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Rioux 1
University of Miami
Desegregation of Football in the Southeastern Conference
John Rioux
HIS 569: The Black Athlete in American History
Dr. Spivey
December 16, 2015

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To examine the racial climate of educational institutions during the Civil Rights
Movement, one must consider the symbolic role athletics played in developing equal
opportunities for African American students. The value of higher education and the
continued importance society places on academia had historically hindered African
Americans ability to socially progress in a just manner. Although the issue of separate but
equal was said to be determined in the Brown v. Board of Education case of 1954,
schools associated with the Southeastern Conference initiated Jim Crow laws to ensure
integration was not reality. White administrators were attached to “Southern”
conservative traditions, often priding themselves in a white supremacist system. In the
Southeastern Conference, football was of paramount importance in shaping future
principles of how institutions would function. Because the Southeastern Conference was
the conference with the most deeply rooted discriminatory practices, it is important to
analyze the issues both institutions and individuals experienced in the integration
movement. While football certainly helped to improve race relations throughout
campuses in the Southeastern Conference, the tribulations endured by individuals prove
the limitations sports had in resolving broader societal issues.
The majority of research in this paper focuses on the time between the 1950s and
1970s, as most matters relating to the integration of educational institutions were resolved
during this time. When discussing this time period in American history, one must
remember several key issues as they relate to southern culture. Despite the fact that the
United States Supreme Court had determined that separate schooling for black and white
students was unconstitutional, the south was stuck in the antiquated thinking of
“Segregation now. Segregation forever.” Due to a myriad of erroneous notions relating to

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integration, the majority of the southern population feared associating with African
Americans. In terms of football, this anachronistic thinking lead to a decline in success
(i.e. wins), opening the Southeastern Conference to the idea of integrating their teams.
Football had long been a central priority for the region, as previous success had given
southerners a reason to be proud. As opportunities were afforded to individuals based on
merit, the first wave of African American recruits had to deal with the harsh realities of
life in the south. In spite of this, these African American athletes set the table for future
generations to participate in athletics without the jarring realities of injustice these first
athletes endured.
While many scholars have researched facts relating to matters individual
institutions and athletes encountered, they have failed to connect these seminal issues
with society in a broader context. There is an immense amount of research relating to the
specifics of certain events occurring at the time, however in my work I hope to connect
these events to larger themes of society. In connecting the issues of the Desegregation of
the Southeastern Conference in football to southern society, I hope to answer questions
about why the south was deeply ingrained in the notion of white superiority and what
went into transforming this philosophy.
When examining the Desegregation of Southeastern Conference football, one
must examine the history behind the issue. On May 17, 1954 the Supreme Court of the
United States ruled in the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case that separate
educational facilities were unconstitutional. Despite this ruling, Jim Crow was in effect
throughout the region, prohibiting African American students from attending
Southeastern Conference schools. To upend these prejudicial regulations, students began

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taking measures into their own hands. James Meredith was admitted to the University of
Mississippi in 1962 after litigation with the university, becoming the first African
American student to attend a Southeastern Conference School. Soon thereafter, more
African American students followed suit, and Vivian Malone became the first African
American student to attend the University of Alabama.
Despite the growing yet limited number of African American students at
Southeastern Conference schools, the football teams remained segregated. Throughout
the early sixties, the Southeastern Conference continued to thrive in football, as the
University of Alabama and University of Mississippi both won National Championships.
The fact that these teams were constructed of only white athletes intensified the support
of racial sentiments echoed throughout the south. Many coaches within the conference
were pleased with the status quo, relishing in the fact that they were winning with only
white players.
As the decade progressed, however, continued football success did not follow the
Southeastern Conference. After the University of Alabama’s National Championship in
1965, the conference failed to produce another champion for almost a decade. This
prolonged period of mediocrity left fans craving change and questioning existing policies
such as the refusal to play integrated opponents. Students of these institutions, including
many liberal-minded whites, were some of the most ardent supporters for the move
toward integration of all athletic teams. While other popular sports such as basketball and
track had integrated squads, the southern devotion to football impeded the opportunity for
those players.

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The institutions themselves deliberated over a handful of points at issue. The
foremost concern for the Southeastern Conference schools was the attitude of southern
society consisted of during the time. While the nation generally was progressing toward
integration, the south continued contesting laws that promoted equal opportunity for
African Americans. Many southern traditions evolved from Confederate customs and
symbols that the south was unwilling to relinquish. Some coaches were against the
possibility of integration, fearing the inability to relate with African American players.
Moronic, ignorant beliefs lead them to presume African American players were
intellectually inferior and feeble-minded during times of stress.
`When judging why the south was profoundly entrenched in its commitment to
football’s segregation, one must look back to the Confederate loss in the Civil War. As a
result of the loss, the south was eternally reminded of their racial crimes, gaining an
unmistakable sense of inferiority. In football, however, the south was considered an
equal. Until this contentious point the Southeastern Conference had been one of the most
prestigious football regions in the country, competing with integrated squads and earning
national prestige despite the fact that integration had not yet occurred. “Football was the
focus of gamily get-togethers, politics, business meetings, and religious gatherings.
Everything was centered around it. In the off-season, it was the main point of
discussion”.1
The importance of football led southerners to prevent integration as a way of
validating their lifestyle. While it was starting to become clear around the country that
integration would be the standard way of life, the south proceeded with its contrarian
methods as a continued fight against northern principles. Although they had lost the war

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nearly a century ago, the region was not prepared to succumb to external pressures the
majority of the population did not agree with. By having continued success in football,
the most sought after goal, the south was able to restrict African Americans from the one
measure in life where the south maintained a semblance of national pride.
Even with southern societies’ sustained devotion to segregation, independent
forces eventually lead to integration of the Southeastern Conference. Prior success did
not produce future champions, as the University of Alabama was denied a National
Championship in 1966 in spite of being the only undefeated team that season. Teams
with African American players such as the University of Southern California, Penn State
University and University of Michigan began dominating on the field, leaving the
Southeastern Conference to reside in mediocrity. Coaches foresaw the writing on the
wall, as Alabama’s Paul “Bear” Bryant knew African American players were inevitable
as early as 1965, but left the decision to recruit these athletes up to administrators of the
school.2
The first member of the Southeastern Conference to advance the integration cause
was the University of Kentucky. In as early as 1961, Kentucky President Frank G.
Dickey broached the topic of conversation with other Southeastern Conference
administrators, advocating for integration of athletic teams for both moral and practical
reasons. The proposal was denied as members from the Deep South, mostly the Alabama
and Mississippi schools, dismissed the notion of integration as their fan bases were loyal
to Confederate values.3
Offering other conference members the opportunity to integrate was merely out of
courtesy, however, as Kentucky went on to open athletics to all races in May of 1963. It

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was not mandated that all teams in the same conference abide by the same rules, as
gentlemen’s agreements were the reason that African Americans were denied the
opportunity to participate in football. Both school Presidents Frank G. Dickey and his
successor John W. Oswald were progressive in their views toward integration,
understanding the recruiting advantages available if Kentucky proceeded to be the first
Southeastern Conference member to integrate.
While Kentucky made the move to integrate its athletic teams in 1963, it took
another two years for the school to sign an African American football player. Similar to
many other avenues that had recently opened up to black citizens, Kentucky was
determined to find the perfect candidate to break the color line, hampering its recruiting
efforts in the process. In December of 1965, Nathaniel Northington became the first
African American to sign a football scholarship with a Southeastern Conference school.
Northington was not only an all-state player but was considered an “A” student as well.
In hopes of providing support for Northington, Kentucky signed another African
American athlete, Greg Page, to ease societal pressures and increase the chance both
athletes would find success.
Sadly, the first pair of African American football players in the Southeastern
Conference did not go on to have extended careers with the University of Kentucky.
After both advanced through their freshman season, Page broke his neck in practice,
eventually resulting in his death. Northington proceeded to become the first African
American player to compete on a Southeastern Conference team, however future
difficulties proved to be overwhelming. Numerous injuries and personal problems
eventually lead to his withdrawal from the university. Despite leaving school,

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Northington encouraged newly recruited players to stick with the program, as his
rationale for leaving had nothing to do with racial problems.4
The two players Northington urged to continue the integration experiment were
Wilbur Hackett and Houston Hogg. The novelty of African American players had yet to
wear off and the two men were the first African Americans to venture into the Deep
South when Kentucky took on the University of Mississippi in 1968. Underlying many of
the indignities African American players dealt with during time, the Kentucky players
even feared the patrol assigned to them during the game. While the crowd was mostly
tame in their behavior toward the players, the patrolmen were said to be screaming racial
epithets on the sideline, antagonizing them the entire game. Throughout their years at the
school other minor incidents revolving around race transpired, however nothing too
extreme. The two players graduated after completing their senior season, with Hackett
representing the team as a captain.
When viewing Kentucky’s role in the process of integrating the Southeastern
Conference football, it is important to understand how the school’s history and
geographic location played a significant factor. Kentucky was not a confederate state,
remaining neutral at first and then becoming controlled by the Union. While other
Southeastern Conference schools such as those in Mississippi and Alabama were located
in the Deep South, Kentucky was bordered by previously integrated states, easing their
transition. Being located near the central part of the country yet remaining a part of the
Southeastern Conference presented Kentucky with a unique view of the landscape of
college athletics and the direction it was headed. The population throughout the state did
not echo the strong devotion those in more southern states held toward segregation. The

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administration and state as a whole had better relations with the African American race,
eliminating inaccurate portrayals of the effect integration could have.
Despite its sanctimonious position as the first Southeastern Conference School to
integrate, Kentucky understood the personal value integration offered to the school.
Having failed to construct a prestigious football program, integration afforded Kentucky
a distinct recruiting advantage. Much of the country believed that African Americans
deserved an opportunity to play based on ability, yet no other member of the conference
was recruiting black athletes. Therefore, the fact that Kentucky could market itself as the
first Southeastern Conference School to recruit African Americans would open them to
the immense amount of talent in the southern region who had previously exclusively
attended northern schools.
Kentucky also saw this as a chance to improve the university’s national image.
While the Civil Rights Movement had not fully encapsulated the country to this point, the
majority of the population viewed southern behavior toward African Americans as
unjustifiable. Although racist sentiments will never completely be eradicated, the country
had moved past Jim Crow and was progressing toward amiable race relations. In keeping
up with the times, Kentucky used sport to promote itself as an institution advancing with
more liberal-minded ideas.
After Kentucky, the second school in the Southeastern Conference to integrate its
football team was the University of Tennessee in 1967. Similar to Kentucky, it took the
administration several years to award an African American a scholarship, looking for
distinct characteristics before offering a position to a player. Lester McClain was the

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embodiment of what they were looking for, an honors student at a predominantly white
high school who would understand his place on the team.
McClain was successful in his four years at Tennessee, lettering at wide receiver
all three years he was eligible. Despite his success on the field, McClain endured racial
slurs from both his teammates and opponents. The unique situation of being the first
African American football player at the university made him realize he “just couldn’t
[drop out]. [he] knew the next day the headline would say: ‘Lester McClain, first black
athlete, quits UT”.5
Upon graduation, McClain spoke candidly in a private meeting with
athletic administrators revealing the countless challenges he faced.
Looking at the University of Tennessee, geographic location again played a large
part in why the university was able to integrate. Although not bordered by traditional
northern states, Tennessee is not located in the Deep South. Sentiment around the state
regarding the issue was not deeply embedded in racism as desegregation of public high
schools had occurred a few years before.
Although McClain did not attend a school in the Deep South, other factors made
his experience more difficult compared to his contemporaries. Signing on with
Tennessee, McClain was under the assumption that another African American player,
Albert Davis, would be a part of his recruiting class. Davis failed to meet academic
requirements however, leaving McClain the lone minority on the team. This did not
afford him the opportunity to speak out against indignities placed on him throughout his
career, as he “understood the informal integration script called for a racial pioneer to be a
“good Negro”, that is, quiet, hardworking, and noncomplaining”.6
McClain had the
courage to fight for something larger than himself, a quality all men dream to possess.

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It took an additional three years until another Southeastern Conference school
integrated its football team with Auburn University, Mississippi State University,
Vanderbilt University and the University of Florida following suit in 1970. In looking at
these four schools it is important to note this was the first time any school from the Deep
South integrated its team. Auburn, Mississippi and Florida residents were some of the
most rigid believers in traditional southern ideology. Because Vanderbilt was a private
school, it had an inherent advantage of not succumbing to societal pressures, integrating
only when the institution called for it.
The University of Florida had historically been one of the most loathsome schools
in regard to discriminatory practices. Embracing southern tradition, Florida participated
in customs such as replacing helmet decals with confederate flags, playing “Dixie” after
games and allowing fraternity members to ride around campus on horses dressed as
Confederate soldiers. Although the school proclaimed to be integrated, “there is a
substantive difference between desegregation and integration… desegregation [is]
“negative, for it simply removes [the] legal and social prohibitions [of segregation],”
While integration was the “positive acceptance of desegregation,” and the “welcomed
participation of Negroes into the total range of human activities””.7
Black students were
tolerated at the university, however Florida failed to adapt to a changing culture, refusing
to discontinue racist practices. Being accepted to the university and being accepted within
the university were two completely different concepts.
Looking at Florida, it is also important to note that Head Coach Ray Graves was
one of the few explicitly racist coaches in the conference. While other coaches would
simply refrain from revealing their genuine feelings on the subject, Graves was the one in

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charge of replacing the team’s normal decals with the Confederate flag. His stance on
recruiting African American players changed only after pressure from the administration.
He sought out a specific type of player, establishing a precedent ensuring only black
players who met certain unjust academic requirements had a chance at the team.
Considering the obstacles African American players faced, it is evident that life
was more difficult at schools located in the Deep South. Unlike previously discussed
schools, the student bodies at these universities were not nearly as welcoming to African
American athletes. The continued playing of “Dixie”, whose roots can be traced back to
the Confederate army’s notions on white supremacy, reflects the administrations goals for
desegregation. The university did not envision black students as part of its collegiate
ideal, rather they were compelled to follow suit after the University of Miami had
integrated. Symbols such as the Confederate flag portrayed similarly derogatory
messages to the student body that traditional southern customs would continue to persist.
Nineteen seventy happened to be a momentous year for the University of
Alabama football team as well. Although they had not yet desegregated, Coach Paul
“Bear” Bryant scheduled a game with longtime friend and Head Coach of the University
of Southern California John McKay. Most West Coast teams had long ago been through
the process of integration, and Southern California was no different. Perhaps reaping the
greatest benefits from integration, African American players Mike Garrett and O.J.
Simpson had previously won the Heisman Trophy as members of the team. Nearly 20
African American players were on the 1970 Southern Cal football team, signifying a
historic occasion for Alabama. Never before had a team with so many African American

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players been allowed to travel to Alabama and challenge the Crimson Tide, as the school
had refused contests against integrated teams until the end of the sixties.
The University of Alabama football program was operated entirely by a single
man in the 1960s, Coach Paul “Bear” Bryant. Inspecting the future landscape of college
football, by the late sixties Bryant saw the writing on the wall. While some of the best
athletes were born and raised in the south, Alabama was not recruiting African American
players, leaving them to score touchdowns for the Michigan and UCLA’s of the world.
Inaccurate reports portray Bryant as a staunch racist, as he displayed the political skills
needed to coach in the hotbed of conservative southern ideals. There were two Bryant’s,
however, “the Bryant McKay hung out with, and then there was the Bryant that they –
people at Alabama – saw. He talked different out here than in Alabama”.8
To please the
Alabama crowd, Bryant knew not to broach the topic of integration too thoroughly with
the media. Seeing potential talent slip through his fingers, “the reason for this game was
Bryant wanted those people to know it was time to integrate. I believe he knew he’d lose
and wanted that game to pave the way to change”.9
Whether due to moral sensibilities or
the personal gain that would be had for his football team, Bryant was aspiring for change
as a result of this game.
On September 12, 1970, the first African American player at the University of
Alabama, Wilbur Jackson, took his seat at Legion Field, where in a few hours the
landscape of Alabama football would change forever. Some Southern California players
were terrified at the prospect of traveling to Alabama for the game, carrying guns to the
stadium in case mayhem transpired. As the game got underway, it was clear from the
start the Crimson Tide was overmatched. “For all practical purposes, it was over when

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the coin toss came back down”10
as Sam “Bam” Cunningham rushed around and through
the Tide defense, leading Southern California to a 42-21 victory in the process.
Throughout the fourth quarter, “the people in the cavernous, near-silent Legion Field
could hear black fans cheering outside the stadium. There were at least 1,500 cheering,
and that number was growing every minute. The meaning of this game, to black people,
and, yes, to white people—to America! —did not go unnoticed”.11
There are an innumerable number of reasons this game had a resounding effect on
not just Alabama but the Southeastern Conference in general. Alabama was the most
prestigious program in the conference, having won five National Championships prior to
its meeting with Southern California. While playing on a national stage, the fact was that
Bryant and the Tide failed to even compete with Southern California. The disparity in
talent was so apparent that Tide fans sat idle through the game, removing any fears of
violence Southern California players previously had. Alabama, member of the remaining
southern states grasping to traditional southern ideals being ripped from their hands, was
defeated on a national stage for the entire country to see.
In terms of larger racial impact, the game proved integration was absolutely
necessary if Alabama wanted to compete on a national stage. One of the great qualities of
sports in general is the idea that they are rooted in a meritocratic system. The game
proved “that black athletes were as good as white athletes, if not better, and that they
could coexist as a coordinated, tight-knit, well-disciplined team along with their white
teammates and coaches. Football is a game popularized because people see themselves
when they watch it. They ask if they could succeed under that kind of pressure. When
Sam Cunningham and his team performed in the manner that they did, they began to

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replace opinion with an entirely different knowledge. As it says in our wonderful
documents of freedom, “we hold these truths to be self-evident””.12
When you are on the
field, questions regarding race play no part in the game’s outcome. Matters of skill,
intelligence and determination decide who is the winner. By defeating the University of
Alabama and their fans in their most beloved activity, Southern California proved to
Alabamians that African Americans definitively belonged in the conference.
While Alabama was handed a loss, the matchup was extremely beneficial in the
grand scheme of things. One West Coast writer advised after the game, “Look out the
window and there’s no telling how many football players you’ll find”13
, referring to the
abundance of African American talent produced in the southern region. Although Wilbur
Jackson had already integrated the freshman team, this game opened the eyes of the
majority of Alabama fans. No longer did Bryant fear repercussions from the public,
allowing the Alabama dynasty to develop in large part because of integration. In the
following decade Alabama went on to win three National Championships, regaining their
throne atop the college football world.
Following the University of Georgia and Louisiana State University in 1972, the
University of Mississippi was the last Southeastern Conference School to integrate its
football team that same year. Of all the conference members, nobody embodied
traditional southern ideals like Ole Miss. Symbols such as “Dixie”, the Confederate flag
and the mascot “Colonel Rebel” were ubiquitous with the football team, representing the
view toward segregation in the area. The school administration and coaching staff were
on the same page, deciding not to recruit African American athletes until it was apparent
that success was unattainable without doing so.

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Robert Williams and James Reed were the first recruits to sign on with the
Rebels. Despite previous occurrences of racial friction at the university, Williams was
widely successful during his time at Ole Miss. During his senior year, he received All-
American status as a player and more importantly was voted “Colonel Rebel”, the highest
honor available to male students. While rewards were earned and provided to African
American players, the sustained use of southern traditions hampered Ole Miss’ recruiting
in subsequent years. It was not until 2003 that Colonel Rebel, the last remaining symbol
of racism dating back to the civil war, was retired by the university.
Although every conference member was nominally “integrated” by 1972, a
thorough completion of this process did not occur at many of these schools until years
later. African Americans continued to cope with unfair practices and regulations, as
recruiting techniques hampered their ability to see the field. In passing years the number
of African Americans who lettered in football continuously grew disproportionately to
the percentage of players who made up the team. While the numbers prove African
Americans were producing at the highest level, their chance at success was still limited
compared to their white counterparts. In addition to being the minority percentage of
players on the team, certain positions were “stacked” with African Americans. In a ploy
to ensure white players made up the majority of the starting lineup, black players were
often selected to play the same position as one another.14
While much progress has been made up to the present day, there are still many
race related issues facing the Southeastern Conference. Out of the 14 head coaches
currently employed by Southeastern Conference Schools, only two are African American.
While African Americans now make up a much larger percentage of players,

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administrations and coaching staffs still seem to lag behind. There is no “Rooney Rule”
like the National Football League, requiring institutions to interview a minority candidate
before hiring their preferred choice. These large universities continue to spew hypocrisy,
demanding diversity amongst its student body yet not affording the top-salaried football
positions to African Americans.
From Kentucky’s initial move to Ole Miss’ eventual submission, the process of
desegregating the Southeastern Conference provided new African American student-
athletes with numerous difficult challenges. In examining this period, southern devotion
to traditional values was the greatest obstacle hindering the process. Whether in the
northern part of Kentucky or the Deep South of Mississippi, there was always a large
contingent of people rooting for the process to fail along the way. The student-athletes
themselves persevered through inconceivable conditions, balancing school, football and a
social setting repulsed by the thought of integration. In continuing their fight for equality,
the initial student-athletes helped upend generations of erroneous characterizations about
African Americans.

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Notes

1 Steven Travers, One Night, Two Teams: Alabama vs. USC and the Game That Changed
a Nation (Taylor Trade Pub, 2007), 97.
3 Charles H. Martin, “Hold That (Color) Line!: Black Exclusion and Southeastern
Conference Football,” in High Education and the Civil Rights Movement: White
Supremacy, Black Southerners, and College Campuses, ed. Peter Wallenstein (University
Press of Florida, 2008), 171.
6 Charles H. Martin, “The “Final Citadel of Integration”: The Southeastern Conference
and Football,” in Benching Jim Crow: The Rise and Fall of the Color Line in Southern
College Sports, 1890-1980. (University of Illinois Press, 2010), 263.
7 Derrick E. White, “From Desegregation to Integration: Race, Football, and “Dixie” at
the University of Florida,” The Florida Historical Quarterly (2010): 473, accessed
December 9, 2015.
10 Charles Land, “Looking with Charles Land: No Insults At All,” The Tuscaloosa News,
September 14, 1970, 6.
11 Steven Travers, One Night, Two Teams: Alabama vs. USC and the Game That
Changed a Nation (Taylor Trade Pub, 2007), 288.
12 Steven Travers, One Night, Two Teams: Alabama vs. USC and the Game That
Changed a Nation (Taylor Trade Pub, 2007), 24-25.
13 Charles Land, “Looking with Charles Land: No Insults At All,” The Tuscaloosa News,
September 14, 1970, 6.
14 Joan Paul, Richard V. McGhee and Helen Fant, “The Arrival and Ascendance of Black
Athletes in the Southeastern Conference, 1966-1980,” Phylon (1984): 295, accessed
December 10, 2015.

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Bibliography
1. Land, Charles. "Looking with Charles Land: No Insults At All." The Tuscaloosa News
14 Sept. 1970: 6. Print.
2. Martin, Charles H. "The "Final Citadel of Segregation": The Southeastern Conference
and Football." Benching Jim Crow: The Rise and Fall of the Color Line in Southern
College Sports, 1890-1980. University of Illinois Press, 2010. 255-91. Print.
3. Paul, Joan, Richard V. McGhee, and Helen Fant. "The Arrival and Ascendence of
Black Athletes in the Southeastern Conference, 1966-1980." Phylon (1960-) 45.4 (1984):
284-97. JSTOR. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
4. Travers, Steven. One Night, Two Teams: Alabama vs. USC and the Game That
Changed a Nation. Lanham, MD: Taylor Trade Pub., 2007. Print.
5. Wallenstein, Peter, and Charles H. Martin. "Hold That (Color) Line! Black Exclusion
and Southeastern Conference Football." High Education and the Civil Rights Movement:
White Supremacy, Black Southerners, and College Campuses. University Press of
Florida, 2008. 166-93. Print.
6. White, Derrick E. "From Desegregation to Integration: Race, Football, and "Dixie" at
the University of Florida." The Florida Historical Quarterly 88.4 (2010): 469-96. JSTOR.
Web. 9 Dec. 2015.

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