Facilitating Learning in General Education.pptx

What are your views about
learning?

Three important concepts about
learning
 Change (knowledge, skills,
attitudes)
 Behavior (permanent)
 Previous Experience

Ways of Learning
LISTEN
EVOLVE
ADAPT
RECIPROCATE
NETWORK
INTEGRATE
NAVIGATE
GROW

How does learning occur?
 Learners learn only what they
are ready to learn.
 Learners construct their own
understanding.

Ways to Promote Learning
 Giving productive feedback
 Providing concreteness, activity,
and familiarity
 Explaining examples
 Guiding cognitive processing
during learning

 Fostering problem-solving
strategies
 Creating cognitive
apprenticeship
 Priming students’ motivation

Learner- Centered Psychological
Principles
 View learners as actively seeking
knowledge by
1. Reinterpreting information and
experience from themselves
2. Being self-motivated by the
quest for knowledge

3. Working with others to socially
construct meaning
4. Being aware of their own
learning strategies and capable
of applying them to new
problems or circumstances.

A. Cognitive and Metacognitive
Factors
Principle 1. Nature of the learning
process. The learning of
complex subject matter is most
effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning
from information and
experience.

Principle 2. Goals of the learning
process. The successful learner,
over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.

Principle 3. Construction of
knowledge. The successful learner
can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful
ways.

Principle 4. Strategic Thinking. The
successful learner can create
and use a repertoire of thinking
and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.

Principle 5. Thinking about
thinking. Higher-order thinking
strategies for selecting and
monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical
thinking.

Principle 6. Context of learning.
Learning is influenced by
environmental factors, including
culture, technology, and
instructional practices.

B. Motivational and Affective
Factors
Principle 7. Motivational and emotional
influences on learning. What and
how much is learned is influenced by
the learner’s motivation. Motivation
to learn, in turn, is influenced by
individual states, beliefs, interests,
goals, and habits of thinking .

Principle 8. Intrinsic Motivation to
learn. The learners‘ curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by
tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal
interests, and providing for personal
choice and control.

Principle 9. Effects of motivation
on effort. Acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills requires
extended learner effort and guided
practice. Without learner’s motivation
to learn, the willingness to exert
effort is unlikely without coercion.

C. Developmental and Social
Factors
Principle 10. Developmental influences
on learning. As individuals develop,
there are different opportunities and
constraints for learning. Learning is
most effective when differential
development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains is taken into account.

Principle 11. Social influences on
learning. Learning is influenced by
social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with
others.

D. Individual Difference Factors
Principle 12. Individual differences in
learning. Learners have different
strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and
heredity.

Principle 13. Learning and
diversity. Learning is most effective
when differences in learners’
linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.

Principle 14. Standards and
assessment. Setting appropriately
high and challenging standards and
assessing the learners as well as
their learning progress- including
diagnostic, process and outcome
assessment – are integral part of the
learning process.

Exercise:
Identify whether or not each of the
following descriptions is an example
of learning. If it is not, indicate what it
is.

1. Kris Marielle’s ability to focus on
academic tasks improved
significantly after she began
taking glutaphos under her
doctor’s supervision.

2. Jon is fond of cajoling his sister
every time she wears a mini-
skirt. After a week, his sister
does not wear her mini-skirt
anymore.
3. Jemima blinks at a sudden flash
of light.

4. Karen deliberately listens to the
teacher’s discussion on analysis
and parsing. After a week or two,
she realized that language is
best taught from part to whole.

5. Jake Arnold has read in his Biology book
that the famous Rhine River in Europe,
which cuts through several countries from
Austria down to West Germany and the
Netherlands, is known as “Europe’s
largest open sewerage system. “Later, he
tells his mother that water pollution is
widespread all over the world. From that
time on, he never throws his waste
anywhere.

What is knowledge?
 An organized body of information
 Something we use in everything we
do
 Is what we teach to our students and
what we want them to acquire

Types of Knowledge
 Episodic – refers to our
biographical memory. It makes
up our lives as individual beings.
(what, where, and when it
happened)

 Semantic – deals with memories
and information that are not tied to
our personal biographies. The
organized knowledge about facts,
concepts, generalizations including
their associations are part of this.

Types of Semantic Knowledge
1. Declarative Knowledge – deals
with the statement of truth or it
deals with what we know about the
world. This can be organized
through these levels.
 Descriptions – describing persons,
animals, events, or ideas

 Time Elements- important events
that occur in specific time
 Process – organizing activities
around certain process
 Causal Relationships – showing
the cause and effect relationship

 Episodes – specific events about
specific people in a specific
situation that has something to
do with specific meaning with its
causes and effect.
 Generalizations – are statements
of conclusions that are derived
from and can be applied in a
number of situations.

 Principles – statements of
generalizations that express rules or
relationships that exist between and
among events
 Concepts – broad principles. These
are commonly single words that
label a category or class of persons,
things, objects or events.

Kinds of Semantic Knowledge
2. Procedural – knowledge about
how things are to be done or it
explains the process
3. Conditional – knowledge which
accounts for knowing when is the
appropriate time and condition in
which certain information is to be
used.

Legitimate Power of Knowledge
 Knowledge that is true and legitimate
can be used meaningfully. To be
considered legitimate, it has to be
 Rational – if it is based on correct
premise

 Empirical – if it can be verified. It
has to be measurable and reliable
 Pragmatic- if it can be used or
applied in real-life situations.

Organization of Semantic Knowledge
1. Facts – things which are known to be
true. They are specific bits of
information which have limited
capacity for providing explanation.
2. Categories- groupings of similar
objects, persons, events,
characteristics

3. Concepts – labels given to
categories
Structures of concepts( Chaffee 2003)
 Referents – examples
 Properties - common qualities
 Signs – words or symbols that
name a concept

4. Generalizations - statements
that contain the if-then or
predictive characteristics or
which show relationships among
concepts.

Prior Knowledge
 A mental structure that describes
our knowledge and experiences
gained during the course of our life
and how old experiences are used to
understand new ones.

 Importance of Prior Knowledge:
 It is needed to facilitate responses
and performance
Guidelines in Activating Prior
Knowledge
 Provide a learning environment that
is supportive and conducive

 Match students’ knowledge and
interests with the nature of the
learning tasks.
 Activate prior knowledge before
learning a new material
Activation of prior knowledge is made possible
through our schemata (mental organizers
that help us make sense of the world)

Ways of Activating Prior Knowledge
1. Advance Organizers – a strategy that
describes a new material to be
learned.
2. Conceptual and Pedagogical Models –
are mental systems we invented to
make some lessons understandable
ex. mnemonics

3. Chunking – breaking a whole thing
into small and workable components
4. Outlining – a bird’s eye view of what
will be discussed in the material
5. Highlighting – indicating and
locating the most important points
in the lesson.

6. Questioning – giving of guide
questions before exposing the
students to a certain task.
Pattern: DSEGE
 Describe
 Specify time element
 Emphasize relationship/process
 Generalize
 Emphasize with examples

Transfer of Learning:
 Transfer is a process of extending
knowledge acquired in one context to
other contexts.
Ways to Promote Transfer
1. Similarity – If two forms of learning
possess the same characteristics, then
there is the likelihood for effective
transfer.

2. Association – seeing the
relationship between feelings and
actions, perceptions and
experiences in the past, feelings
and environment. The presence of
one elicits the other.
Ex. Teaching – learning
graduation - diploma

3. Degree of original learning –it
means that everything we do falls
within a range or degree of
performance.
4. Critical Attributes –qualities that
make the object different from the
rest.

Theories of Learning
Theory
 a set of circumstances, rules,
propositions or principles that are
analyzed in their relation to one
another .
 are used to explain certain
phenomena

Functions of a Theory
 Helps to discover novel ideas and
approaches
 Helps us organize our findings into
a framework that explains certain
phenomena
 Helps us show relationships
between and among variables

A. Theory of Behaviorism
 focuses on the study of observable
and measurable behavior
 stresses that behavior is mostly
learned through conditioning and
reinforcement (rewards and
punishment)

 Does not give much attention to
mind and thought processes
occurring in the mind

Types of Behavior
Theory
Reinforcement
Association

Association Theory
 was developed by Ivan Patriotic
Pavlov, a Russian Psychologist
 stressed the strong bond between
stimulus and response

A. Classical Conditioning Theory
(Ivan Pavlov)
 Experiment
Stage I – before conditioning
BELL
(neutral stimulus)
No Response

Stage 2 – During Conditioning
BELL
(neutral stimulus)
MEAT
(unconditioned
stimulus)
SALIVATION
(unconditioned
response)

Stage 3 – After conditioning
BELL
(Conditioned
Stimulus)
SALIVATION
(Conditioned
Response)

Findings:
1. Stimulus Generalization- once the
dog has learned to salivate at the
sound of the bell, it will salivate at
other similar sounds.
2. Extinction – If you stop pairing the
bell with food, salivation will
eventually cease in response to the
bell

3. Spontaneous Recovery – Extinguished
responses can be recovered after an
elapsed time, but will soon extinguish
again if the dog is not presented with
food.
4. Discrimination – the dog could learn to
discriminate between similar bells
(stimuli) and discern which bell would
result in the presentation of food and
which would not

5. Higher-Order Conditioning – Once
the dog has been conditioned to
associate the bell with food, another
unconditioned stimulus, such as a
light may be flashed at the same
time that the bell is rung. Eventually
the dog will salivate at the flash of
the light without the sound of the
bell.

 Stresses the association between
stimulus and response
 Reinforcement comes before the act
or the response
 Response is elicited and involuntary
 Learning is through stimulus
substitution

The Principle of Contiguity
 Proposed by Edwin Ray Guthrie
 Illustrates that two or more sensations,
experiences or events that occur together
in repeated ways will become associated.
 Stressed that individuals learn to
remember things when they are similar,
in contrast and contiguous (Aristotle)

 Reinforcement/Connectionism
Theory
 Authored by Edward Lee Thorndike
 Stated that learning has taken place when
a strong connection or bond between
stimulus and response is formed.

Laws of Learning
1. Law of Effect
 Stated that a connection between the
stimulus and response is strengthened
when the consequence is positive
(reward) and the connection is
weakened when the consequence is
negative (punishment)

2. Law of Exercise
 States that the more the S-R bond is
practiced the stronger it will become.
 Is associated with the adage “ Practice
makes one perfect”
 Stresses the importance of feedback to
enhance performance

3. Law of Readiness
 States that the more ready the learner
has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them.
 Further espoused that when an
individual is ready to respond and is
allowed to response, the result is
satisfying.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s
Association
1. Learning requires both practice and
rewards
2. A series of S-R bond connections can be
chained together if they belong to the
same action sequence

3. Transfer of Learning occurs because
of previously encountered
situations
4. Intelligence is a function of the
number of connections learned.

Operant Conditioning Theory
 Is authored by Burrhus Frederick Skinner
 Zeroed in only on changes in observable
behavior, excluding any likelihood of any
processes taking place in mind
 Pertained on the study of operant
behavior (voluntary behaviors used in
operating on the environment)

 Stressed that the changes in behavior
are the result of an individual’s
response to events (stimuli) and this
response produces a consequence
RESPONSE
REINFORCED
PUNISHED

to increase the occurrence
of the response
REINFORCEMENT
POSITIVE
(ADDITION)
NEGATIVE
(REMOVAL)

Implications for programmed
instruction
1. Practice should take the form of
question (stimulus) –answer (response)
frames expose the students to the subject
in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a
response for every frame and receives
immediate feedback.

3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the
questions so the response is always
correct and hence, a positive
reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the
lesson is paired with secondary
reinforcers such as verbal praise,
prizes and good grades.

Principles derived:
1. will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement
is particularly effective. Behavior that is
positively reinforced
2. Information should be presented in
small amounts so that responses can be
reinforced (shaping)
3. Reinforcement will generalize across
similar stimuli (stimulus generalization)
producing secondary conditioning.

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
1.CS is linked with US to
produce UCR
1. R is linked with
reinforcement
2. Stimulus oriented 2. Response-oriented
3. Learning is through
stimulus substitution.
3. Learning through
response modification
4. Reinforcement comes
before the act
4. Reinforcement comes
after the act
5. Response is elicited. 5. Response is emitted.
6. Response is
involuntary.
6. Response is voluntary
7. Association –Law of
Contiguity
7. Association-Law of
Effect

Cognitive Theory
A. Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt means form, shape or pattern
 Considered the mental processes and
products of perception.
 Emphasized that the whole exhibits
properties that cannot be understood by
analyzing it into its component parts.

Proponents:
 Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and
Kurt Koffka
Point of View
 Perceivers or learners were not passive,
but rather active
 Learners do not just collect information
as is but they actively process and
restructure data in order to understand it
(perceptual process)

Laws of Perception:
1. Law of Continuity
 States that we link the individual elements
together so they form a continuous pattern
that makes sense
 Stresses that individuals have the tendency to
perceive smooth continuities rather than
abrupt changes.

Implication:
 Lessons should be presented in a
continuous manner and be presented
with repeated exercises, reinforcements
2. Law of Closure:
 Holds the idea that incomplete figures
tend to be perceived as complete.
 The mind tends to fill in the gaps or the
missing parts of the figures.

3. Law of Similarity
 States that similar things appear to be
grouped together.
 Emphasizes that objects are perceived as
related to one another.

4. Law of Proximity
 States that things that are near to each
other appear to be grouped together
 Is concerned with the tendency to
perceive objects that are close to each
other.

5. Law of Pragnanz
 A German word which means “good
figure”
 States that stimulus pattern is seen in
such a way that the resulting structure is
as simple as possible (one that possesses
the best, the simplest, and the most stable
form.
 Means that students remember the most
significant part of the lesson.

Cognitive Development
 Authored by Jean Piaget
 Describes the stages that children pass
through in the development of intelligence
and formal thought processes.
 Stresses that the changes in behavior that
occur during development are the results of
changes in one’s ability to reason about the
world
 Deals with perception, attention, thinking,
memory, problem solving and creativity

The cognitive development of individuals
from infancy onwards is influenced by
1. Increasingly more complex interactions
between the individual and environment
2. Greater language facility
3. Acquisition of knowledge through literate
behavior

Functional Invariants:
 All biological systems share specific
characteristics and functions that are
performed throughout the lifespan which
constraints or encourage all types of
development.
1. Organization – systems are highly
organized and provide a pattern of
coordinated activities in the performance
of a task

2. Adaptation –adjustment to the demands
of the environment which occurs in two
basic and complementary processes
a. Assimilation – the process of fitting new
information into existing schemes (mental
structures or organized patterns of actions or
thoughts that we use to interpret experiences

2. Accommodation – the process of
modifying our schemes in order to
interact with the world around us.

Social – Cognitive Theory
 A combination of the behavior and
cognitive perspectives
 Stresses the interaction of thinking
human with the social environment that
provides the learning experiences.
 Focuses on both internal and external
factors that led to the idea of reciprocal
determinism – the person, the person’s
behavior and the environment.

Social-Cognitive Theory
 Authored by Albert Bandura
 Emphasized the motivating and self-
regulating role of cognition in human
behavior.
 Expressed the importance of modeling
(the observation and learning of new
behavior from others.

Processes of Observational Learning
1. Attention – paying attention to
distinctive characteristics like,
competence, intelligibility, prestige,
charisma, or power.
2. Retention – creating cognitive symbols
to retain information, creating
associations of related actions through
which we remember verbal symbols

3. Motor Reproduction – involves actual
performance of an observed behavior
which requires the development of motor
skills in the production of responses
4. Reinforcement and Motivation

Processes Descriptions
1. attention •Use expressive gestures
and bodily movements
•Use a juxtaposed form
of modeling
•Divide the skills to be
learned into workable
segments
•Highlight those that are
important
•Repeat the modeled
behavior and provide
time for practice

2. Retention •Connect the modeled
behavior to the old or
familiar activity
•Use verbal
descriptions to label
the essential actions
•Instruct students to
utilize physical and
cognitive rehearsal

3. Production •Provide the
necessary feedback
while monitoring
the progress of
modeled behavior
•Employ corrective
or constructive
feedback

4. Reinforcement
and Motivation
•Tell the students
the importance of
adopting a modeled
behavior
•Use direct and
vicarious
reinforcement to
strengthen the
performance of the
modeled behavior

Social Constructivism
 Proposed by Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky, a
Russian Dew
 Focused on the explanation on how culture
affects the course of one’s development
 Maintained that cognitive development is
shaped by the socio-cultural contexts in
which it occurs. (culture provides us tools
of thought like language)
 Emphasized the importance of scaffolding
(Bruner)

Components of Constructivism
1. Discovery learning- accounts for one’s
active involvement in learning
2. Inquiry learning- associated with John
Dewey’s Scientific principle of learning
3. Cooperative learning – encourages total
cooperation and participation with
unity, interdependence and collegiality

4. Individualized learning- designed to
meet individual needs
5.Learning with technology –
computer-aided instruction

Situated learning Theory
 Authored by Jean Lave
 A general theory of knowledge acquisition that
focuses on problem solving skills.
 Conveyed the idea that learning is embedded
in or connected to the context in which
knowledge and skills are developed.

Principles:
1. Learning is made meaningful when it is
anchored on a realistic context.
2. Traditional forms of classroom learning
and instruction, which are largely
decontextualized in the sense that what
the students learn is good only for
taking tests and performing other
classroom tasks, leads to a condition that
has been referred to as inert knowledge.
This condition indicates that students
fail to use their learning in solving real-
life problems

Facilitating Learning in General Education.pptx

More Related Content

Similar to Facilitating Learning in General Education.pptx

Recently uploaded

Facilitating Learning in General Education.pptx