3. Fact
B. Russell giving definite meanings to the four words
Fact: The existence of anything in the world
Facts are what make statements true or false
If two statements each assert a fact, a third statement combining the two does not assert a new fact
Independence: Facts are unaffected by human volition or existence
Cognitive life: Our mental processes adapt to facts in the environment
Linguistic nuances: Complexities arising from the expression of facts in language
Biological Basis: Cognitive abilities rooted in biological adaptation
Continuum of Understanding: Gradual progression from basic cognition to advanced knowledge
4. Belief
Definition of Belief: Belief is a mental state that can be displayed in behavior
Pre-intellectual Belief: Belief can exist without verbalization and may be instinctual or sensory
Physical Manifestation: Belief can be exhibited in bodily reactions or conditioned reflexes
External Reference: Belief often refers to something external to the organism, such as acting on information
received
Behavioral Display: In animals and young children, belief is demonstrated through actions, while in humans,
it can be more static due to language and suspended reactions
Variety of Beliefs: Belief encompasses various mental states, including filling out sensations, memory,
expectation, belief through testimony, and conscious inference.
5. Belief
Vagueness of Belief: The object of belief can be vague or imprecise, especially in human language, leading
to ambiguity.
Belief in Verbal Statements: Verbal beliefs may lack precision, and the truth of a statement depends on the
meaning attributed to the words used.
Precision in Philosophy: Philosophy aims to reduce vagueness through improved verbal analysis and
observation techniques.
Static Belief vs. Belief in Action: Belief can be static, involving mental imagery and a feeling of assent, or
displayed through actions in response to stimuli
6. Truth
Truth as a Property of Beliefs: Truth is a characteristic of beliefs and sentences that express beliefs
Relation between Belief and Fact: Truth is defined by a relation between a belief and one or more external
facts
Belief and Action: Belief prompts action, such as a person reacting to the belief in a fire even before sensory
confirmation
Verifiers of Belief: The existence of a fact outside of belief validates its truth; without such a fact, the belief is
false
Illustration with Mammoths: A belief is true if there are corresponding facts that would validate it, even if
those facts are not directly experienced
7. Truth
Significance of Sentences: The significance of a sentence lies in its ability to describe a fact that would make
it true
Understanding Verifiers: Verifiers of belief are understood through descriptions that could apply to the facts
validating the belief
Abstract Beliefs: Beliefs about unexperienced phenomena require a structural understanding of reality, even
if specific instances are not perceived
Intelligibility of Statements: Statements about unexperienced phenomena can be intelligible even without
specific instances being known
Definition of Truth: Truth is established when a belief corresponds to a fact in a manner analogous to an
image resembling a prototype
8. Knowledge
Knowledge as a Subset of True Beliefs: Knowledge is considered a subset of true beliefs, but not all true
beliefs qualify as knowledge
Need for Sound Evidence: While sound evidence is important for knowledge, it alone is not sufficient for
defining knowledge
Components of Knowledge: Knowledge consists of certain matters of fact and principles of inference, both of
which are not reliant on external evidence
Traditional Doctrine's Limitations: The traditional view of knowledge based on perception and deduction has
several shortcomings, including the difficulty in defining facts of perception and the limited scope of
deduction
Approaches to Defining Knowledge: Three main approaches to defining knowledge include emphasizing self-
evidence, coherence of beliefs, and beliefs that lead to success
9. Knowledge
Self-Evidence: Self-evidence is a subjective conviction that cannot be helped but believed; however, it varies
in degree and may not always guarantee truth
Coherence Theory of Knowledge: Knowledge is a coherent system of interconnected beliefs
Beliefs that Promote Success: This theory suggests defining knowledge as beliefs that lead to success, but its
practical application is challenging and relies on half-hearted assumptions
Knowledge as a Matter of Degree: Knowledge is considered to be a matter of degree, with facts of perception
and simple arguments possessing the highest degree, followed by vivid memories and coherent sets of beliefs
Unambiguous Definition: Defining knowledge, like other concepts, lacks a definite and unambiguous answer,
and its understanding evolves with further inquiry and analysis
