final paper

Running head: IDENTITY PREDICTS RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIORAL INTENTIONS 1
Identity Predicts Risky Sexual Behavioral Intentions of Middle School Students
Aimee S. Thielman
Saint Thomas University

IDENTITY PREDICTS RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIORAL INTENTIONS 2
Abstract
The current study examined the correlation between identities of adolescents and risky sexual
behaviors, specifically middle school student. The sample consisted of 200 male and female
students, ages 12 – 14 years old in 6th, 7th, and 8th grade from Carol City Middle School, Miami
Gardens. The students were 50.5% males and 49.5% females, who were 87.7% African
Americans, 11% Hispanics, 0.4% Caucasian, 0.3% Asian, 0.3% American Indian, 0.1% Bi-
racial, and 0.1% Pacific Islander. The students received two consent forms, both passive and
active forms. The study was conducted in a classroom at Carol City Middle School, where a
guided survey was handed to the students. The students were informed of a disclaimer before the
survey was given due to the sensitive nature of the survey. Findings suggest identity predicts that
adolescents engage in risky sexual behaviors, especially individuals who are high in FNE (fear of
negative evaluation). Identity predicted attitudes towards diversity, high or low FNE, abstinence,
sexual activity, consent, safe sex practices, STIs, and STI testing. The study found that middle
schools should implement sex health curriculum that are mixed with abstinence and
comprehensive curriculum. Mixed curriculum increases abstinence, increases safe sex practices,
decreases STI contractions, and decreases unplanned pregnancies.

Identity Predicts Risky Sexual Behavioral Intentions of Middle School Students
There is research on adolescents’ attitudes towards sexual health and how their attitudes
influence their behaviors but identity may be a predictor variable for behavioral intentions
towards sexual health as well. In the current study it was proposed that desired identities could
predict risky sexual behaviors and identity concerns in middle school students. The theory of
self-presentation (Schlenker, 1980) and the fear of negative evaluation (Watson & Friend, 1969)
are correlated with risky behaviors in adolescents and adults.
The problem in the study is that identity predicts risky sexual behaviors and identity
concerns of adolescents and there are negative consequences associated with the behavioral
intentions. Adolescents who engage in sexual activity increase their chances of contracting an
STI before the age of 25 (Fantasia, 2008). A study in 2014, found that 1 in 5 new HIV infections
occurred in adolescents between the ages 13-24 years old (CDC, 2016, “HIV Among Youth”,
para. 1). When adolescents engage in sexual activities at a young age before they are prepared
they are not fully aware of the risks that are associated with sexual activity, specifically
unprotected sexual activities.
Adolescents’ sexual activity is often influenced by a number of variables but there is a
cultural norm for sexual activity that allows adolescents to believe that sex is solely sexual
intercourse and not oral sex (Remez, 2000). There were multiple magazines printing articles
concerning adolescents belief that oral sex was not sex, such as New York Times and Talk
magazines. The information in the magazine articles could have been testimonials; however,
researchers investigated the issue and found that there was an increase STI transmission due to
an increase in oral sex (Remez, 2000).

Since 2005 the amount of adolescents engaging in non-coital sexual activities has
increased, specifically with oral sex (Remez, 2000). Oral sex is perceived less risky because
adolescents believe that their chances of contracting an STI decrease with oral sex, and there are
less affective and social consequences with oral sex (Remez, 2000). The inaccurate perception
that oral sex is less risky and more beneficial caused adolescents to engage in more risky sexual
behaviors that is due to them wanting to portray a certain desired identity among their peers.
Research found that the main recipients of the oral sex are males. During interviews it
was found that adolescents begin engaging in oral sex by ages 12 – 16 years old (Remez, 2000).
Oral sex is discovered at a young age creating misconceptions, such as not being able to contract
an STI from unprotected oral sex (Remez, 2000). These misconceptions about oral sex can be
derived from various influential figures but also can be positively altered by the influential
figures.
Globally, one in three women have been physically and sexually assaulted at least once in
her life (World Health Organization (WHO), 2015, “Worldwide action needed to address hidden
crisis of violence against women and girls”, par. 1). Females are at greatest risk for being
sexually assaulted at the age of 14 years old (Snyder, 2000). Approximately, 7% of women will
be sexually assaulted within some point of their life, and the sexual assault may be perpetrated
by a friend, acquaintance or stranger (WHO, 2015, “Worldwide action needed…”, par. 1).
Partner violence is most likely to occur during the early stages of a relationship, and can
worsen over time if the partner is aggressive enough. Partner violence can be physical, verbal, or
psychological, and when an individual experiences an unwanted sexual activity he or she will
experience regret (Akre, Chabloz, Belanger, Michaud, & Suris, 2013). When an unwanted sexual
activity occurs females are more likely to experience feelings of regret rather than males even

though the incident was not the females fault (Akre, Chabloz, Belanger, Michaud, & Suris,
2013). These unwanted sexual experiences can then cause the adolescent to be labeled as
promiscuous, or other derogatory terms that are related to female sexual activity.
There are some influential figures that can influence an adolescent’s sexual belief and
behaviors; the main ones are media, culture, peers, and family, specifically older siblings
(Widmer, 1997). Adolescents perceive parental and peer approval or disapproval to sexual
activities as whether if that behavior is socially desired or undesired (Bleakley, 2009). Older
adolescents tend to rely on media for their source of information concerning sexual behaviors
(Bleakley, 2009). When adolescents have self-efficacy beliefs towards sexual behaviors that may
positively or negatively influence the adolescents behaviors (Bleakley, 2009). An example, if an
adolescent is exposed to the belief that when having sexual intercourse condom use is not
important then during sexual intercourse they may not use a condom.
The beliefs and norms that peers have may be inaccurate and may influence another
adolescents to engage in risky behaviors that may have negative consequences. Individuals are
more at risk for experiencing and engaging in risky behaviors during adolescences that may
negatively affect their future (Smith, 1997). Older siblings that promote safe sex practices or
abstinence from sexual activities until 18 years or older are lowering their younger siblings
chances of having unprotected sex, contracting an STI or having an unplanned pregnancy at a
young age (Smith, 1997).
Older male siblings increase the chances of the younger sibling can be male or female to
engage in sexual activities. On the contrary, when an older sibling advocates abstinence from
sexual activities until the age of 17 years then the younger sibling is more likely to abstain from

sexual activities until 17 years old or older (Widmer, 1997). Females who engage in sexual
activities at a young age increase her frequency of engaging in sexual activities (Smith, 1997).
Adolescents are often misinformed about sexual behaviors and beliefs that may lead to
them engaging in risky behaviors. Risky behaviors that adolescents may engage in are substance
abuse, adrenaline junkie stunts, body modifications, weight regulation leading to eating
disorders, unprotected sexual activities, and tanning that may lead to skin cancer (Leary,
Tchividjian, & Kraxberger, 1994). There have been studies conducted on adolescents and early
engagement in sexual activities leading to negative outcomes. However, there is one study that
had an effective sexual health programs that could decrease risky sexual behaviors. A study was
conducted in New Brunswick, Canada on sexual health education (SHE) and the effectiveness of
it when implemented in a school setting (Byers, Sears, Voyer, Thurlow, & et al., 2003). It proved
that sexual health education is often effective when the teachers are knowledge, comfortable and
unbiased about adolescent sexual activity and sexual health (Byers, Sears, Voyer, Thurlow, & et
al., 2003).
A governmental initiative called Healthy People 2020 was founded attempting to
promote health and safety. The main goal is to create a healthier nation by 2020. Healthy People
2020’s specific objective towards adolescents is to improve the health and safety of adolescents
and young adults (Office of Disease Prevention & Health Promotion, 2014). Adolescents are
considered individuals who are between the ages of 10 and 19 years old, and young adults are
individuals who are between the ages of 20 and 24 years old (Office of Disease Prevention &
Health Promotion, 2014). During adolescence there is an increased risk of suicide, substance use,
contracting STIs/HIV, and unplanned pregnancies (Office of Disease Prevention & Health
Promotion, 2014).

Theory of Self-Presentation
The driving theory behind the current study is the theory of self-presentation, because
self-presentation is the way an individual portrays himself or herself in front of peers and
onlookers, by selecting certain characteristics to display (Schlenker, 1980). The characteristics
that an individual may select to project are identities. There are two types of identities, desired
identities also referred to as positive identities and undesired identities also referred to as
negative identities.
The main type of identity an individual prefers to display is a desired identity because
there are no negative assessments made unless the individual portrays a negative identity.
Undesired identities are goal directed and allows the individual to reach a certain goal, that may
be desired by that individual. A similar concept to self-presentation is the fear of negative
evaluation (Watson & Friend, 1969) that entails individuals project only desired identities when
in front of audiences to avoid negative judgment.
The always-occurring need for self-presentation causes the individual to present
him/herself in a way that results in a long lasting impression by projecting a desired identity.
Whether the impression is positive or negative the individual is not fully concerned about it
because it depends on the cultural norms and audiences (Leary, M. R., Tchividjian, L. R., &
Kraxberger, B. E., 1994). Self-presentation may lead to individuals attempting to present a
desired identity, for example an adolescent may want to appear sexually experienced when
around peers who are sexually active.
A negative aspect of self-presentation is that it may lead an individual to present
undesired identity, that is goal directed (E. E. Jones & Pittman, 1982). For example, an
individual may display the identity of a victim when in there was no victimization. The

individual will present a victim identity to gain aid or some type of resources; hence it could be a
form of self-handicapping.
When an individual views him/herself as an actor on a stage presenting to an audience it
is referred to as the Dramaturgical metaphor (Goffman, 1959). There are three types of audiences
that will influence self-presentation, the actual audience, the imagined audience, and the self as
an audience. The actual audience is an audience that is physically present around an individual
(Goffman, 1959). For example when an adolescent is in front their peer that is an actual
audience. The imagined audience is an audience who is not physically present but is present in
an individual’s cognitions (Goffman, 1959). For example, an adolescent may be around a sexual
partner but will be thinking about his/her parents’ reaction to viewing them with a sexual partner.
The self-audience means that an individual has increased self-awareness (Goffman, 1959). For
example, an adolescent can be around a sexual partner engaging unprotected vaginal sex when
he/she realizes that they promote safe sex.
Self-presentation is a continuously occurring construct and there are two types of self-
presentation: front stage self-presentation and backstage self-presentation. Front stage self-
presentation is a heightened state of self-awareness, for example during an individual’s first
sexual encounter he/she is salient of the self. Another example of front stage self-presentation is
when an adolescent is around their peers who are conversing about condom usage as negative,
the adolescent may change his/her belief about condom usage to match their peers (Bleakley,
2009). Backstage self-presentation is a relaxed state of self-awareness, meaning the individual is
in autopilot mode. For example, when an individual is in the presence of a stable, long time
partner they are not focused on the socially desired identity to present.

Self-presentation may cause individuals to fall prey to societal and peer conformity
(Goffman, 1959). When an individual selects certain characteristics to display it may result in
peers and audiences to find the individual’s projected self-image to be misleading (Schlenker,
1980). The misleading characteristics result in the general population assuming that self-
presentation is a justification for the individual to be ‘fake’. The assumption is false because it is
only a minority of individuals who display duplicitous self-presentation (Goffman, 1959).
When an individual fails to present a desired identity to their peers or audiences hey may
experience a self-presentation predicament. For example, if an adolescent who presents
him/herself as ‘a good kid’ has their peers apprehend them engaging in a sexual activity the
adolescent may be perceived as promiscuous. The emotions associated with self-presentation
predicaments are embarrassment, shame, and guilt.
When a self-presentational predicament occurs the individual attempts to avoid the
situation that results in a behavioral response, giving an account and then apologizing. As the
above example stated the individual would be perceived as promiscuous. The adolescent may
attempt a behavioral response to leave the situation before they are seen but if that is not possible
they may attempt to explain the situation and then apologize (Schlenker, 1980). Self-presentation
allows individuals to reach a certain social goal (Goffman, 1959; Schlenker, 1980). However,
when an individual experience a self-presentation predicament, and they feel embarrassment,
guilt or shame and that increase the probability of participating in risky behaviors (Leary, M. R.,
Tchividjian, L. R., & Kraxberger, B. E., 1994).
Self-presentation can promote healthy and risky behaviors depending on the environment
and this is a prime example of Lewin’s equation B= f (P) x (E). The equation means that an
individual’s behaviors are a result of their environment and personality (Lewin, 1936). In

Lewin’s equation the environment may influence an individual’s personality resulting in a
different behavior (Lewin, 1936). The environment may influence an individual’s personality
because an individual is attempting to portray a certain desired identity. This desired identity
alters the behavior that the individual will display to avoid a self-presentational predicament. For
example, an adolescent will alter his/her behavior concerning sexual experience when in the
presence of their family than when they are in the presence of their peers. There are numerous
social contexts than an individual can be placed in and depending on the social contexts that may
influence the desired identity that the individual will display.
Another theory that supports self-presentation theory is Bandura’s social learning theory.
The theory suggests that new behaviors are learned by observation, and depending on if the
behavior is reinforced a person portrays certain desired or undesired identities to complete a
certain behavior (Bandura, 1971). An individual learns a new behavior through rewards and
punishment, and if a behavior is rewarded it is kept but if the behavior is punished it is
unlearned. There are no instant reinforcements of a behavior and this results in antecedent
behaviors due to previous expectations. If the antecedent behavior fails then the individual learns
the new behaviors by error (Bandura, 1971). For example, if an adolescent attempts to look like a
good kid when around peers who are engaging in sexual activities may get ridiculed because
they did not engage in
In self-presentation theory, failure in projecting a certain identity in front of an audience
results in a self-presentational predicament. When there is an error experienced the individual
will model their behavior concurring with the behavior they view another individual displaying.
Adapting the behavior allows an individual to portray the desired identity that he or she wanted
to display, and the environment will be a factor to the desired behavior and identity.

The theory of self-presentation can be associated with a multitude of other social
psychology theories, and there are positive and negative aspects in self-presentation theory. Self-
presentation can be associated with an individual engaging in healthy and risky behaviors. There
are numerous constructs that that can be correlated to self-presentation, such as social anxiety,
substance usage, overall health, sexual activity, and safe sex practices.
Correlations between Self-Presentation and Risky Sexual Behaviors
Social anxiety. An individual may experience social anxiety if their social goal is not met
because his/her self-image is not projecting their socially desired identity. Self-presentation is
highly influential to an individual’s behaviors and is correlated with participation in risky, and
unhealthy behavior, especially when a certain socially desired identity wants to achieve a certain
goal. Adolescents will engage in social comparison with his/her peers and when his/her peers
express some sort negative peer pressure it results in rejection that then causes social anxiety
(Suleiman & Deardorff, 2014). When an individual experiences social rejection he or she will
experience a self-presentational predicament that results in the individual feeling embarrassment,
shame or guilt (Almeida, Johnson, Corliss, Molnar, & Azrael, 2009).
Social anxiety can be experienced more severely in certain individuals than other
especially if he or she is experiencing discrimination, bullying, and emotional and physical
abuse. The severity of social anxiety can be classified by sexual orientation; for example,
individuals who identify as lesbian, gay and bisexual have expressed increased depressive
symptoms, including suicidal tendencies and thoughts due to discrimination and experiencing
high levels of social anxiety (Almeida, Johnson, Corliss, Molnar, & Azrael, 2009). Males who
identify as LBGT have an increased chance displaying more severe depressive symptoms than

females, but females have an increased chance of frequent suicidal tendencies and thoughts
(Almeida, Johnson, Corliss, Molnar, & Azrael, 2009).
Abstinence vs engaging in sexual activities. Peers may negatively and positively
influence each other in numerous situation and topics but one of the most influential areas are
dating relationships and sexual activities. Close peers and acquaintances that are sexually active
may influence adolescents’ beliefs and behavioral intentions towards sexual activities (Suleiman
& Deardorff, 2014).
Whether adolescents engage in abstaining from sexual activities until mentally,
emotionally and physical prepared or engage in sexual activities at a young age may be predicted
by the identities, norms and attitudes that that certain region associates with those constructs. If
abstinence until 18 years or older or until marriage is a norm in a culture and neighborhood then
the adolescents residing in that region may be more likely follow the norm and practice
abstinence. On the contrary, if abstinence is not the norm and engaging in sexual activities are
then adolescents may be more likely going to engage in sexual activities.
Cultural norms, neighborhood, and identities may predict engaging in sexual behaviors.
For example, condoms are not frequently used because there are negative identities associated
with condoms usage and possession, such as promiscuity, possibility of infidelity, and increased
amounts of sexual activity (Scholly, Katz, Gascoigne, & Holck 2005). The social norms theory
suggests that social groups influence behaviors and cognitions. These social groups include the
norms, identities and attitudes of a culture, society or neighborhood (Scholly, Katz, Gascoigne,
& Holck 2005).
Adolescents may engage in sexual acts to avoid negative evaluation from peers and to
please the individual who suggested the sexual act. The behaviors are done to avoid being

rejected and being identified negatively. Negative identities that adolescents associate with not
engaging in a sexual act when it is suggested are ‘wimp’, ‘loser’, ‘lame’, and ‘inexperienced’.
Positive identities that adolescents associate with engaging in a sexual act are ‘experienced’,
‘grown’, ‘popular’, and ‘independent’. According to the social norms theory adolescents will
underestimate the number of individuals they know, met or saw who has an STI, has had an
unplanned pregnancy, or the amount of HIV/STI tests an individual has had (Scholly, Katz,
Gascoigne, & Holck 2005). The social norms theory is similar to comparative optimism because
an individual is predicting that another individual will be more at risk than them.
Identities associatedwith safe sex. There are numerous factors that can be influencing
an individuals’ attitude towards safe sex practices, such as norms, inaccurate beliefs, and the
identities that are associated with condom use, contraceptive use, and multitude of sexual
partners. Adolescents who engage in sexual activities at a young age will increase their chances
to contract STIs, have unprotected sex, have multiple sexual partners, and engage in other risky
behaviors like substance use. Positive identities that adolescents associate with safe sex are
‘experienced’, ‘smart’, ‘grown’, and ‘have skills’. On the contrary, negative identities
adolescents associate with safe sex are ‘too safe’ and ‘wimp’.
Males have an increased chance of initiating sexual activities at a younger age than
females; however, females are more likely to engage in unprotected sexual activities. Females
are more likely to engage in unprotected sexual activities because negative comments about body
image (Schooler, 2012). Negative comments about body image means that they are is not
conforming to the sexual objectified image of women in society. Females who have increased
self-objectification will advocate for her sexual boundaries to be respected that decreased the
chances of females engaging in unprotected sexual activities (Schooler, 2012). Females who

have decreased body satisfaction have an increase in unprotected sexual activities (Schooler,
2012) that increased her likelihood of engaging in risky sexual behaviors.
Identities associatedwith STIs and STI testing. When adolescents engage in safe sex
practices that decrease their chances of contracting an STI or HIV, but factors like demographics,
socioeconomic status, and gender can decrease safe sex practices. Positive identities that
adolescents associate with STIs and STI testing are ‘smart’, ‘cool’, and ‘experienced’, while
negative identities adolescents associate with STIs and STI testing are ‘dirty’, ‘easy’, and
‘player’.
Demographics increase the chances of STI contraction, as a result female minorities
report engaging in sexual activities at a young age compared to any other socioeconomic class.
When comparing ethnicity, Latino adolescents have decreased condom usage when having
sexual intercourse (Schooler, 2012). A study done in 2013 reported that 68% of new chlamydia
cases were in adolescents’ ages 15 years old to 24 years old (CDC, 2014, “STDs in Adolescents
and Young Adults”, par. 2). A study done in 2013 reported that 459.2 per 100,000 gonorrhea
cases were females ranging between 15 years old and 19 years old (CDC, 2014, “STDs in
Adolescents and Young Adults”, par. 9).
Insight from Previous Research
There has been little research that investigated self-presentation predicting risky sexual
behaviors and the sample sizes range from late adolescents to college students. The main
research that has been done on risky sexual behaviors is attitudes and norms towards engagement
in risky sexual behaviors. The studies done were longitudinal and survey based, since the
delivery method is easier and quicker. The issues with surveys are that there are low response

rates, and participants may not understand all of the questions on the survey, as well as
misinterpretation of answers on the researchers end.
Influences. Adolescents’ sexual behaviors are shaped by parental and peer
approval/disapproval towards sexual activities depending on whether the parent or peer views the
behavior as socially acceptable. A 3-wave longitudinal study was conducted using 547
adolescents, first starting at 14 years old and ending at 16 years old (Bleakley, 2009). In each
wave the participants completed a web-based survey and was given a $25 compensation for
participating (Bleakley, 2009). Results were that 74.9% of participants reported that they learned
sexual information from close friends, 62.2% of learned sexual information was from teachers,
60.9% of learned sexual information was from mothers, and 57.0% of learned sexual information
was from media (Bleakley, 2009).
Intervention and sexual health curriculum. When attempting to promote abstinence
and safe sex in adolescents the most successful type of program to implement into the school
education is a comprehensive program when pertaining to sexual health. There were eight
abstinence program implemented in elementary schools, middle schools, and high schools
(Kirby, 2008). The result of the abstinence program was that here was little to no changes in
promoting abstinence and safe sex. The main objective for abstinence programs is to promote
abstinence until marriage (Kirby, 2008).
Comprehensive programs were implemented in elementary schools, middle schools, and
high schools. The result of the comprehensive program was that there was an increase
abstinence, promote better sexual health among adolescents, decrease the need to have sex,
decrease the amount of sexual partners an individual will have, and increase condom and/ or
contraceptive use (Kirby, 2008). The results suggest that for sexual health programs to be

successful, the curriculum should be pertaining to promoting both abstinence and safe sex
(Kirby, 2001).
Sexual health education also referred to, as SHE may be effective when the
professors/teachers are knowledgeable, comfortable and unbiased when discussing sexual health
with adolescents. A study was done using 1,663 high school students, grades 9 to 12 from New
Brunswick to measure the likeability and effectiveness of SHE (Byers, Sears, Voyer, Thurlow, &
et al., 2003). The participants from grades 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th completed a survey. Results
were that 92% reported that SHE should be implemented into school curriculum, 77% reported
that schools and parents should discuss sexual health, and 67% reported that they wanted SHE to
be implemented into curriculum since 6th grade (Byers, Sears, Voyer, Thurlow, & et al., 2003).
Sexual assault among adolescents. When adolescents decide to engage in sexual
activity that increases their chances of being sexually assaulted especially if they are not fully
aware of what consent is and how consent should be given. Unwanted Sexual Experiences (USE)
occurs during non-consensual sex and/or sexual assault (Akre, Chabloz, Belanger, Michaud, &
Suris, 2013). There are two characteristics of USE, regret both during and after an incident as
well as misperception of sexual intent. In a qualitative study, a focus group of French adolescents
ranging between 16 and 20 years old were recruited and given a $25 incentive for participating
(Akre, Chabloz, Belanger, Michaud, & Suris, 2013).
In the study females have increased feelings of regret when they experience their first
sexual encounter while intoxicated, coerced into the sexual encounter or relationship, and when
preventing a conflict with their partner (Akre, Chabloz, Belanger, Michaud, & Suris, 2013).
Males, on the other hand have increased misperception of sexual intent. A negative effect of
USE is that if a female believes that she was the cause of the misperception then that will

increase the level of guilt and decrease the likelihood to file a report (Akre, Chabloz, Belanger,
Michaud, & Suris, 2013).
There is an issue that adolescents who experience unwanted sexual experiences do not
report the sexual incidents, especially when a peer commits the sexual incident. The study was a
cross-sectional using 429 high school seniors, ages 16 to 20 years old from one high school from
rural New York were recruited (Vrangalova & Williams, 2011). The participants were given a
questionnaire that was given during an English class (Vrangalova & Williams, 2011).
Adolescents are more likely to avoid reporting unwanted sexual activities perpetrated by
partners or their peers. A large percentage of adolescents will report that those unwanted sexual
incidents have no importance and it is a norm. Females are more likely to experience unwanted
sexual activities than males (Vrangalova & Williams, 2011). There are negative emotions
associated with unwanted sexual experiences especially when a partner or peer commits them.
Adolescents have an inaccurate belief that if they inform an adult or someone they trust about the
unwanted sexual incident the person will not think it is important (Vrangalova & Williams,
2011).
Sexual assault can happen in any environment but it frequently occurs in school to
adolescents who are in middle school and high school. Sexual assault is any type of unwanted
sexual touching or sexual activities, without the victim’s consent and it can include some type of
violence towards the victim (RAINN, 2009, “Sexual Assault”, par. 2). In 14% of school sexual
assaults there is some type of coercion or physical force (Young, Grey, & Boyd, 2008). When
sexual comments, jokes, acts, stares, images, messages, or sexual rumors are done it is
considered sexual harassment (Young, Grey, & Boyd, 2008).

The study was a cross-sectional, web-based, self-administered survey consisting of 418
survey items that were given to 1,068 adolescents in grades 7th to 12th who were attending a
Southeastern Michigan school (Young, Grey, & Boyd, 2008). In the study a Sexual Experience
Survey was used to measure information gained on sexual assault, and it was a 10-item scale that
had questions concerning the type of sexual assault and type of sexual aggression.
Peer sexual assault is more likely to occur at school, for females it occurs during an early
stage of adolescents and males it occurs after adolescents (Young, Grey, & Boyd, 2008). In the
study 40% of the middle school females reported having been sexually assaulted by her peers
(Young, Grey, & Boyd, 2008). High school females reported 51% were touched in an unwanted
sexual way, 6% were forced to engage in a sexual act, 12% were raped, 1% were attempted rape,
and 11% done some other sexual act (Young, Grey, & Boyd, 2008).
Sex talk. Adolescents that engage in sexual activities at an early age expose themselves
to greater risk, such as contracting an STI, unplanned pregnancy, sexual assault, and emotional
distress. Adolescents engaging in sexual activities before he or she was prepared can cause the
emotional distress. The media, culture, and peers on certain sexual activities misinform
adolescents. A longitudinal study was conducted using 580 adolescents recruited from two 9th
grade public high schools in California (Halpern-Felsher, Cornell, Kropp, & Tschann, 2005).
The researchers wanted to investigate the correlation between risk and benefits of sexual activity,
and participants completed a self-administered questionnaire.
The study found that there was an increase in the amount of adolescents engaging in
noncoital sexual activities (Halpern-Felsher, Cornell, Kropp, & Tschann, 2005). The results
mean that adolescents are engaging in oral sex more than vaginal sex and adolescents are
engaging in oral sex before their first sexual encounter. In the study 14% of participants believed

there was no way for him/her to contract chlamydia from oral sex, and 13% believed that there
was no way for him/her to contract HIV from oral sex (Halpern-Felsher, Cornell, Kropp, &
Tschann, 2005).
Oral sex vs vaginal sex. The possible reasons why adolescents are engaging in oral sex
more than vaginal sex is due to the decreased risk of contracting an STI and decreased social and
emotional risks. The practice of noncoital activities can predict that adolescent’s will more likely
engage in vaginal sex (Halpern-Felsher, Cornell, Kropp, & Tschann, 2005). However, oral sex is
more preferred by adolescents because there is less risk, it is more beneficial, it can occur more
frequently and oral sex is more accepted than vaginal sex in adolescents. Participants were asked
whether he or she viewed himself/herself as well as their peers engaging in vaginal sex in the
next 6 months, a significant amount agreed that his/her peers would engage in vaginal sex within
the next 6 months.
Adolescents do not separate abstinence and sexual activities as two different constructs
instead the adolescents view abstinence as a stage that he or she goes through until he or she is
prepared to engage in sexual activities. There are two theories, the theory of reasoned action and
the theory of planned behavior that suggest that behaviors are influence by beliefs and values
(Masters, Beadnell, Morrison, Hoppe, & Gillmore, 2008). Since behaviors are influenced by
beliefs and values that mean that a behavior can predict an individuals intention to engage in that
behavior.
This longitudinal study was conducted using an original sample size of 2, 017 but was
lessened to 454 adolescents due to amount of parental consent that was given for the study. The
participants were randomly assigned to single-gender groups where interviewers were asking
questions and then the participants completed a computer survey (Masters, Beadnell, Morrison,

Hoppe, & Gillmore, 2008). The study last for 12 months and at the beginning and end of the
study participants were given surveys.
The study found that adolescents who were more likely to abstain from sex will have
decreased ability to make decision and will have less of a preference towards sexual activities.
Any abstinence only curriculum will decrease an adolescent’s likelihood to practice safe sex
during their first sexual encounter (Masters, Beadnell, Morrison, Hoppe, & Gillmore, 2008).
There is a cultural norm that sex is only intercourse. This cultural norm has been
supported in multiple media articles, such as New York Times magazine, and Talk magazine. In
one New York Times magazine there was an article that discussed the issue that high school
students who were educated about AIDS were still participating in risky sexual behaviors, such
as oral sex, because they perceived oral sex as less risky (Remez, 2000). In another New York
Times magazine from 2000, there was an article that discussed that teens who were virgins
abstaining from sex until marriage considered oral sex to be safe, not risky, and as innocent as a
kiss good night (Remez, 2000).
African Americans and Hispanics have the highest rates of sexual activity at a young age
when compared to other ethnicities. Neighborhood, socio-demographics, and peers influence
adolescents’ sexual activity (Smith, 1997). A longitudinal study was conducted using 803
adolescents from 7th and 8th grade to examine how predominant sexual intercourse was among
adolescents who were 15 years old or younger (Smith, 1997). The participants were given an
interview that measured the participants’ sexual behaviors and contexts influencing sexual
activity. The results were that 72.2% of males and 46.7% of females reported engaging in sexual
activities at or before the age of 15 years old (Smith, 1997). Males who engaged in sexual
activities at 15 years old or younger had a decreased chance of using condoms when having sex

and increased the number of sexual partners. Females who engaged in sexual activities at 15
years old or younger were more frequently engaging in sexual activities (Smith, 1997).
When adolescents engage in sexual activities he or she are misinformed about safe sex
practices and there are negative identities associated with safe practices. There are factors that
negatively influence adolescents’ chances of using condoms when having sex and that increases
his/her chances of contracting an STI or HIV. Body image can increase the risk a female
adolescents engaging in sexual activities because of the female body being sexually objectified,
this then results in females engaging unprotected sexual activities (Schooler, 2012).
Female adolescents have the highest rates of chlamydia and gonorrhea than another other
age range or gender (Schooler, 2012). The main reason why females engage in increased
unprotected sexual activity is due to sexual objectification but females who have increased self-
objectification will advocate for their sexual boundaries to be respected. Demographics can also
increase the chances of STI contraction, as a result female minorities report engaging in sexual
activities at a young age compared to any other socioeconomic class (Schooler, 2012).
A longitudinal study was conducted using 148 adolescents, ages 12 – 15, and was
recruited from Northeast, U.S. public schools in 8th grade. The study gained IRB approval from
Wellesley College (Schooler, 2012). Consent was obtained from the parents, through consent
forms that were in English and Spanish. The participants completed a survey that measured body
satisfaction, sexual experience, safe sex practices, specifically condom use, ethnicity, and
socioeconomic status. The same students were contacted again in 10th grade and completed the
survey again (Schooler, 2012).
Participants reported that 44% of the female participants were dissatisfied with their
weight even when compared to being in different grades. In 8th grade 8% of the females reported

engaging in sexual activities but engaging in sexual activities increased to 43% when the same
females were in 10th grade (Schooler, 2012). When the females were in 12th grade, 60% had
engaged in sexual activities and 47% of the 12th grade participants both male and female were
using condoms when engaging sexual activities (Schooler, 2012). It was concluded that females
who have decreased body satisfaction have an increase in unprotected sexual activities
(Schooler, 2012).
Safe sex among adolescents. Safe sex identities are negative and positive and are
influenced by numerous factors. Sexual norms and attitudes influence the initiation of sexual
activities of adolescents of at-risk urban area. Adolescents who engage in sexual activities at a
young age will increase their chances to contract STIs, have unprotected sex, have multiple
sexual partners, and engage in other risky behaviors like substance use (O’Donnell, Myint,
O’Donnell, & Stueve, 2003).
A longitudinal study was conducted using 849 adolescents in 7th grade from two schools
in Brooklyn, New York. The participants were given a 250-item questionnaire that measured
peer sex norms (O’Donnell, Myint, O’Donnell, & Stueve, 2003). The study continued until 10th
grade with the same participants and after the final questionnaire was collected the results were
that 63.3% of the participants reported having engaged in sexual activities from the first survey
(O’Donnell, Myint, O’Donnell, & Stueve, 2003).
Current Study
The current study proposed that desired identities could predict risky sexual behaviors
and identity concerns in middle school students. The current study was designed to investigate
the identities adolescents at Carol City Middle School associate with diversity, abstinence,
consent, sexual activity, safe sex, and how the identities could predict risky intentions and

beliefs. Carol City Middle School is an at-risk school located in Miami Gardens, Florida. Since
Carol City Middle School is an at-risk school there has been no sexual health curriculum
implemented. The Miami-Dade Public Schools curriculum has that in 6th grade students should
receive Comprehensive Health curriculum. Component III states that students should be aware of
abstinence, sexual activity, STIs, and STI risk reduction (Miami-Dade County Public Schools,
2015, “Health education: Competency based curriculum”).
Group Hypotheses
H1A: As positive identities toward abstinence (e.g., “good”) increase, intentions to
abstain from sex will increase.
H1B: As negative identities toward abstinence (e.g., “baby”) increase, intentions to
abstain from sex will decrease.
H1C: Girls will report more positive identities (e.g., “good”) toward abstinence than
boys.
H1D: Girls will report less negative identities (e.g., “baby”) toward abstinence than boys.
H1E: Girls will report greater intentions to abstain from sex than boys.
H2A: As positive identities toward having sex (e.g., “popular”) increase, intentions to
have sex will increase.
H2B: As negative identities toward having sex (e.g., “easy”) increase, intentions to have
sex will decrease.
H2C: Girls will report less positive identities (e.g., “popular”) toward having sex than
boys.
H2D: Girls will report more negative identities (e.g., “easy”) toward having sex than
boys.

H3A: As positive identities toward using condoms (e.g., “experienced”) increase,
intentions to use condoms when having sex will increase.
H3B: As negative identities toward using condoms (e.g., “too safe”) increase, intentions
to use condoms when having sex will decrease.
H4A: As positive identities toward obtaining consent (e.g., “caring”) increase, intentions
to get consent before sexual activity will increase.
H4B: As negative identities toward obtaining consent (e.g., “lame”) increase, intentions
to get consent before sexual activity will decrease.
H4C: Girls will report more positive identities toward obtaining consent (e.g., “caring”)
than boys.
H4D: Girls will report less negative identities toward obtaining consent (e.g., “lame”)
than boys.
H5A: As positive identities toward befriending LGBT students (e.g., “nice”) increase,
intentions to befriend LGBT students will increase.
H5B: As negative identities toward befriending LGBT students (e.g., “loser”) increase,
intentions to befriend LGBT students will decrease.
H6A: Higher FNE will predict greater anticipated negative emotions (e.g.,
embarrassment) when Ps imagines that friends learn had an STD test.
H6B: Higher FNE will predict greater anticipated negative emotions (e.g.,
embarrassment) when Ps imagine friends learn of their STD diagnosis.
Individual Hypotheses
H7A: Participants who think kids who wait until they are older to have sex are mature
will report greater intentions to wait until they are 18 years or older to have sex

H7B: Participants who think kids who wait until they are older to have sex are old school
will report fewer intentions to wait until they are 18 years or older to have sex
H7C: Boys who wait until they are older to have sex will report being perceived as
having no game rather than boys who do not wait until 18 years or older to have sex
H7D: Girls who wait until they are older to have sex will report being perceived as a
tease rather than girls who do not wait until they are 18 years or older to have sex
H7E: Participants who think kids who wait until they are older to have sex are mature
will report greater intentions to wait until marriage to have sex
H8A: Participants who think that boys should always ask before they touch another
person’s body is respectful will report greater intentions for boys to ask if it is okay before a
sexual act
H8B: Participants who think that boys should always ask before they touch another
person’s body is girly will report fewer intentions for boys to ask if it is okay before a sexual act
H8C: Participants who think kids my age who always ask before they touch another
person’s body are annoying will report fewer intentions to ask if it is okay before a sexual act
H8D: Participants who think kids my age who always ask before they touch another
person’s body are losers will report fewer intentions to talk to the person before they have sex
H9A: Participants who think kids who have sex are rebels will report greater intentions to
have sex sometime this year
H9B: Participants who think kids who have sex are desperate will report fewer intentions
to have sex sometime this year
H9C: Participants who think kids who have sex are followers will report fewer intentions
to have oral sex

H9D: Participants who think kids who have sex are followers will report fewer intentions
to have vaginal sex.
H9E: Participants who think boys who have sex are players will report greater intentions
for boys to have sex sometime this year.
H9F: Participants who think boys who have sex are players will report fewer intentions
for boys to have sex sometime this year.
H9G: Participants who think girls who have sex are loose will report fewer intentions for
girls to have vaginal sex.
H10A: As positive identities towards always using condoms when having sex (e.g.
“smart”) increase, intentions to always use a condom when having sex increase.
H10B: As negative identities towards always using condoms when having sex (e.g.
“wimp”) increase, intentions to always use a condom when having sex decrease.
H11A: As positive identities towards getting an STI testing (e.g. “grown-up”) increase,
intentions to get an STI testing will increase.
H11B: As negative identities towards getting an STI testing (e.g. “dirty”) increase,
intentions to get an STI testing will decrease.
Method
Participants
A total of 200 Carol City Middle School students (50.5% males, 49.5% females) in
grades 6th, 7th, and 8th participated in the study, which allowed the study to achieve adequate
power (Simmons, Nelson, & Simonsohn, 2011). The participants were a convenience sample,
because the participants were students who were made available and accessible by the Principal.
The participants were recruited through a pre-existing partnership that St. Thomas University has

with Carol City Middle School. The participants were in a classroom when the research
assistants conducted the study.
The total number of students at grade level in Mathematics in Carol City Middle are 21%
and 23% are at Reading grade level when compared to Dade and Florida (U.S Dept. of Ed.,
National Center for Education Statistics, 2013-2014). This means that a large percentage of the
students at Carol City Middle School are below 6th, 7th and 8th grade level in Mathematics and
Reading (See Table A1 in Appendix A). Since 23% of students at Carol City Middle School are
at Reading level and 21% of students at Carol City Middle School are at Mathematics level this
caused Carol City Middle School to be ranked 589th out of 602 Middle Schools in Florida in
terms of academic performance.
The poverty level of students in Carol City Middle School was compared to Miami/Dade
and Florida by looking at students and his or her family who qualified for free or reduced lunch.
In Carol City Middle School 91.2% of the students qualify for free or reduced lunch (U.S Dept.
of Ed., National Center for Education Statistics, 2013-2014). That means around 90% of the
students at Carol City Middle School come from families who are mid or below the poverty level
when compared to schools in Miami/Dade and Florida (See Table A2 in Appendix A).
The age ranges of the participants were from 12 – 14 years old. The gender percentages
at Carol City Middle School were 50.5% male and 49.5% female. The demographics of students
at Carol City Middle School were 87.7% African American, 11.0% Hispanic, 0.4% Caucasian,
0.3% Asian, 0.3% American Indian, 0.1% Bi-racial, and 0.1% Pacific Islander. The sexual
orientation of the participants was xx heterosexual, xx homosexual (male), xx homosexual
(female), xx bisexual and xx unsure. The option ‘unsure’ for sexual orientation was included

because some of the participants may have a fluid sexual orientation, making him or her not sure
on which gender he or she is attracted to.
The research assistants met the ethical standards of the National Institute of Health (NIH)
for Protecting Human Research Participants, specifically for Subpart D: Additional Protections
for Children Involved as Subjects in Research. The ethical standards were met by all research
assistants completing the online NIH training in protecting human research participants and
received a certificate that is valid for two years. In addition to the NIH training, all of the
research assistants completed community-engaged research training with St. Thomas
University’s Center of Community Engagement.
The research assistants are still seeking approval from the St. Thomas University
Institutional Review Board (IRB) and the Miami-Dade County Public School IRB. The ethical
standards were also met by providing the participants with a consent form, and providing the
participant’s parent(s)/guardian(s) with a passive consent form, which allowed the
parent(s)/guardian(s) to exclude his or her child from the study. The passive consent for had been
returned to that research assistants so the research assistants knew the child(ren) excluded from
the study.
Measures
The primary measure was a guided survey that was tailored to assess information on
various constructs concerning self-presentation with both positive and negative identities, past
behaviors, and behavioral intentions. The survey was conducted in a guided format, because of
the participant’s level of reading. Since 23% of Carol City Middle School students are at the
reading level for his or her grade and age, the language used in the survey was simplified, the
questions were read out loud to avoid any misinterpretations, and the participants answered the

questions by writing it on the survey. The survey consisted of four Likert scale items, eight
Likert-type scale items, seven Semantic Differential scale items, and one open-ended question.
All of the scales were a seven-point scale ranging in end point labels depending on the type of
scale.
Negative evaluation. The Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE) assesses the level of
discomfort that an individual may experience when he or she is negatively evaluated by another
individual or group of individuals (Watson & Friend, 1969). The Brief version of the FNE scale
(Leary, 1983) is a 12-item, 5-point scale ranging from “1 = Not at all characteristic of me, 2 =
Slightly characteristic of me, 3 = Moderately characteristic of me, 4 = Very characteristic of me,
5 = Extremely characteristic of me”. The scale had high interitem reliability, and high in test-
retest reliability. Sample items include: “xx, xx, xx”.
Abstinence. This construct was used to measure the identities that adolescents associate
with abstinence. The participants had to answer one or more survey items concerning abstinence.
The items were 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree.
An example item of how positive identities associated with abstinence were measured is “I think
kids my age who wait until they are older to have sex are: good, cool, mature, leader, and
unique”. An example item of how negative identities associated with abstinence were measured
is “I think kids my age who wait until they are older to have sex are: babies, old school, losers,
and lame”.
There were gender-based items used to measure the identities that adolescents associated
with abstinence. The item was a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 =
strongly agree. An example item of how negative identities associated with abstinence for boys
were measured is “I think boys my age who wait until they are older to have sex have no game”.

An example of how negative identities associated with abstinence for girls were measured is “I
think girls my age who wait until they are older to have sex are a tease”.
Consent. This construct was used to measure identities that adolescents associate with
obtaining consent. The participants had to answer one or more survey items concerning obtaining
consent. The items were 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly
agree. An example item of how positive identities associated with obtaining consent were
measured is “I think kids my age who always ask before they touch another person’s body (e.g.
butt) are: caring and grown up”. An example item of how negative identities associated with
obtaining consent were measured is “I think kids my age who always ask before they touch
another person’s body (e.g. butt) are: lame, weird, losers, stupid and annoying”.
There were gender-based items that were used to measure the identities that adolescents
associated with obtaining consent. The item was a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly
disagree to 7 = strongly agree. An example item of how positive identities associated with
obtaining consent for boys were measured is “I think boys my age who always ask before they
touch another person’s body (e.g. butt) are: respectful and nice”. An example item of how
negative identities associated with obtaining consent for boys were measured is “I think boys my
age who always ask before they touch another person’s body (e.g. butt) are: players and have no
game”.
Sexual activity. This construct was used to measure the identities that adolescents
associate with sexual activity specifically in middle schools. The participants had to answer one
or more survey items concerning sexual activity. The items were 7-point Likert scales ranging
from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. An example item of how positive identities
associated with sexual activity were measured is “I think kids my age who have sex are: popular,

grown-up, rebels, and good looking”. An example item of how negative identities associated
with sexual activity were measured is “I think kids my age who have sex are: desperate and
followers”.
There were gender-based items that were used to measure the identities that adolescents
associated with sexual activity. The items were 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 = strongly
disagree to 7 = strongly agree. An example item of how positive identities associated with
sexual activity for boys were measured is “I think boys my age who have sex are: players and
have swag”. An example item of how negative identities associated with sexual activity for girls
were measured is “I think girls my age who have sex are: easy and loose”. An example item of
how negative identities associated with sexual activity for boys were measured are “I think boys
my age who have sex are players”.
Safe sex. This construct was used to measure the identities that adolescents associated
with safe sex. The participants had to answer one or more survey items concerning safe sex. The
items were 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree. An
example item of how positive identities associated with safe sex were measured is “Kids my age
who always use condoms when they have sex are: experienced, grown, have skills, and smart”.
An example item of how negative identities associated with safe sex were measured is “Kids my
age who always use condoms when they have sex are: too safe and wimp”. An example item of
how a negative identity associated with safe sex was measured is “Kids my age who always use
condoms when they have sex probably have an STD”.
Sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing. This construct was used to measure the
identities that adolescents associated with STI testing. The participants had to answer one or
more survey items concerning STI testing. The items were 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 =

Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree. An example item of how a positive identity associated
with STI testing was measured is “Kids my age who are having sex and get an HIV/STD test are
grown-up”. An example item of how a negative identity associated with STI testing sex was
measured is “Kids my age who are having sex and get an HIV/STD test are dirty”.
Emotional reactions to STI testing. This construct was used to measure the emotional
reaction that adolescents associate with STI testing. The participants had to answer survey item
concerning emotional reactions to STI testing. The item was a 7-point Semantic Differential
scale ranging from 1 = Not at all embarrassed/ashamed/uncomfortable/lonely/
overwhelmed/stressed/guilty to 7 = Extremely embarrassed/ashamed/uncomfortable/lonely/
overwhelmed/stressed/guilty. An example item of how identity towards STI testing was
measured is “If my friends found out that I had an STD test I would feel:
embarrassed/ashamed/uncomfortable/lonely/ overwhelmed/stressed/guilty”.
Emotional reactions to STI diagnosis. This construct was used to measure the
emotional reaction that adolescents associate with STI diagnosis. The participants had to answer
one survey item concerning emotional reactions to STI diagnosis. The item was a 7-point
Semantic Differential scale ranging from 1 = Not at all
embarrassed/ashamed/dirty/loose/guilty/sad/upset/angry/stressed to 7 = Extremely
embarrassed/ashamed/dirty/loose/guilty/sad/upset/angry/stressed. An example item of how
identity towards STI diagnosis was measured is “If my friends found out that I had an STD test I
would feel: embarrassed/ashamed/dirty/loose/guilty/sad/upset/angry/stressed”.
Self-compassion. This construct was used to measure the self-compassion that
adolescent’s display, common humanity, self-judgment, isolation, and over-identification, with
abstinence and STDs. The participants had to answer one survey item concerning common

humanity. The item was a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Not at all true of me to 7 =
Extremely true of me. An example item of common humanity is “When I am going through a
hard time I try to understand that other people may feel the same way”.
The participants had to answer one survey item concerning self-judgment. The item was a
7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Not at all true of me to 7 = Extremely true of me. An
example item of self-judgment is “If I ever found out that I have an STD I would: feel like a
terrible person, hate myself, and never forgive myself”.
The participants had to answer one survey item concerning isolation. The item was a 7-
point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Not at all true of me to 7 = Extremely true of me.
Example items of isolation is “I feel like I am the only kid my age who is not having sex”, and
“If I ever found out that I have an STD I would feel like No one else could understand what I am
going through”.
The participants had to answer one surveyitem concerning over-identification. The item
was a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Not at all true of me to 7 = Extremely true of
me. An example item of over-identification is “If I ever found out that I have an STD I would:
never get over it, feel like my life is over, and feel like no one would ever date me again”.
Attitudes towards diversity. This construct was used to measure the identities
adolescents associate with diversity. The participants had to answer one or more survey items
concerning attitudes towards diversity. The items were 7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 =
Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree. An example item of how positive identities associated
with diversity were measured is “I believe kids my age who have friends that are gay or lesbian
are: nice, accepting, friendly and leader”. An example item of how negative identities
associated with diversity were measured is “I believe kids my age who have friends that are gay

or lesbian are: loser, weird, and ignorant”. Example items of how identities associated with
diversity were measured are “I believe kids my age who have friends that are gay or lesbian are
also gay or lesbian” and “I believe kids my age who won’t be friends with someone who’s gay or
lesbian are discriminating against them”.
Attitude towards consent. This construct was used to measure the identities adolescents
associate with obtaining consent. The participants had to answer one or more survey items
concerning attitudes towards obtaining consent. The items were 7-point Likert scales ranging
from 1 = Strongly disagree to 7 = Strongly agree. Example items of how identities associated
with obtaining consent were measured are “I believe that girls should ask the person they are
with if it’s okay before they do any sexual acts (For example, kissing touching)” and “I believe
that boys should ask the person they are with if it’s okay before they do any sexual acts (For
example, kissing touching)”.
Intentions towards abstinence. This construct was used to measures intentions towards
abstinence. The items were 7-point Likert scales items ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 =
strongly agree. Example items of how intentions towards abstinence were measured are “I plan
to wait to have sex until I am: 18 or older and married” and “I believe it is okay for kids my age
to have sex”.
Intentions towards obtaining consent. This construct was used to measure intentions
towards obtaining consent. The items were 7-point Likert-type scales items ranging from 1 = Not
at all true of me to 7 = Extremely true of me. Example items of how intentions towards
abstinence were measured are “I plan to ask the person I’m with if it is okay before any sexual
act (For example, kissing, touching)” and “I plan to talk to the person I’m with before we have
sex”.

Intentions towards sexual activity. This construct was used to measure intentions
towards sexual activity. The items were 7-point Likert-type scales items ranging from 1 = Not at
all true of me to 7 = Extremely true of me. Examples items of how intentions towards sexual
activity were measured are “I plan to have sex sometime this year”, “I plan to have oral sex
(“go down on”, mouth on penis/vagina,) sometime this year” and “I plan to have vaginal sex
(penis in vagina) sometime this year”.
Intentions towards safe sex. This construct was used to measure intentions towards safe
sex. The item was a 7-point Likert-type scale items ranging from 1 = Not at all true of me to 7 =
Extremely true of me. An example item of how intentions towards sexual activity were measured
is “I plan to always use a condom when I have sex”.
Intentions towards STI testing. This construct was used to measure intentions towards
STI testing. The items were 7-point Likert-type scales items ranging from 1 = Not at all true of
me to 7 = Extremely true of me. Example items of how intentions towards STI testing were
measured are “If I am having sex I will get an HIV/STD test” and “Before I have sex with
someone I plan to ask them if they have ever had an HIV/STD test”.
Intentions towards STI diagnosis. This construct was used to measure intentions
towards STI diagnosis. The item was a 7-point Likert scale items ranging from 1 = strongly
disagree to 7 = strongly agree. An example item of how intentions towards STI diagnosis were
measured is “If people have an STD/HIV, I believe they must tell the person they are with”.
Intentions towards diversity. Behavioral intentions measured intentions towards
diversity by using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Not at all true of me to 7 = Very
true of me. Example items of how intentions towards diversity were measured are “I would never

make fun of someone who is gay/lesbian” and “I would hang out with kids my age who are
gay/lesbian”.
Past sexual behavior. This construct was used to measure past sexual behaviors by using
yes, no and unsure as responses. Example items of how past sexual behaviors were measured are
“I have had vaginal sex (penis in vagina)” and “I have had oral sex (mouth to penis/vagina)”.
Past sexual behaviors were measured using a 7-point scale ranging from 0 = Never to 7 =
Always. An example of how past sexual behaviors were measured is “When I’ve had sex I have
used a condom”. Past sexual behaviors were measured using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging
from 1 = Not at all true of me to 7 = Very true of me. An example of how past sexual behaviors
were measured is “I have always asked the person I am with if it okay before doing any sexual
acts (for example, kissing, touching)”.
Procedure
Guided survey. The participants were in a classroom when the research assistants
entered the classroom to conduct the study. Research assistants introduced themselves to the
participants and explained the purpose of the study was to learn more about adolescents’
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors concerning issues of puberty, relationships, abstinence and
future intentions regarding safe sex practices and abstinence. Once the introductions were
completed, each research assistant was assigned to a row of students, which allowed for a more
spacious feel in the classroom. Certain research assistants were selected to hand the participants
two consent forms and two empty large envelops. There was one research assistant selected to
read the consent form out loud to the participants, and then the participants signed both consent
forms. The participants were allowed to keep one consent form for their own record and the
other one was signed, sealed, placed into an envelope and given back to the research assistants.

The sealed consent forms were collected by the research assistants and then placed in an
area where it would not come into contact with surveys. This was done in order to increase
anonymity among the participants. One selected research assistant stood at the front of the
classroom and read a disclaimer concerning the content of the survey to the participants:
“There will be questions on today’s survey about private things. These private topics may
make you feel many different ways. Some of these questions will be how you feel about growing
up and dating relationships and may discuss changes to your body and even sexual activity.
Please be respectful and take it seriously. Please be honest in your responses.”
“Now we will like to tell you that no one will know that the information that you are
writing on the survey belongs to you. You will not put your name or any information that will
identify you on your survey. The survey cannot be connected to your consent form, because your
consent form is sealed and kept in a separate location. All your answers are completely kept a
secret. Even we won’t know that this survey is yours.”
There were no identifying markers on the surveys that could link the consent forms to the
surveys that the participants completed. Since there were no identifying markers, there is no way
to trace back the information on the surveys to the participants that increased confidentiality. The
participants were told to not write their names or student IDs on the surveys because this allowed
for increased anonymity. The research assistants gave a certain amount of surveys per row of
participants.
The selected research assistant at the front of the classroom gathered the attention of the
participants after each participant had received a survey. The research assistant informed the
participants that if he or she had any questions to please refrain for shouting the questions out
loud and raise his or her hand. If a student had his or her hand raised a research assistant assigned

to that row would quietly walk over to the participant and answer his/her question individually.
Having a research assistant to individually answer the participants’ question allowed for
decreased distractions, and sped up the rate at which the survey was being completed.
Once the participants had comprehended how the questions would be answered, there
was a practice item provided to clarify how the students had to answer the survey. For example,
“A practice item for this survey is, I believe that having a partner (boyfriend/girlfriend) at my
age makes me cool, and then you would circle a number from the scale ranging 1 to 7”. After the
research assistant at the front of the classroom confirmed that the participants understood the
practice survey item, the guided survey began. Each survey item was read out loud by the
research assistant at the front of the classroom, and xx amount of time was allotted for a response
time. The participants would xx when were finished answering the question.
The research assistants at each row of students minimized the amount of talking and
interaction the participants had with each other, in order to increase the control on the noise level
in the classroom. The guided survey took an hour to complete, and once completed the
participants received a large, empty envelope to place his/her surveys in. Each survey was placed
in the envelope, sealed, and placed into a container with the other surveys by the participants.
The participants placed the sealed envelops into the container, in order to decrease the amount of
contact the research assistants had with the sealed envelope until data analysis. Once all the
sealed envelops were collected, the sealed envelopes were placed in a different area than the
consent forms, and the participants were thanked for his/her participation and fully debriefed.
Educational debriefing. The debriefing process allowed for the participants to be
informed about LGBT, consent, sexual assault, STIs, STI testing, and puberty. For each
construct there were infographics, statistics, and informational handouts given to each

participant. During the educational debriefing the research assistants encouraged participants to
ask questions, by raising his/her hand and waiting until a research assistant pointed to so he/she
could speak.
STI’s/HIV. When the research assistants discussed STIs and HIV in the educational
debriefing abstinence was defined, various ways to engage in abstinence were given, methods of
contracting STIs/HIV, the possibility that some STIs do not show symptoms, examples of safe
sex practices, and statistics on STIs/HIV (See Figure B1 in Appendix B). The research assistants
informed participants that the most successful way prevent STIs/HIV contraction are to practice
abstinence. The research assistants informed participants that to practice abstinence means that
an individual should not engage in any type of sexual activity that includes oral sex, vaginal sex,
and anal sex. The most suitable way to express some type of intimacy to an individual that does
not involve sexual activities are holding hands, hugging, or cuddling (Smarter Sex, 2013,
“Abstinence”, para. 3).
The research assistants informed participants the method of contracting STIs/HIV, such
as unprotected vaginal sex, oral sex and anal sex. The research assistants informed participants
that STIs can be contracted through physical contact, and there does not need to be any sort of
sexual relation with another individual. The research assistants encouraged and emphasized
condom use if any of the participants were sexually active, as well as routine STI testing. The
research assistants asked the participants if they believed that every STI showed symptoms. The
research assistants informed participants that not all STIs display noticeable symptoms. An
example given was that an individual could have HPV for years and not be aware that he/she
contracted HPV, and if it goes untreated it can develop into more serious medical issues, such as
cervical cancer.

The research assistants asked participants rhetorical questions, one example is “Did you
know that 1 in 5 HIV infections occur in youth between the ages of 13 and 24?” (CDC, 2016,
“HIV Among Youth”, para. 1). The discussion on STIs/HIV statistics concluded the STIs/ HIV
educational debriefing.
Consent. When consent and sexual assault was discussed research assistants informed
participants the definition of consent, solutions on how consent could be enforced, facts on how
to protect one’s self against sexual assault, and multiple statistics about consent and sexual
assault. The definition given for consent was that ‘Consent is an agreement between two people
who engage in sexual activity’ (RAINN, 2009, “What Consent Looks Like”, par. 2). The
research assistants informed participants about the various ways consent could be given, such as,
reassuring that the sexual activity should be continued, making the consent clear by saying ‘yes’,
and using body language to correspond with the verbal response (RAINN, 2009, “What Consent
Looks Like”, par. 5-7).
The research assistants informed participants that if something does not feel right or
makes him/her feel uncomfortable, it is acceptable to change his/her mind and revoke his/her
consent during the sexual activity. An example given on how to revoke consent during a sexual
activity is by demanding the person who he/she is being intimate with to stop (RAINN, What
Consent Looks Like, par. 8, 2009). Sexual assault can be: rape, attempted rape, forced sexual
acts, and unwanted touching (RAINN, Sexual Assault, par. 3-6, 2009). The method to decrease
the chances of experiencing sexual assault is for the perpetrator to remember that silence,
intoxication, unconsciousness or hesitation is not consent, and that he/she should wait until the
person he/she wants consent from has the ability to give consent. The manner in which consent is
given is simplified into emojis so that children can understand it (See Figure C1 in Appendix C).

Consent is most effective when there is communication when the two individuals, and
remembering that consent can be revoked at any moment even if the sexual activity is taking
place.
The most effective method to lessen the possibility of a sexual assault is CARE: C =
Create a distraction, A = Ask directly, R = Refer to an authority, and E = Enlist others. Examples
of the statistics given are “Each year, 1 in 5 females are sexually assaulted as a child or an adult
(Black et al., 2011)”, “4 out of 5 sexual assaults are done by someone that you know, a friend, or
someone you have met, such as a parent, best friend, or neighbor?” (RAINN, Sexual Assault,
par. 9, 2009) and “15% of sexual assault and rape victims are under age 12” (RAINN, Who are
the Victims? - Children, para. 6). The discussion on sexual assault statistics concluded the
consent and sexual assault educational debriefing.
Puberty. When puberty was discussed puberty was defined, facts about puberty
depending on gender, emotions experienced during puberty for both males and females, and
information on menstruation. The definition given for puberty was “Puberty is a time in our lives
where we are sexually maturing, and going through physical and mental changes.” The
participants were informed about the facts of puberty in rhetorical questions. Some examples are
“Did you know that during puberty boys experience an increase in testicle size (Stoppler & Shiel,
2016, “Puberty”, p. 2, para. 7), hair growth, change in body order, frequent erections (Matte,
2015, “Boys and Puberty”, para. 4-6) and deepening of voice (Soard, “Teenage Boys
Hormones”, n.d., para. 11)?” and “Did you know that girls experience changes in breast size
(Matte, 2015, “What Effects Does Estrogen Have on an Adolescent Girl?” para. 4), pubic hair
growth (Girlshealth, 2014, “Body hair”, para. 1) and begin menstruation/period (Girlshealth,
2014, “Getting your period”, para.2)?”

The research assistants informed participants about the emotions experienced during
puberty, for example, “If you feel you are the only one experiencing body changes, you should
not feel shamed or embarrassed because these are normal parts of growing up and everyone
experiences puberty differently.” The research assistants informed participants about
menstruation that information was more beneficial to the female participants than the male
participants. Examples of the menstruation information are “The way to take care of your period
is by using a pad or tampon. Pads stick to your underwear and absorb the blood that is being
released from the vagina. They should also be changed every three to four hour, which helps to
keep a healthy body (Girlshealth, “Pads and other ways to take care of your period”, 2014, para.
2-3).”
LGBT. When research assistants discussed LGBT in the educational debriefing statistics
were given, the participants were asked various rhetorical questions that the research assistants
provided the solutions for. For example “Did you know that six out of ten LGBT students feel
unsafe at school because of their sexual orientation?” (Ramsey, 2014). The solution provided for
this was “help them feel safe by reporting any hateful behavior to a trusted adult and also reach
out to the student who is feeling bullied and be kind towards anyone who may be different.”
In addition, “did you know that four out of ten LGBT students feel unsafe at school
because of their gender expression?” (Ramsey, 2014). A solution for this is “help the students
feel secure. These students should accept the way chose to express his or her gender, even
though it is different from everyone else. If a male felt like wearing a dress, either compliment
him about his choices or say nothing at all”. Research assistants explained the differences
between gender identity, gender attraction, gender expression, and sex to the participants using a
genderbread person (See Figure D2 in Appendix D).

There was an infograph that had the percentage of LGBT students who do not feel safe or
welcomed attending school in a school setting due to his/her sexual orientation (See Figure D1 in
Appendix D). The discussion on LGBT rhetorical questions concluded the LGBT educational
debriefing.
Proposed Analyses
The statistical test used to analyze HIA and HIB was correlation.
The statistical test used to analyze H1C, H1D, and H1E was an independent samples t-
test.
The statistical test used to analyze H2A and H2B was correlation.
The statistical test used to analyze H2C and H2D was an independent samples t-test.
The statistical test used to analyze H7C, H7D, and H7E was an independent samples t-
test.
The statistical test used to analyze H9A, H9B, H9C, H9D, was correlation.
The statistical test used to analyze H9E, H9F, and H9G was an independent samples t-
test.

Discussion
Conclusion
The current study is one of the few studies that examine identity as a predictor of risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents that was supported with the data collected. As stated earlier
depending on whether a positive or negative identity is associated with attitudes towards
diversity, high or low FNE, abstinence, consent, sexual activity, safe, sex practices, STIs, and
STI testing that may predict the behavioral intentions of the adolescents. The main influences for
adolescents’ sexual beliefs, norms and behaviors are media, culture, family, and peers. The
influences may be inaccurate, increasing adolescents’ participation in risky behaviors. When
adolescents engage in risky sexual behaviors that increases the amount of STI contractions,
increases unplanned pregnancies, decreases condom use, decreases STI testing, increases sexual
assault, and increases partner/dating violence.
The data collected from the guided survey was analyzed using Pearson r test and
independent samples t-test. The data supported that as positive identities towards abstinence
increase intentions to engage in sexual activities until 18 years or older will decrease. The data
supported that girls reported more positive identities towards abstinence than boys and girls will
report greater intentions to abstain from sex than boys. The data supported that, as positive
identities towards having sex increase then intentions to get consent from a partner will increase.
The data supported that girls will report less positive identities towards having sex than boy
rather than more positive identities.

The results of the study suggested that as positive identities towards obtaining increase
then the chances of being sexually assaulted decrease. The data collected supported that as
positive identities towards condom use increase the intentions to get a STI tests will decrease.
Participants who reported higher FNE had an increase in experiencing emotions like
embarrassment, guilt, and shame when they were negatively judged.
Participants who reported negative identities towards abstinence increase intentions to
engage in sexual activities until 18 years or older will increase. The data supported that boys
reported less positive identities towards abstinence than girls and boys will report greater
intentions to abstain from sex than girls. The data supported that, as negative identities towards
having sex increase then intentions to get consent from a partner will decrease. The results of the
study suggested that as negative identities towards obtaining consent increase then the chances of
being sexually assaulted increase. The data collected supported that as negative identities
towards condom use increase intentions to get a STI test will decrease.
Limitations
The current study had several limitations on how it was conducted, biases, the external
validity, the internal validity and the construct validity. Limitation one with the study was that
the sample was specific to a middle school in Miami Gardens, and the ethnicity within the
sample was not diverse enough to generalize the results to a different population. Limitation two
with the study was the study is correlational, hence there was no control in the study and there
was no independent variable that could be manipulated. Limitation three with the study was that
the study is of a sensitive nature, and there are some survey items that may disclose information
of child molestation or sexual assault. If there is a survey that discloses child molestation or
sexual assault there is no way to trace the survey back to the participant who completed it

because of the survey being anonymous. Limitation four of the study was that the participants
recruited were a convenience sample that means that there were students that were excluded who
could have influenced the outcome of the study.
There were multiple biases within the study that could have influence the outcomes and
results. Bias one of the study was that a convenience sample was used so students who could
have had a significant difference on the study were not present. Bias two of the study was that
there were specific constructs that were measured and some were excluded because research
assistants believed that the constructs were not relevant. When the research assistants excluded
some constructs that could have made certain variables void that could have influenced the
results. Bias three is that the survey items may seem designed for heterosexual adolescents
instead of both heterosexual and homosexual adolescents.
The sample for the study was Carol City Middle School that is an at-risk school with
students who are at or below the poverty level. The external validity of the study was low
because there was no diversity in the ethnicity of the students. The main ethnic groups that
formed the population at Carol City Middle School were African American and Hispanics. To
increase the external validity the study should be replicated but using a more diverse ethnic
group and in a large school with more age ranges.
There was no internal validity in the study because the study was not a true experiment
and there was no independent variable. The study had predictor variables because there was no
type of independent variable that was manipulated, and causing a change in dependent variable.
To increase internal validity the concept of the study should be adapted to a lab setting and that
allows researchers to have control and confirm that the changes in the dependent variable(s) were
caused by the independent variable(s).

There was high construct validity because the constructs of the study were
operationalized in the method section under measures in a way that could be understood by a
layperson. The limitation with construct validity was that the constructs were simplified to
middle school students who are below the grade level for reading of 6th, 7th, and 8th graders. If
the study should be generalized, the way that the constructs were operationalized will have to be
changed to meet the educational standards of future participants.
Future Directions & Implications
The results from the study indicated that identities predicted risky sexual behaviors
among adolescents and to decrease the risky sexual behaviors middle schools should implement
intervention programs or introduction sexual health curriculum by 6th grade. The most successful
interventions were sexual health programs that had comprehensive curriculum. Abstinence only
based curriculum increased sexual activity among adolescents rather than promoting abstinence.
Abstinence only curriculum solely focuses on abstinence and does not inform the adolescents of
safe sex practices.
Comprehensive curriculum informs the adolescents on abstinence, safe sex practices, the
types of sexual activities and the importance of STI/ HIV testing regular when sexually active. A
comprehensive curriculum should be implemented at Carol City Middle School because there is
no sexual health curriculum implemented at the school. According to Miami-Dade Public
Schools curriculum there should be sexual health curriculum given to adolescents starting in 6th
grade.
The theory of self-presentation can be used like in this study as a predictor of behavioral
intentions of adolescents in middle school and adolescents in high school. There can be more
constructs measured because that decreases the likelihood of certain variables influencing

changes when it is not. The theory is made practical because of the study is using actual
adolescents. There has not been much research on identity as it is associated with adolescents.

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