.182 1.5139 34
Disney 3.578 1.4730 36
Total 3.871 1.5130 70
Masculinity Score Male Pixar 4.579 1.0866 19
Disney 3.880 1.0832 20
Total 4.221 1.1275 39
Females Pixar 4.347 1.1463 15
Disney 4.613 1.1026 16
Total 4.484 1.1133 31
Total Pixar 4.476 1.1024 34
Disney 4.206 1.1377 36
Total 4.337 1.1208 70
Box's Test of Equality
of Covariance Matricesa
Box's M 2.795
F .293
df1 9
df2 39888.230
Sig. .977
Tests the null hypothesis
that the observed
covariance matrices of
the dependentvariables
are equal across groups.
a. Design:Intercept+
Gender + Company+
Gender * Company
