This document outlines a teaching methodology course that prepares students to become effective teachers. It covers key concepts like learning objectives, principles of learning, learning processes and theories, curriculum development, teaching methods, lesson planning, teaching aids, and student assessment. The course introduces important definitions and principles, examines factors that influence teaching and learning, and includes a microteaching presentation from each student. Key topics include traditional and modern teaching methods, characteristics of learning, principles of adult learning, and psychological theories of learning including behavioral, cognitive, constructivist, and humanistic approaches.

1. TEACHING METHODOLOGY
By JULIA NAFULA

2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 BROAD OBJECTIVE
 Prepare students to become effective teachers
 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
 Definations of terms
 Describe characteristics,principles,process and theories of
Learning
 Explain curriculum development in terms of its process
and component
 Discuss various traditional and modern teaching methods
 Select and apply appropriate teaching aids
 Evaluate learners using appropriate student performance
assessment method
 Microteaching presentation by all students

3. COURSE OUTLINE
 Introduction and course objectives
 Definition of terms
 Learning
 Teaching
 Education
 Educational theory
 Educational psychology
 Principles of learning
 Characteristics of learning
 Principles of adult learning
 Learning process
 Theories of learning

4. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
 Definition
 Elements
 Qualities
 Benefits
 Limitations
 Categories
CURRICULUM
 Definition
 Elements
 Factors influencing curriculum development
 Participants in curriculum development
 Approaches used
 Process of curriculum development

5. TEACHING
 Definition
 Principles of teaching
 Tasks of teacher
 Factors influencing choice of a teaching method
LESSON PLAN
 Definition
 Significance
 Structure and components of a lesson plan

6. TEACHING METHODS
Traditional and modern teaching methods
MICROTEACHING
CLINICAL TEACHING,TEACHING
ATTITUDES

7. CT
TEACHING AIDS
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING AND TEACHING
 Definition of terms
 Purpose of evaluation
 Types of Evaluation
 Characteristics of good evaluation tool
 Types of test
 Assessment of attitudes and skills
Microteaching presentation by each student

8. DEFINATION OF TERMS
 Learning- a process of acquiring new habits of knowledge and
skills which enable students to do something that they could
not do before OR
A process by which behavior or potentiality of a behavior is
modified /changed as a result of experience
 Teaching- interaction between a teacher and student under
teachers responsibility in order to bring out expected changes
in student behavior.
 Education- a process of changing student behavior into desired
direction ,it involves both learning and teaching.
 Educational theory- the field of academic study dealing with
educational principles and practice.
 Educational psychology-a study of educational process or
educational growth and development of learners.

9. ct
Learning occurs in two ways;
 Association- associating with spoken words,
objects or persons.
 Cognitive behaviour- stimulus response
association where the learner forms cognitive
structure in their memory which is perceived
and organized information

10. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
1. Relevance -Students learn what is relevant and
useful.
2. Systematic- Students learn when the material is
presented in a logical, sequential order.
3. Activity -Students learn when they are actively
involved.
4. Feedback and evaluation- Students learn
when they receive feedback on their
performance.

11. Ct …principles of learning
5. Clarity of objectives- to be effective learning what
people are trying to learn needs to be clearly spelt out.
6. Motivation-involves willingness to learn
7. Practice and repetition-Learning evolves from
competence through repetition.
8. Individualization- rate of learning varies with
individual student

12.  CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
1. Produces a behavior change in the learner.
2. Leads to change that is gradual, adaptable
and selective.
3. Results from repetitive practice and
experience.
4. Is not directly observable, it is abstract.

13. PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING
Active participation
Cumulative learning allows adult teaching to progress
from known to unknown
Opportunity to practice new skills
Individual pace
Learning for understanding and application of
knowledge
Progression in learning
Open minded, reflective and critical learning

14. Conditions of learning
1. Feedback and Evaluation
Learning is a consequence of experience from
repetitive acts. Learners need to be able to check
what they are learning, try it out for themselves
and correct mistakes. This is related to
motivation and it produces a sense of satisfaction
from the lesson when the learner realizes that
they can also perform or they have understood.

15. Ct….conditions for learning
2. Practice and Repetition
Learning evolves from competence through
repetition. This applies both to skills and
knowledge. Learning is something that
people do or participate in doing i.e.
‘practice makes perfect’.

16. 3. Systematic Approach
Learning is easier if it is organized
systematically. It should start from the known
to the unknown. The teacher should relate the
new information to the old information that
the learner already knows if possible.

17. Conditions for conducive learning environment
according to Carl Rogers of Humanistic theory
 Encourage active participation
 Emphasis the personal nature of learning
 Accepts that difference is desirable
 Recognize rights to make mistakes
 Tolerate imperfection
 Encourage Openness of mind and trust
 Make individual feel Respected and accepted
 Facilitate discovery
 Emphasis on self-evaluation and cooperation
 Permits confrontation

18. LEARNING PROCESSS
It reflects the stages and sequences of learning;
 Attention- stage of preparation, students have to be attentive in
order to understand and follow the content
 Perception-involves connection to the senses information is
registered to the mind so that the meaning is established.
involves complex interrelation of information from previous
learning and environment. It also depends on motivational
factors to learn.
 Acquisition- students acquire new capability of operating
something. Involves identifying how ways and means are
mastered in responding to a situation. It depends on what is
already known.

19. Ct….learning process
Retention- a student is able to remember what they have
learnt in class i.e. storage of information which is retrieved
when required. The two (2) types of retention are;
(i) Short term retention-for immediate use
(ii) Long term retention- beyond immediate functional use.
Transfer- This is the most psychologically complex level of
learning. student is required to put into appropriate use
facts,concepts,skills that they are able to recall i.e.
application of knowledge and skills in familiar or new
situations. The two (2) types include;
(i) Negative transfer- student unable to transfer learning
(ii) Positive transfer- student able to transfer/apply

20. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF LEARNING
Learning theories to explain how learning takes place.
Types of learning theory
1. BEHAVIORAL THEORY
Learning results in acquisition of new behaviour through
conditioning and response
Behaviour is learnt through environment, people, individual life,
media or society as a whole.
Behavioural theorist include;
a. BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER- He dealt with operant
conditioning. learning will occur and behavior will be shaped in
the direction the teacher wants, if the behavior is rewarded. In
order to maintain the strength of that behavior, reinforcement by
continued rewards is necessary. To be effective, the reinforcement
must be immediate.

21. CT ….behavioural theorist
b. EDWARD THORNDIKE- Learning is more meaningful
when objective or outcome is clearly stated. This helps the
learner to anticipate what will be learned.
c. ROBERT M. GAGNE - Categorized learning into different
domains so that the different conditions for learning (Types of
instructions) and assessment could be planned accordingly to
bring about these different types of learning. The domains
identified are;
 Motor skills-Ability to carry out skills,
Verbal information – ability to mention or name
 Intellectual skills – Ability to respond to stimuli
Cognitive strategies- Ability to think, learn and remember
Attitudes - Ability to perceive or approach ideas

22. Ct….behavioral theorist
d. IVAN PAVLOV- Dealt with classical
conditioned reflex which involves stimulus
and response. This include both
unconditioned and conditioned stimulus.
e. JOHN B. WATSON-recommended
active participation or learning by practice.
This enhances confidence and discovery of
ideas including competency.

23. Ct… behavioral theory
f. Sensory stimulation theory
Suggest that effective learning occurs when the
senses are stimulated. Adults learn 75 % through
seeing, 13% through hearing and 12% through
touch, smell and taste.

24. 2. COGNITIVE THEORY
Originated from a group of scholars who studied the ways
in which knowledge is acquired, stored and retrieved.
They believe knowing is a mental process that result in
one being aware of a situation or project.
Cognitive theorist include;
a. BENJAMIN .S. BLOOM
Proposed three domains of learning. these were
1. Affective domain(Attitudes)
2. Cognitive domain(knowledge)
3. Psychomotor(skills)
Within each domain there is hierarchy of learning
objectives, starting from basic type of learning to the more
complex one.

25. Ct……Cognitive theorist
b. JEROME BRUNNER
Recommended discovery learning. Teacher provides
problems for the learners to work out answers on their
own. In this setting a teacher is a manager of resources
rather than instructor.
c. DAVID P. ASUBEL
Suggested that learning should start from known to
unknown and simple to complex. A teacher start by
introducing material at a fairly general level and making
explicit the relevance of the material to the task to be
learned.

26. 3. Constructive learning theory
 Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky believed that social learning comes
before cognitive development, and that children
construct knowledge actively.
Therefore, learners construct their own reality
and interpret based on their perceived
experience during their social interaction.
Therefore, knowledge is constructed when
individuals engage socially in talk and activities
which also promotes free exploration by the
learner within the given framework.

27. 4. HUMAN AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGIST
a. Carl Rogers
Rogers provided a learner-centred view of learning which is also
referred to as conditions in adult learning. His main propositions
were that:
 All humans have a natural potential and desire to learn.
 Learning occurs when the student perceives relevance related
to their own purposes.
 Significant learning is acquired through doing.
 Learning is more effective when the learner is responsible for
choosing their direction, discovering resources and formulating
problems.
 Most learning is self initiated and involves the whole person,
including their feelings as well as intellect.

28. CT …..Carl Rogers
 Self evaluation is a basic skill that is necessary for effective
mature learning.
 Learners should retain a continuing openness to change.
 Learning occurs when external threats are eliminated.
Rogers’ approach significantly contributed to adult learning
principles
b. Abraham Maslow
 According to Maslow, education should help students to look
within themselves, and from this self knowledge, develop a set
of values which will guide them in their working life.
 Maslow emphasises the importance of learning for self
enhancement rather than simply for utility. This include;
choice, creativity, values, self-realization, all distinctively
human qualities, and believed that meaningfulness and
subjectivity were more important than objectivity.

29. Ct…..Abraham Maslow’s theory
• This view is relevant to adult learners who decide to
continue with their education out of interest, rather
than in order to gain extra degrees or qualifications.
HUMANISTIC PRINCIPLES
Respect for life and human dignity;
Equal rights and social justice;
 Respect for cultural diversity, as well as
 A sense of shared responsibility and a commitment to
solidarity.
N/B; These principles are all fundamental aspects of our
common humanity.

30. 5. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
 ALBERT BANDURA
Stated that learning is a social process and
therefore learning takes place through social
interaction with their environment through;
Observational learning
Self efficacy
Continuous interaction

31. Other theories of learning
i. Holistic learning theory
ii. Facilitation theory (Humanistic approach)
iii. Experimental learning
iv. Action learning
v. Adult learning

32. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
An objective is a statement describing an
instructional outcome.
 Clearly written objective should enable any
competent teacher to help student gain
knowledge and skill.
 The best statement is one that is specific in
meaning and not open to ambiguous
interpretation.

33. ELEMENTS OF AN OBJECTIVE
1. ACT OR PERFOMANCE OR BEHAVOUR
It is a description of the task to be done expressed by active
verb ie The behaviour expected of the learner after
instructions. Performance indicator is the act whose
satisfactory performance implies that the student is able to
accomplish the task required.
2. CONDITIONS
Describes important conditions under which performance
occur. The conditions will determine whether or not he/she
has achieved the objectives through performed activities. It
includes data limitation and restriction.

34. Ct…..Elements of objective
3. CRITERION (DEGREE or STANDARD)
 It is description of acceptable level of performance
expected from a student or the acceptable level of
performance that indicate that a learner has achieved
the objectives It describes how well the learner must
perform to be considered successful.
4. AUDIENCE
This is objective written for the learner i.e. the learner
objective is being written for.

35. Example of instructional objective under
cognitive domain
By the end of the lesson the learner ( Audience)
should be able to identify (Behavour) correctly
(condition) four types of colors (Degree) from the
given box.

36. CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECTIVES
i. Specific- no argument or vague or
ambiguous or dispute about the meaning
ii. Measurable- quantified in an objective
way
iii.Attainable/feasible- can be achieved
iv. Realistic/feasible – Can be performed
v. Time bound –Accomplished in specific
time

37. Benefits ( Advantages) of objectives
Inform students what is required of them
 Students /Audience can better prepare for the work.
Help the planning team to think in specific term and
put in sequence the subject matter
They indicate type and extent of activities that are
required for successfully carrying out learning
Provide basis of evaluating both students learning and
effectiveness of instructional outcome
Provide best means of communicating to colleagues,
parents and others on what is to be taught

38. LIMITATIONS ( DISADVANTAGES) OF AN
OBJECTIVE
 Most relate to the lowest level of cognitive
domain which is list important
 Only applies to cognitive and psychomotor
domain but not in affective
 They are limited in humanities and social
science which do not require sequential
cognitive organization
 Narrow path of objective may hinder
unanticipated needs and outcomes

39. CATEGORIES OF OBJECTIVES
They are grouped into three domains;
 Cognitive
 Affective
 Psychomotor

40. COGNITIVE DOMAIN
It includes objectives concerning knowledge.B.S. Bloom
developed a taxonomy of simple to higher level as follows
 Knowledge
Ability to memorise ,recall or otherwise repeat information
presented earlier e.g. arrange, Name, list etc.
 Comprehension
Ability to interpret or restate information acquired in level one
e.g. classify, describe, explain etc.
 Application
Ability to use or apply information, theories, principals, laws to a
new situation e.g. interprate,solve, apply, locate etc

41. Ct….cognitive domain
Analysis
Ability to divide complex knowledge into separate parts
and recognize the relationship e.g. calculate, categorise,
criticize etc.
Synthesis
Ability to bring together separate elements of
knowledge to form new patterns e.g. assemble,
formulate, create, design etc.
Evaluation
Ability to make judgement or appraisal based on
knowledge or given criteria i.e. argue, assess, choose
etc.

42. AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Objectives concerned with attitudes, values and emotions. It is
classified into five levels
 Receiving
Willing to give attention to an event or activity i.e listen, accept,
admit
 Responding
Willing to react to an event through some form of participationi.e
agree, conform, participate
 valuing
Willing to accept an event through expression of a positive attitude
 Organizing
Considers values and selects appropriate alternatives on their
merits

43. ct
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
It may classified into skills requiring use and
coordination of skeletal muscles. the recognised
taxonomy include
 Gross bodily movement of arms, shoulders and legs
 Finely coordinated movements- hands and fingers,
eyes and hands, feet and fingers
 Non- verbal communication- facial expression,
gestures
 Speech behaviour- producing and coordinating sound
as in a foreign language

44. Ct.....Attitude domain
Characterising by value of complex
Act in accordance with the values
incoperate the behaviour in the
personality.

45. CURRICULUM
A written description of what happens in the course. It
entails all the activities and the events, which take place
from the first event to the very last.
Other definitions include;
 The document in which all the activities, transactions
and the events of a training programme are described.
 Planned educational programme for students.
 Total structure of ideas and activities developed by an
educational institution to meet learning needs of
students and to achieve desired educational aims.

46. Purposes of a curriculum
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47. Components /elements of the Curriculum
1. A Statement of rationale/ Justification
This gives general philosophy of the training
programme and why it is required.
2. Resources
An outline of the physical, administrative and financial
requirements for the course. It is also a description of
the minimal facilities in terms of buildings, equipment
and personnel.
3. Entry Requirements
Description of the entry requirements for the students
and methods of selection.
4. Educational Goals and Objectives
Describes the goals and educational objectives of the
course

48. Ct….Components of Curriculum
5. Content
This is what will be covered in a course according to the
stated objectives.
6. Learning Experiences
Are intended to be descriptions of the teaching and
learning methods to be employed during the educational
programme.
7. Programme
Outlines a logical sequence of events.
8. Duration
Specification of how long each unit or learning block
should last.

49. Ct……components of curriculum
9.Course Descriptions
Highlights the title, unit, course objectives,
course content and code for each course
taught in the programme.
10. Assessment- outlines method of
continuous evaluation, final certification,
remedial activities and referral of failed
candidates

50.  Four (4) major Components /Elements
of curriculum
1. Aims, goals and objectives
Aim-The most general level without time bound ie
what person want/hope to achieve.
Goal- Description of a destination to be achieved and
they are long term outcome
Objective-The activities undertaken to achieve the aim
within a specific time period or short clear statement
about specific outcomes expected
2. Subject matter/Content
3. Learning Experience ( Method)
4. Evaluation approaches

51. Syllabus
This is document that describes the course
to be taught in given curriculum including
content to be coved in a particular level of
education.

52. Difference between curriculum and
syllabus
- Curriculum refers to overall content
to be taught while syllabus is the
summary of topics (description)
covered or units to be taught in the
particular subject.
- Curriculum is for the course while
syllabus is for specific subject.

53. Purpose of Syllabus
1. Guide the teacher to have a broad view
of the subject and chance to decide
what content to cover first.
2. Enables the teacher to strategies
teaching for the expected period of
teaching
3. Helps to keep educational standards
uniform in the country

54. Factors Influencing the Development of a
Curriculum
There are several factors that influence curriculum
development;
 Academic Factors
They represent views of teachers who teach the main
subjects of a given discipline. They often borrow from
their past experiences and merge them with the current
trends of the discipline. The new content is designed to
make a student an effective practitioner in the
provision of quality health care.

55. ct
 Social Factors -The needs of the society dictate to a greater
extent what student health workers should learn. It is designed
to reflect social and cultural needs of the local population.
 Economic Factors
The cost of implementation of a curriculum can determine the
type of health worker trained by a given country. In developing
countries, health workers may be trained to perform tasks
which industrialized countries would only be done by highly
specialized personnel.
 Political Factors
Politicians or political investors can influence the numbers to
be trained and even the level of training.

56. Other factors that influence curriculum development
include
 Philosophy of the profession
 Student
 Life activities

57. Models of Curriculum Development
1. Product Model ( Behavioral Objective Model)
The theorist- Ralph Tyler identified four (4) fundamental
questions to be answered in developing curriculum. This
are;
(i) Objectives i.e. educational purpose to be achieved
(ii) Content to be covered i.e. learning experiences to attain
the objectives
(iii) Teaching methodology i.e. Organization for effective
instruction
(iv) Evaluation ie effectiveness of learning experiences

58. 2. Process Model ( by Lawrence Stenhouse)
The model emphasis to organize the curriculum without
having to specify the outcome. He further argued that
the purpose of education is to make learner outcome
unpredictable.
Knowledge does not consist of known facts to be
remembered but provides a basis for speculation and
objectives about the discipline hence what the teacher
will do rather than what the learner will be able to do

59. ct
PARTICIPANTS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
These are the people who, in one way or another, exert
influence directly or indirectly in determining nature of
activities of the curriculum. They include
 Internal Participants
Include individuals from professional associations,
ministries of health and education, boards of
examinations, administrators of the training institutions,
teachers and students. they are directly involved in the
curriculum and so have a greater impact on its
development. They develop the curriculum, teach it and
evaluate the curriculum and the students

60. ct
 External Participants
Although are not directly involved in curriculum
development, they are either beneficiaries of the
product, service or provide resources to facilitate its
implementation or may liase within the institution in
various ways. This group comprises the community,
business, industry and non governmental
organizations.

61. Major Approaches to Curriculum Development
There are several approaches to curriculum
development. This include;
1. Subject -centered Approach
2. Integrated approach
3. Competency-based Approach
4. Learner centered Approach
5. Problem centered Approach
6. Behavioral Approach
7. Managerial Approach
8. System Approach
9. Humanistic approach

62. Subject -centered Approach
This is carried out by subject specialists, who determine the
subdivision of content and the methods and timing of
instruction.
 Each subject is a separate entity and its nature of score is
clearly defined
Limitations
 Puts subject before a student
 Needs of a student are virtually ignored
 Too much time is taken in acquiring knowledge and not
enough in learning necessary skills
 It is rigid and static
 Book centred

63. Integrated approach
 This approach attempts to integrate or combine
in a meaningful way, disciplined knowledge to
impact wholesome learning for student
application.
 Teaching units are fused together with larger
structures .emphasis is to provide learners with
less discrete chunk of information.
 Helps learners to develop higher intellectual
skills which are easily transferable to problem
solving situation at work.

64. Ct…..approach to curriculum development
Competency-based Approach
It aims at identifying professional competencies required
and the teaching required to achieve these competencies.
Features
 Organized around function of the health worker in a
specified setting
 Assumed that majority of individuals can master required
level of proficiency given appropriate instruction and
sufficient time
 Setting in which health worker will be expected to operate
is extremely important in determining level of competency
Limitations
 Dynamic nature of jobs may require continuining

65. Principles of curriculum development (Construction)

66. TEN STEP COMPETENCY BASED PROCESS OF
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
1.Community survey
 Entails identification of community needs,
problems desires and demands through
community survey

67. ct
List of tasks to be mastered is long and
demands the duration to be prolonged
Focuses on tasks to be performed and
becomes a major problem when health
worker is exposed to situations which
require initiative and independent
thinking.

68. ct
2.Job description
 Refers to Identification of professional roles and functions. it
includes title of the job, tasks of a health worker and situation
under which the job is done.
 It is necessary because the tasks become the objective of the
course .
3. Task analysis
 It is a method of looking exactly what action a health worker
must carry out in order to complete/perform the work.
 Involves breaking down tasks into subtasks
 determine what knowledge, attitude and skills graduates will
need to acquire to enable them perform those tasks

69. ct
Steps in task analysis
 Identify the job i.e. Nurse
 List tasks e.g. drug administration
 Select task for analysis
 List action involved in doing the task i.e. check the
dosage, dilute the drug
 Identify knowledge, attitudes and skills required i.e.
calculating dosage of a drug
4.Development of educational goals and objectives
on the basis of professional functions and task
analysis. it entails stating the expected behavior of the
learner after going through a curriculum

70. ct
5.Identification and selection of subject matter or
content to be learnt.
Includes theory and practicals which students should
be exposed to .
6.Identification of teaching and learning methods.
It refers to the technique that will be applied to deliver
the content
7.Identification or selection of learning resources.
These are materials that will facilitate learning

71. ct
8.Identification of assessment tools to determine
learner performance.
i.e. CATS, end of block examinations
9.Curriculum implementation.
 Learners are invited to go through the learning experience
and content of the curriculum is delivered through
utilization of available resources
10.Curriculum review and change. it is evaluated and
compared with need of the society and where necessary
changes effected

72. TEACHING
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
There are several principles of teaching which include:
(i) Active Learning
As a teacher, you should encourage learners to actively
participate during teaching and learning sessions.
You can do this in many ways: Give students activities
to perform, Ask questions, Set problems or projects,
Give feedback.

73. ct
(ii) Clarity
Make your teaching as clear as possible. You can
do this by speaking audibly, writing neatly and
selecting your visual aids carefully and
appropriately to convey a meaning to the learner
(iii) Ensure Mastery
Done by continuously assessing the learners as
well as assessing them at the end of courses.
(iv) Individualize
Vary teaching methods. This allows you to take
into account the individual differences of the
learners.

74. (v) Motivation
Making sure that your teaching is
interesting, relevant and rewarding to the
learners.

75. Difference between principles of learning and
teaching
learning teaching
Relevance Students learn what is relevant
and useful.
systematic Students learn when the
material is presented in a
logical, sequential order.
Activity Students learn when they are
actively involved.
encourage learners to actively
participate during teaching and
learning sessions.
Clarity of objectives to be effective learning needs
an aim. what people are trying
to learn needs to be clearly
spelt out.
Make teaching as clear as
possible by speaking audibly,
writing neatly and selecting
visual aids carefully and
appropriately to convey a
meaning to the learner
Feedback and evaluation Students learn when they
receive feedback on their
performance

76. Cont……differences
learner teaching
motivation Involves willingness to
learn
making sure that your
teaching is interesting,
relevant and rewarding to
the learners
Practice and repetition Learning evolves from
competence through
repetition.
Mastery is Done by
continuously assessing the
learners as well as
assessing them at the end of
courses.
Individualize rate of learning varies
with individual student
Vary teaching methods.
This allows you to take into
account the individual
differences of the learners.

77. Three(3) main types of teaching
skills
Three main types of teaching skills include;
 Cognitive skills; refer to knowledge application.
 Thinking skills; refer to the ability to make decisions,
choose appropriate alternatives and exercise caution.
 Psychomotor skills; relate to the use of the hands, the
ability to do things or perform procedures.

78. General Teaching Skills
 Interpersonal skills
 Cognitive skills
 Motivational skills
 Oragnisational skills
 Patience skills
 Stimulus variations skills
 Communication and collaboration skills
 Creativity skills
 Psychomotor skills
 Thinking skills
 Reinforcement skills
 Problem solving skills
 Evaluation skills
 Confidence
 Team player
 Ability to give feedback

79. Organizational Skills
 Class room discipline
 Maintain self dignity
 Be consistent
 Be firm
 Use reinforcement both positive and negative
 Be self critical
 Recognize attention and lack of attention
 Display confidence while coping with multiple
issues

80. Task of a teacher
Planning for Teaching
This entails
 preparing learning objectives.
 Put the content, arranged in a suitable sequence.
 Select Appropriate learning activities and teaching.
 The amount of time to be allocated to different learning
activities, assessment procedures and teaching methods to be
used.
 Identification of resources needed for teaching. Learners
should be informed about the teaching plan.
 Evaluation, on both teaching and learning.

81. Six (6) key elements of planning
 Decision Making
 In decision making, the teacher must make key choices
regarding:
 What the learner should learn. This can be done by preparing
learning objectives.
 The content, which should be arranged in sequence or
progression. Appropriate learning activities and teaching
methods should be selected.
 The amount of time to be allocated to different learning
activities, assessment procedures and methods to be used.
 Identification of resources needed for teaching. Learners
should be informed about the teaching plan.
 Evaluation, which should be carried out both for teaching and
learning.

82. Communication
The teacher can use various methods to ensure effective
communication. The teacher can:
 Explaining to and advise the learner
 Help the learners exchange ideas
 Provoke the learners to think
 Use varied teaching techniques
 Detect whether the learners understand and take
appropriate measures

83. Providing Resources
Adequate resources must be provided to
ensure effective teaching and learning.
To ensure that resources are available, a
teacher can:
Request all required resources in advance.
Prepare, select or adapt educational
materials (hand outs, exercise books) for
the session.

84. ct
Arrange learning experiences,
example, field visits.
Arrange for learners’ attachments and
projects.
Involve other health service personnel
in teaching the learner.
Arrange access to materials, such as
libraries, audiovisual programmes..

85. Counseling
The teacher should provide support to the
learner by
 Show the learner that they care
 Listen and attempt to understand their student
 Help the learner to identify their options so as
to make decisions
 Provide advice and information that helps the
learner

86. Assessment
Refers to process of finding out what extend learners have
achieved set objectives. The teacher can plan for
assessments in many ways. The teacher can:
 Design assessments that measure how much the learner
will have learnt.
 Use the assessment to guide the learner’s learning.
 Use the assessment to give feedback to the learner.
 Use the assessment to decide whether the learner is
competent to provide health care i.e. to transfer the
knowledge and skills.
 Encourage the learners to self assess and assess others.

87. Continuing Self Education
Is vital for all professionals because of the rapid
increase in knowledge as well as the rapid
changes in technology. The teacher
 Should know the subject matter that is to be
taught and where to find relevant information.
 You should also know the health care delivery
systems and any other relevant resources that
are locally available.
 Set example as continuous learner

88. Learning Styles
The learning styles are;
(i) Visual style - An individual maters the
content by easily and rapidly reading through it
(ii) Listening style - Individual has the ability to
learn something through listening and carefully
remembering what has been said.
(iii) Physical style -The individual learns
actively through physical contact with what is
being learnt.

89. Example of a scheme of work

90. LESSON PLAN

91. Ct….Lesson plan
Definition of a lesson plan
Lesson plan is a written description of
what will happen in a teaching -
learning situation. The plan indicates
all activities and their sequence during
the lesson.

92.  Significance (importance/advantages)
of lesson planning
 Guides a teacher in systematically presenting subject
matter in a logical, interelated and integrated way
 Provides definite objective for each day
 Helps in achievement of definite goals and objectives
 Prevents the teacher to deviate from the topic
 Helps the teacher to overcome the feeling of nervousness
,insecurity and gives him confidence to face the class
 Enables the teacher to evaluate his work as the lesson
proceeds
 Enables the teacher to link new knowledge with previous
 Enables best use of planned time

93.  Factors to consider when preparing a
lesson plan
Be conversant with the subject area
Familiarity with the syllabus
Knowledge of the learner
 learning theories (pedagogical)approach and method
Factoring use of teaching aids
How to assess the achievement ( assignment and homework)

94. Components of a lesson plan
A lesson plan comprises of the following elements;
1. Administrative details
2. Topic or Sub topic
3. Lesson objective i.e. Broad/main objective
4. Teaching aids to be used in the lesson presentation
5. Teaching and learning objectives
6. Lesson flow which outlines the flow
7. Evaluation both for the learner and self
8. References consulted during lesson preparation

95. Lesson plan;
Subject; Communicable diseases
Topic-
Date;,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Entry level…….
Time; 2pm -4pm.
Venue-Class room 2
Broad objective;…….
Time, Specific objectives, Content; Teachers activity; learner’s
activity, teaching aid and Evaluation; - --- using schemer approach
Conclusion………..
Evaluation………….
Summary…………..
Assignment………
Reference…….

96. Lesson plan process
Introduction
Introduce self and set conducive learning
environment including introducing the
topic
Lesson development
Introduce the content
Conclusion
Evaluate and summarize the topic

97. Approaches to focused teaching
There are two (2) types of Focused
teaching approach according to Malcolm
Knowles theory;
(i) Pedagogy is a child-focused teaching
approach i.e. the art and science of helping
kids learn.
(ii) Andragogy an adult-focused teaching
approach i.e. is the art and science of
helping adults learn.

98. The six assumptions underlying andragogy, as
theorized by Knowles, are;
1) Self-concept
2) Experience
3) Readiness to learn depends on need
4) problem centered focus,
5) internal motivation,
6) adults need to know why they need to know
something

99. Principles of adult learning
according to Malcolm Knowles
Knowles identified the six principles of adult
learning
 Adults bring life experiences and knowledge to
learning experiences
 Adults are goal oriented
 Adults are internally motivated and self-directed
 Adults are relevancy oriented
 Adults are practical
 Adult learners like to be respected

100. Pedagogy Andragogy
Learner Dependent upon the teacher
for all learning
Self directed and self
evaluation
Role of the learners experience The learner comes to the
activity with little experience
The learner brings a greater
volume and quality of
experience and experience
becomes a source of self-
identity
Readiness to learn They are told to learn in order
to advance to the next level of
mastery
Any change is likely to trigger
a readiness to learn
Orientation to learning Learning is a process of
acquiring prescribed subject
matter
Learners want to perform a
task, solve a problem and live
in a more satisfying way
Motivation Motivated by external factors
eg competition in grades
Motivated by internal factors
eg self esteem
Differences between Pedagogy and Andragogy

101. Teaching Methods/Teaching methodology

102. Factors that determine the choice of
methodology to be used
The natural teaching style of the teacher
eg authoritive, facilitative
The approach to learning e.g. if the
teacher is prepared or not
Constrains/ practicability e.g. time,
resources, level of learners and number
Objective of the lesson and content
Resources required to deliver the lesson

103. TRADITIONAL/CONVENTIONAL TEACHING
METHODS
1. Lecture Method
A lecture is a lesson given orally by a teacher.
Advantages
 It is economical in the use of time
 Appropriate for large groups
 Use of a single lecture theatre
 Allows for the use of experts in delivery of content .
 Provides wide field of knowledge in a limited time
 Gives a feeling of security to the teacher
 Best method when books are in a short supply
 New knowledge can be presented which is not in books
 Good means of introducing a subject
 Useful in giving framework upon which students can build

104. Characteristics of good Lecture
method
 Clear and logical sequence
 Audible to the audience
 cover the subject matter adequately
 Generate understanding.
 Lecturer-learner interaction
 Shared responsibility for active learning
 Limited note taking is required

105. Characteristic of good lecturer
The main characteristics of a good lecturer are that they:
 Present the material in a clear and logical sequence
 Make the material accessible, intelligible and meaningful
 Cover the subject matter adequately
 Are constructive and helpful in their criticism
 Demonstrate an expert (and authoritarian) knowledge in their
subject
 Pace the lecture appropriately
 Include material not readily accessible in textbooks
 Are concise
 illustrate the practical applications of the theory presented
 Show enthusiasm for the subject
 Generate curiosity about the lecture material early in the lecture

106. Disadvantages of lecture method
Disadvantages include;
 One way learning process in which students are just listeners
 Poor student involvement
 No respect for individual pace
 Does not help students learn how to solve problems
 Does not provide immediate feedback to the learner
 Cannot provide necessary repetition
 Does not teach skills to be acquired by students
 Information comes from single source
 Does not provide for teamwork and interpersonal relationship
 Provides little time for questions
 Does not encourage creative activity on part of students

107. Ways to improve lecture method
 Integrate questions in the lecture
 Use suitable examples
 Make appropriate references as examples
 Maintain eye contact
 Use appropriate language for the level of the learner
 Vary voice tone

108. 2. Practical
Lesson is where students perform tasks and learn in their future working
areas.
Advantages
 It provides a better understanding of the lecture content
 It leads to creativity on the part of the student
 It is effective for stimulating independent thought and changing
attitudes
 It is a good way of achieving a desired level of competence for the
student
 It provides immediate feedback on the performance of the teacher
 It provides for the individual student to be helped by the teacher
 It provides an opportunity for development
 Strengthens Interpersonal relationships between teachers and students

109. Disadvantages
It is not an economical way of using
manpower and resources.
It takes time to carry out practical work.
It needs administrative staff for
preparation and maintenance of materials.
It requires special accommodation
arrangements for students, that is, closer
to the area where the practical will take
place.

110. 3. Demonstration
A specific learning task is performed by the teacher while
students observe and learn.
This method is mainly used to show learners how to
perform.
characteristics
1. Demonstrator should understand the entire procedure
2. All equipments should be assembled and pretested before
demonstration
3. Knowledge about the procedure should be given to
students before starting the procedure
4. Everybody should have a good view of the demonstration
5. Discussion period should always follow the demonstration
6. There should be return demonstration

111. Advantages
 It provides an economical way of using manpower and
materials.
 It provides audio-visual observation of the subject.
 Students understand the subject matter better after seeing
a demonstration.
 It may be a good means of teaching where resources are readily
available.
 It provides a way of pacing a student’s way of learning.
 It can provide a wide range of knowledge in a limited time.
 Correlates theory and practice
 Provides opportunity of learning how to do something

112. Disadvantages of Demonstration
It is a one-way learning process from instructor to students.
 Students are just passive observers as it may not provide for
activity on the part of the students.
 It may not provide the necessary repetition depending on the
individual’s pace of learning.
 It has little regard for students’ individual differences.
 There is no immediate feedback to the instructor on what has
been learnt.
 It is relatively ineffective for achieving competence unless
students are given opportunities to practice.
 Size of the audience must be kept small to ensure opportunity
for practice and close supervision
 Time consuming

113. 4. Tutorial
Is a discussion session between a teacher and a small number of
students.
The number of students in a tutorial should not be more than
eight. However, the best teacher to student ratio is 1:1.
The teacher should talk as little as possible and encourage the
students to think and learn independently.
Advantages
 Communication of knowledge is two-way between teacher and
students.
 It provides personal contact between students and teachers and
provides activity for the student.

114. Advantages of tutorial
 Teachers can give full attention to individual
differences between students.
 It provides an opportunity for detailed discussion of
students’ work.
 It provides immediate feedback for both teacher and
student.
 Less able students can be helped by the teacher
 Provides more understanding of lecturesIt
 encourages the creativity of the learner, including the
application of the knowledge and problem solving.

115. Disadvantages
 It is not an economical way of using manpower
 It moves too slowly and covers only limited subject
matter
 Students need to do some work on the subject
beforehand
 It cannot provide the repetion necessary depending on
the individual
 The instructor or an active student may dominate it
 It is liable to interruptions

116. 5. Seminar
Is a session headed by a teacher, a trained senior student or an
enthusiastic student from the class, where an assigned subject
is discussed. The subject has to be prepared beforehand and
presented by the student. The other students will then discuss,
criticize and comment on the material presented. The teacher
should be available to be consulted by the group.
Advantages
 It promotes interpersonal relationships between students.
 Students can learn a lot from each other.
 It allows for teamwork and personal flexibility.
 Teachers can encourage full participation by all students.

117.  It provides creativity and independent thought on the part
of students.
 It provides immediate feedback of knowledge gained.
 It facilitates exchange of ideas.
 It trains students to work independently in preparing
papers for presentation.
 It provides greater control of communication between
students and teachers.
Disadvantages
 It is not an economical way of using manpower unless
senior students act as supervisors and teachers are only
called in as consultants.

118. ct
 It is too slow to cover more than a limited amount of
subject matter.
 It may suffer from interruptions.
 It cannot provide the repetition necessary for
individual needs.
6. Field Visit
Learners are taken to the actual area where activities are
taking place, for example, a factory, school, water
treatment plant so that they are able to see and relate to
what they have learnt on the specific topic.

119. Advantages
 It provides the actual experience. Some things cannot be
learnt in school.
 Students can observe and participate in the use of theory.
 Provides for creative and independent thought on the part
of the student.
 Provides an opportunity for developing interpersonal
relationships between students, teachers and field staff.
 It can help promote competence.
 Provides time for questions and discussion.
 Information comes from multiple sources.

120. Disadvantages
 It is not an economical way of using manpower
and resources.
 It creates administrative problems in arranging
programmes.
 It may confuse students because there is
usually a wide gap between theory and
practice.
 If it is not well supervised, learning potential
may be lost and it may turn into a social event.

121. 7. Project
A project is an assignment given to an individual learner, a pair of
learners or a group of learners in which they carry out a piece of
independent work on a particular topic.
 The learners have to organize the assignment and prepare a written
report to submit to the teacher. may be simple, ,or complex.
Advantages
 It provides activities and calls for creativity on the part of the
student.
 It encourages initiative in the student.
 It encourages learners to be independent.
 Learners can work at their own pace.
 It may provide opportunities for interpersonal relationships between
learners and people from other departments.
 The results of a project provide feedback of students’ progress to the
teacher.
 Information comes from multiple sources

122. Disadvantages
 It takes time to carry out a project.
 Learners may find that the project adds too much to
their workload.
 It creates administrative problems in
arranging programmes.
 Unless sufficient time is allowed, the learners may
produce a superficial report.

123. 8. Individual Learning
Advantages
 Students can work at their own individual pace.
 Students can learn at the time and place of their choice.
 Students can request teaching whenever necessary.
 Students can omit parts they already know.
 Teachers can prepare a standardized body of information.
 The method can provide for creativity and independent
thought on the part of the student.
 It can help achieve the desired competence.
 It can provide immediate feedback to the teacher.
 Students’ performance does not decline with time.
 Students learn how to express themselves clearly.

124. Disadvantages
 It is an uneconomical way of using resources.
 The programmed materials have to be maintained.
 It needs administrative staff.
 Information usually comes from a single source and may
lead to a one way learning process.
 No teamwork and interpersonal relationships between
students.
 It takes time to prepare materials for individual learning.
 It has no regard for the students’ individual differences.

125. 9. Small Group Discussion
Is an appropriate technique for encouraging learners to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate the knowledge that they acquire. It can be
instructor-centred or learner-centred
Advantages
 There is shared commitment to learning. Learners help each other
with difficult points.
 Provides learners with opportunities to interact with the instructor and
fellow learners.
 Learners learn to evaluate the logic of and the evidence for their own
and other’s positions, that is, learning is through self expression and
intercommunication.
 Allows learners to become active participants in the learning process
 Provides an opportunity for the synthesis of varied experiences and
data derived from lectures, laboratories, clinics and readings.

126. Disadvantages
 Dominance of vocal and aggressive members over others in a
group may hinder equal growth of all members in the learning
process.
 A group discussion does not guarantee that an objective will be
accomplished within a fixed time.
 The members of the group must bring to the discussion a body
of information that is sufficiently broad and deep.
 As the size of the group increases, the efficiency and
effectiveness of the method
will decrease.
 Requires presence of a teacher all time to act as a facilitator
 Time consuming

127. 10. Simulation
This instruction method is used to enable learners to develop skills in dealing
with ’real life’ situations and ’problems’ in a classroom setting
 Hypothetical experience that engages the learner in an activity that reflect
real life condition
There are two methods of simulation - the simulation game and simulators.
a. Simulation games are designed to provide students with opportunity to
practice and develop skill in problem solving, decision making and
communicating examples
 written case history with multiple choice questions for the learner to answer
after reading or listening to the
case history.
 b) Present a recording of chest sounds for the learner to listen to. Ask the
learner to report on what they heard.

128. ct
b. Simulators
Are models such as the obstetrical phantom that represent real life
situations and allow the learner to interact by practicing skills relevant
to the situation.
Advantages of simulation
 can create the link between the training situation and the real
life situation.
 Simulations provide a responsive, safe and nonthreatening
environment. There is always some immediate feedback.
 Simulation is a relatively cheap method and often provides
experience in a low cost model for a high cost environment.
 Simulation allows learners to make their first serious mistakes in a
simulated situation rather than in a real one.
 Excellent for psychomotor skill development

129. Ct…..adv of simulation
 Creates self confidence among users.
 Provides teachers/ learners with an opportunity to
study and analyze critical teaching problems
 Helps teacher / learner to understand behavioral
problems and how to tackle them
 Self monitoring in simulated learning
 Development of critical thinking skills among
teachers/ learners.

130. Disadvantages
 Simulation techniques cannot simulate all
dimensions of a real life situation.
 The planning and development time required
for a simulation technique may prove to be
costly.
 Labor intensive

131. 12. SNOWBALLING
It is an activity where students come up with
ideas individually after a topic has been
identified by a teacher. students then pair up
in groups, put ideas together. The groups
will then merge up into two groups and
come up with collective ideas and the
teacher will conclude.

132. 13. ROLE PLAY
 When a teacher suggests a situation and students are
given roles to play.
Characteristics of Role play
 Should deal with a well structured situation
 Situation should not be concerned with a personal
problem
 Objectives of the play should be made explicit
 Students should volunteer for various roles
 Play should be assessed and analysed by at the group
at the end of the session

133. Advantages
 Learner gets opportunity to practise she /he has
learnt
 There is opportunity for learners participation
 And immediate feedback
 Develops a skill of group solving
 Develop ability to observe and analyse the
situation.
 Opportunity to explore feelings and attitude

134. Disadvantages
Not all students may be able to dramatize
Teachers may not be able to construct a
real problem
Limited to small group

135. 14. WORKSHOP
An assembled group of 10-25 members who
share a common interest and meet together
to improve individual skill.
 Through intensive study and discussion
,practice this person must do some tasks
with their hands and produce something
 Develops psychomotor aspect of a learner
 OTHER METHODS- critical
incident,rolemodelling

136.  Teaching Aids
Characteristics of good teaching Aids include;
 Teaching aids are large enough to be seen by the students for
whom they are used
 Teaching aids are meaningful and they always stand to serve a
useful purpose.
 Teaching aids helps in realization of stipulated learning
objectives
 teaching aids are according to the mental level of the learners
 teaching aids are accurate and realistic.
 Teaching aids are upto the mark and upto date in every respect
 Develops imaginative thinking power

137. MODERN/INNOVATIVE TEACHING METHODS
They are improvement of traditional methods and are
mainly problem based.
Burden shifts to the student and a teacher is just like a
facilitator
They include;
1. Problem Based Learning (PBL).
2. Self Directed Learning (SDL).
3. Small Group Tutorial (SGT).
4. Community Based Education and Service (COBES).
5. Computer Aided Education (CAE).
6. Student-centred, Problem-Based, Integrated, Community-
Oriented, Electives and Systematic (SPICES).

138. ct
The learning skills in modern/innovative teaching
developed include:
 Problem solving skills
 Communication skills
 Clinical reasoning skills
 Self directed learning skills
 Emotional/social support skills
 Thinking skills
 Team work skills
 Continuing education skill

139. 1. Problem based learning
This is when students are guided in developing their
own learning objectives from which they are facilitated
through through small group works as well as individual
learning
 A teacher develop a tutorial problem which will be
used to guide achievement of the objective .
 Teacher will produce a booklet which contain the
problem and tutor guide used by the facilitator which
contain solutions

140. Purpose of PBL
 Motivate the students as they own the learning process
 Encourages the learner to identify own learning skills
 Learners take responsibility for their group, organize
and direct the learning process
 Enhances knowledge of content and foster the
development of communication, problem-solving and
self directed learning skill
 Enhances learner social knowledge construction
 Presents learner with real world cases ( problem) and
enhances them to identify with problems around them.
 Enhances learner critical thinking

141. Three step of problem based
learning
 Tutorial 1
Read through the problem, define terms, clarify concept, analyse
problem and set learning objectives. Solve any problem (if
possible at this point. Students identify their own learning
objectives
 Tutorial 2 (Self Directed Learning (SDL) )
Self Directed Learning (SDL) means that the students study and
look for information on their own in preparation for the tutorial
session
 Tutorial 3
This is the third tutorial during which students do the
presentation of gathered information, solution of problems and
synthesis..

142. Characteristic of Problem based
learning (BPL)
 Students work in small collaborative groups
 Learning is driven by challenging open ended
problems
 The teacher takes the role of facilitator of learning ie
guiding the learning process rather than providing
knowledge.

143. Ct…..modern teaching methods
2. Community based education and service
 This is where students are taken to the community
level for application of theory work as they serve the
community.
3. Computer aided education
 Use of modern computer technology programme
which facilitate learning
 Learning skills a student develop in innovative
teaching include:
problem solving, communication skills, clinical
reasoning skill, self directed learning, team work and
thinking skills

144. Student-centred, Problem-Based, Integrated,
Community-Oriented, Electives and Systematic
(SPICES).

145.  Advantages of student
centered learning
 Improves participation
 Improves retention of knowledge
 Boost performance at work
 Develop problem solving skills
 Foster collaboration learning
 Makes learning more fun
 Facilitate personalized learning

146. Disadvantage of student centered
learning
1. It requires a longer time for students so it is
difficult to achieve curriculum targets.
2. A long time for teachers so that teachers in
general do not want to use cooperative
learning.
3. It requires special skills of teachers so that not
all teachers can do or use of cooperative
learning.
4. Specific nature of student demands, such as the
nature likes to work together.

147. Super skills of innovative teaching

148. MENTORSHIP---Pg88
Mentorship is a relationship in which a more
experienced or more knowledgeable person helps
to guide a less experienced or less knowledgeable
person.
Mentoring" is a process that always involves
communication and is relationship-based.
Mentoring is a process for the informal
transmission of knowledge, social capital , and
the psychosocial support perceived by the
recipient as relevant to work, career, or
professional development

149.  Disadvantages of Mentorship

150. Barriers of effective classroom
communication----Pg112

151. MICROTEACHING
It is a scaled teaching encounter with a small unit group of students
for a small period of time and focuses on developing a teaching skill.
 Aimed at developing teaching skill in a simulated environment
 Features ( Characteristics) of microteaching
 Focuses on developing a teaching skill ie Only one teaching skill
is considered at a time
 Scaled down in terms of students, time, topic and skill
 Highly individualised training device
 Provides immediate feedback for trainees performance
 Training device to prepare for effective teachers
 Provision for Re-planning, Re-teaching and Re-feedback
 All faults of the teacher are observed
 It puts the teacher under microscope

152.  Micro teaching skills
They consist of:
1. Set induction, which is the skill of appropriately
introducing a topic or starting a lesson and capturing
the learner’s attention.
2. Stimulus variation, that is, the skill of varying focus
movements, speech and content delivery to retain the
learner’s attention.
3. Reinforcement, which is the technique of rewarding
students to promote good behavior and attention.
4. Questioning, that is, the technique of using questions
to promote interaction with learners to hold their
attention.

153. ct
5. Use of examples and explanations that
promote learning.
6. Closure, that is, helping learners achieve
’mental’ closure of a learning session in
ways that help them to remember what they
learn, i.e, by encouraging students to
summarise what they have learnt
7. ete

154. Advantages of Micro Teaching
 It focuses on sharpening and developing specific
teaching skills and eliminating errors i.e. it helps teacher
improve teaching performance
 It enables understanding of behaviours important in
class-room teaching i.e. modifies teachers behaviour
 It increases the confidence of the learner teacher i.e.
develop teacher’s confidence
 It is a vehicle of continuous training for both beginners
and for senior teachers
 It proceeds from simple to complex
 It provides experts supervision and constructive
feedback i.e. gives ready feedback

155. Importance of Micro teaching
 Micro element
It is based on the supposition that before one attempts to
understand, learn and perform effectively complicated
task of teaching, one should first master the components
of that task.
 Technical skills of teaching strategies
A repertoire of teaching skills like lecturing, questioning
or leading a discussion and mastery of teaching
strategies is another important feature of micro-teaching
 Feedback element
It is another important element of micro-teaching.

156. SOURCES OF FEED-BACK IN
THE MICRO-TEACHING
(1) Oral feed-back of the laboratory supervisor.
(2) Questionnaires filled in by the pupils learning in the
micro- lesson.
(3) Audio-tape recordings.
(4) Video-tape recordings
 Safe practice grounds
(5)Teaching models
There are many styles of good teaching and trainees will
develop their own individual styles using these models as
guide.
(6) Research laboratory

157. Clinical teaching
It is teaching in a clinical or practical setting similar to
environment which a learner will practice in future
Purpose
 Make a learner put into practise what they have learnt
 Student learns to protect her clients from malpractice
and negligence
 Students learn to maintain their integrity and
professional code of ethics and etiquette

158. Characteristics/role of clinical teacher
 Clinical skills, eg experienced nurse concerned with the
maintenance and improvement of standards of patient care.
 Concerned to help the learner to develop their potential as a
nurse because of their clinical competency.
 Able to gain satisfaction from teaching, especially individuals
and small groups and therefor has to be knowledgeable.
 Keen to create a favorable environment for learning through
interpersonal relationship with the learners.
 A model for your learner i.e. personal characteristics for
clinical teacher.
 Able to gain satisfaction from caring for patients.
 Alert to the opportunities available for facilitating learning in
the clinical situation

159. Process of clinical teaching
The process of clinical teaching has five (5)
steps;
1. Identify the goals and outcomes for learning
2. Assessing learning needs
3. Planning clinical learning activities
4. Guiding students
5. Evaluating clinical learning performance

160. TYPES OF CLINICAL TEACHING IN NURSING
 Nursing Clinics
It is a method of clinical teaching. It always entails the
presence of the patient. Nursing clinics are conducted by the
head nurse or clinical instructor .The purpose is the
improvement of nursing care.
 Nursing rounds
Nursing rounds are conducted by the head nurse/ nurse
teacher for the member of his /her staff or students for a
clear understanding of the disease process and the effect of
nursing care for each patient. Help in orienting a new
nurse/student to the patients. It offer a real life learning
situation. An interesting strategy involving the student ,
teacher and the patient. This method is a means of testing
the student’s knowledge.

161. Cont.…..types of clinical teaching
 Nursing care conference
An nursing care conference is a “ course of action
discussion ,the focus is on assessing the nursing
problem arriving at possible solutions , helping staff to
examine a patient’s problem from his point of view.” 2-
“ An act of consulting together.”
 Process recording
Process recording as “A verbatim between nurse and the
patient.” OR “An exact written report of the
conversation between the nurse and the patient during
the time they were together

162. Teaching attitudes
Attitudes is taught by providing:
 Information to shape attitudes, for example, facts about
certain conditions or such heart diseases and Aids.
 Examples or models to shape attitudes (advertising goal).
 Experience to shape attitudes, for example, opportunities to
work in a hospital.
 Discussion to shape attitude, for instance, by sharing your
own opinions.
 Role plays, for example, playing the role of doctor, nurse or
patient.

163.  Clinical teaching outcomes
1. Knowledge
Helps the learner transfer knowledge learned in the
classroom to real life situation. This knowledge include;
(i). Problem Solving
Provides rich resources of realistic practice with
problems to be solved
(ii). Critical thinking
Helps the learner to analysis ,validity information and
reasoning to arrive at valid conclusion
(iii). Decision Making
The learner needs to make prompt decisions during
practice by choosing the best course of action from a
number of alternatives.

164. Ct…outcomes of clinical teaching
2. Skills
The skills include;
(i) Psychomotor skills
(ii) Interpersonal skills
(iii) Organizational skills
3. Professional attitude and values
This are professional ethics and humanistic ( personal
attributes) aspects in nursing

165. Ways of enhancing clinical learning

166. TEACHING/LEARNING AIDS
They are items that can be manipulated to enhance
learning
They can be classified into the following
 According to generation i.e. traditional and
modern aids
 According to appeal of the media to special
senses i.e visual, audiovisual and multimedia
 According to nature i.e. real or artificial
 According to use i.e. projected and non-projected

167.  Importance of teaching aids
 Enhance students understanding
 Makes learning interesting and makes students to
participate
 Accelerates learning
 Teaching aids provide variety
 Teaching aids are helpful in attracting attention of
the students.
 Teaching aids saves time and energy.

168. ct
Factors to consider in choosing a teaching
aid
 Knowledge and skills
 Cost effective
 Teaching method and objectives
 It should cover the content appropriately
 Size and characteristics of the audience
 Safe for both students and teachers

169.  Characteristic of good teaching aid
 Teaching aids are large enough to be seen by the students
for whom they are used
 Teaching should be visible to the learners
 Teaching aids are meaningful and they always stand to
serve a useful purpose.
 Teaching aids helps in realization of stipulated learning
objectives
 Teaching aids are according to the mental level of the
learners
 Teaching aids are accurate and realistic.
 Teaching aids are upto the mark and upto date in every
respect
 Develops imaginative thinking power

170. Types of teaching aids

171. 1. Projected aids
This are teaching aids that cast images or information on a
screen and usually use electricity.
Projected aids include:
 Overhead transparency (projector).
 Kaleidoscopes. Films, Video cassettes, Slides.
2. The Overhead Projector .
The overhead projector (OHP) projects transparencies
from a horizontal table via a prism or mirror and a lens. A
bright image appears on a screen behind the teacher.
The teacher uses permanent fount pens to write on
transparencies .

172. Advantages
 Teacher faces the classroom and point out features appearing
on the screen easily using a pointer.
 It may not be necessary to darken the room.
 You are able to project a wide variety of materials.
 Transparencies can be used as an illuminated blackboard
during the lesson. Alternatively, they can be put on top of each
other showing stages of development of an idea or structure.
 You can easily trace diagrams and drawings if you
require them.
 An overhead projector, therefore, has endless possibilities in
the hands of a resourceful teacher and can be used at all levels
of education.
 Verbal discussion of a teacher can be supported by illustration.
 It is portable

173. Disadvantages
 The teacher must not stand in front of the
image.
 They are expensive to obtain and
maintain
Requires technical know how
Delicate and can break down
Special felt pens are used for writing on
transparent sheets.

174. NON-PROJECTED AIDS
They are aids that you can find within your environment and
provide first hand feel and sense of reality.
1. The Chalkboard
The chalkboard is the most easily available, convenient and
most popular teaching
Characteristic of the chalk board
 Smooth
 Strategic
 Dull enough for reflection of writing
 Mounted on appropriate height

175. Guidelines for using chalkboard
1. Always write at an angle
2. Divide your board into two sections
3. Make your writing visible
4. Avoid writing and talking at the same time
5. Always write what is relevant
Advantages
 It is economical
 Very convinient

176. 2. The Flannel Board
This is the device of choice for teaching villagers.
It is a display board made of wood or card board. It is covered with
flannel cloth. pictures, photos are cut and put on a flannel cloth
Advantages of the Flannel Board
 It tells a story in which you can see things happen
 It has strong colours that please
 The pictures are large enough and can be seen from
a distance
 The pictures are mostly things that people are familiar with
 It arouses interest and questions
Disadvantages
 Cannot be used with a large group
 Cannot facilitate all the content

177. 3. Flipcharts
They are cheap and easy aids to prepare. They can be
made from butcher paper, old calendars, paper boxes,
manila paper. you can draw or write major points.
Guidelines
 The pictures should be labelled in legible
handwriting. When labelling remember:
 To use thick felt pens.
 To use different colours for emphasis. .
 Not to write too much.

178. 4. Posters
. They may consist of words, pictures, or a mixture of both.
posters are usually single leafed. Posters need a lot of
planning and testing before use. They can be prepared for
two types of viewers:
(i) For a mixed (heterogeneous) audience, for example, on a
street for the general public.
(ii) For a captive audience, for example, in
a class.
 Make it simple, use simple language and put as little as
possible on the poster.
 Main purpose is for visual stimulation and attract attention

179. 5. Handouts.
They are written papers given out by teachers to students.
They act as guides for work to be done, or references to be
looked up. They help remind students of the main points to
remember from a learning experience.
purpose
 Indicate objectives of the lesson exercise
 Indicate the relevance and define the area to be covered.
 Provide additional theoretical information.
 Provide a stimulus to further thinking.
 Give instructions for practical work.

180. A good handout should:
Support the purpose of the presentation.
Be an integral part of the presentation.
Support the audience's future use of the
presentation.
Package the information from the
perspective of the audience or user.
Sift and focus the information.

181. Handouts to the presenters
 Create a positive impression before the presentation begins
 Ensure that the audience takes away the key ideas as intended
 Engage people at a deeper level as they interact with the
handout
 Keep the audience's attention focused on the subject
 Satisfy the needs of visual learners
 Introduce experiential material for kinesthetic learners
 Present information at both novice and expert levels
 Simplify and navigate complex information
 Establish credibility
 Present more information than can be covered in the
presentation
 Summarize and review.

182. Handouts to the audience
•Concentrate on the ideas without having to take notes
•Capture any non-verbal data accurately
•Personalize the presentation with notes of their own
ideas
•Hear, see and apply the presentation
•Increase their speed of comprehension
•Retain new ideas longer
•Apply the information to specific tasks
•Find the information when they need it at a later date

183. CT
6. Pictures
They come inform of slides, photographs,
drawings and cartoons
7. Real thing
Best teaching aid as it helps the learner to
transfer impression he gets to the real thing,
start using right attitude and expression from
start.
Others; Bounce Pattern,templates

184. ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING AND
TEACHING-TERMINOLOGIES
 Assessment- Refers to process of finding out what
extend learners have achieved set objectives
 Evaluation- it is placing a value on the learners
performance in order to make a decision about the
learner
 Testing-a systematic procedure for comparing
performance of an individual with designated standard
of performance
 Examination-tools or formal mechanism which are
used to assess learning

185. PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSMENT
1. Practicality
This principle refers to the time and cost constraints during the
construction and administration of an assessment instrument. The test
should be economical to provide. The format of the test should be
simple to understand, solving a test should remain within suitable
time and it should generally be simple to administer.
2. Reliability
The principle of reliability refers to the stability of scores over time
and different raters. There are four types of reliability:
 Student-related which can be personal problems, sickness, or
fatigue.
 Rater-related which includes bias and subjectivity,
 Test administration-related which is the conditions of test taking
process,
 Test-related which is basically related to the nature of a test.

186. Cont.…..principles of assessment
3. Validity
Validity refers to the tests that measure what it claims to
measure e.g.
- content validity
- criterion validity
4.Authenticity
The assessment instrument is authentic when it is
contextualized, contains natural language and
meaningful, relevant, and interesting topic, and
replicates real world experiences.

187. Cont.…..principles of assessment
5. Washback
This principle refers to the consequence of an assessment
on teaching and learning withing classrooms. Washback
can be positive and negative.
(i) Positive washback refers to the desired effects of a test,
while
(ii) Negative washback refers to the negative
consequences of a test.
In order to have positive washback, instructional planning
can be used

188. Purpose of evaluating learners
 Help the learner to understand themselves.
 Help in the retention and transfer of learning.
 Motivate the learner.
 Predict the level of the learner's future performance.
 Judge the learner’s achievements.
 Monitor the learner’s progress for the purpose of
providing feedback.
 Determine teaching effectiveness.
 License the practice of a profession.
 Identify the weak and strong areas of a course.
 Grade and rank students

189. Importance of evaluating the
learners
Provides diagnostic feedback
Helps educators set standard
Evaluate progress
Relates to student’s progress
Motivate performance in student and
teacher

190.  Characteristics a of good évaluation/Test
tool
 Valid- should measure what is supposed to
measure
 Reliable-should be accurate and consistent
 Objective-Should be free of individual bias
 Discriminate-Should reveal reasonable range of
scores
 Practical- in terms of resources and number of
students being assessed and also easy to conduct,
score without wasting time.
 Comprehensive- Should cover all the items that
have been taught

191. Types of Evaluation
 Pre or diagnostic assessment- to get to know the
student’s strengths, weaknesses and the skills and
knowledge they possess before taking the instruction.
Based on the data you’ve collected, you can create your
instruction
 Assessment for learning or Formative is progressive to
monitor student learning to provide feedback on the
strengths and weaknesses of the learner.
 Terminal evaluation or Summative ie assessment of
learning- usually carried out at the end of a term, course
or programme for several reasons. Provides information
about student achievement

192. Cont.….types of evaluation
 Assessment as learning or Evaluation - students engage in peer
and self-assessment, they learn to make sense of information,
relate it to prior knowledge and use it for new learning. develop
a sense of ownership and efficacy when they use teacher, peer
and self-assessment feedback to make adjustments,
improvements and changes to what they understand
 Criterion-referenced assessment - It measures student’s
performances against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or
learning standards. It checks what students are expected to know
and be able to do at a specific stage of their education.
 Ipsative assessment- It measures the performance of a student
against previous performances from that student. This method
tries to improve self by comparing previous results and not
comparing self against other students, which may be not so good
for self-confidence.

193. THREE MAIN TYPES OF EVALUATION
 Formative evaluation.
Is progressive, that is, the learner and learning are evaluated on a
continuous basis. It provides feedback on the strengths and
weaknesses of the learner.
It is performed frequently, that is, after small units of learning.
 Summative evaluation
It is carried out at the end of the course, term or programe.mainly
used in certification, licensing or select learner for further
educational programme
Reveals student ability to integrate and apply learning
 Diagnostic evaluation-type of evaluation done before learners
begin a programme. Done to test entry behaviour

194. Advantages of formative assessment
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195. Difference between summative and
formative evaluation
Formative Summative
used during the teaching learning process
to monitor the learning process
used after the course completion to assign
the grades. Ie aims at evaluating
student's learning
Is developmental in nature ie to improve
student’s learning and teacher’s teaching.
terminal in nature. Its purpose is to
evaluate student’s achievement.
Generally teacher made tests are used for
this purpose
Generally standardized tests are used for
the purpose.
The test items are prepared for limited
content area
The tests items are prepared from the
whole content area.
It helps to know to what extent the
instructional objectives has been achieved.
It helps to judge the appropriateness of the
instructional objectives.
It provides feed-back to the teacher to
modify the methods and to prescribe
remedial works.
It helps the teacher to know the
effectiveness of the instructional
procedure.
Only few skills can be tested in this
evaluation.
Large number of skills can be tested in this
evaluation.

196. Cont………formative & summative
differences
Formative Summative
It is a continuous and regular
process
It is not continuous and regular
Checks learning to determine what to do
next and then provides
Checks what has been learned to date
Is designed to assist educators and
students in improving learning.
Is designed for the information of those
not directly involved in daily learning and
teaching
Usually uses detailed, specific and
descriptive feedback—in a formal or
informal report.
Usually compiles data into a single
number, score or mark as part of a formal
report.
Is not reported as part of an achievement
grade.
Is reported as part of an achievement
grade.

197. Assessing knowledge
a. Essay type
This are type of test whose response are open but biased
on the question. they deal with
memmory,recall,understanding and creativity
Types of essay question
(i) Open response essay- question is set and student is
allowed to address to the best of their ability against
time period
(ii) Restricted response- conditions are laid down as to
how it should be answered.

198. Advantages of Essay questions
 Allows other attributes of learning other than memory
 Encourages wide learning and reading
 Easy to develop
 Allows in depth of learning
Disadvantages
 High risk of failure
 Biased especially in marking
 And results highly subjective
 Marking is time consuming

199. b. Objective Type
Includes mcq’s,matching type, filling in or completing true and
false
Advantages
 Allow testing a wide content area
 Gives objective results
 They are easy to mark
 Margin of error is reduced
 Low bias
Disadvantages
 They are prone to gazing
 They require in depth learning
 Difficult to develop

200. Assessing skills
There are two types of assessment used
(i) Objective Structured Practical Examination (OSPE)
It is where a candidate pass through a number of exam stations to
answer or solve various problem. the questions vary from
practical skills,knowldge to testing attitude.
(ii) Objective structured clinical examination (OSCE)
It is a comprehensive examination of the patient by a student and
discusses the patient with a panel of examiners.
The exam should be set up in the following manner:
 Brief examination of a patient followed by oral questions
 Assessment of student work during practice using rating scales
 Assessment of log and procedure books
 Case records and reports

201. Characteristics of a good practical assessment
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202. Assessing Attitudes
Attitudes can be assessed indirectly, ie as the
candidate performs a skill. This will have to be over
a long period so that the assessment is based on
repetition of the same attitude over time
Types of Tools
(i) Rating scale based on a table analysis (likert
scale) i.e. Below average (1), fair (2), good (3),
very good (4) and excellent (5) OR (1)“Not at all
Satisfied,” (2)“Partly Satisfied,” (3) “Satisfied,” (4)
“More than Satisfied,” and (5) “Very Satisfied,”

203. (ii) Semantic differential, that is, a scale on
opposite characteristics i.e.
Keen and willing - does minimum work.
Accepts instructions - ignores instructions.
Polite to patients - Rude.

204. Example of Semantic differential Scale
Measuring
Semantic
Differential
Positive pole Negative Pole
Strength Confidence Uncertain
Evaluation Pleasure Discontent
Activity Outcome reluctance
organization Organized Unorganized
Technology Modern Old fashion
Reliability Reliable Unreliable
Complexity Complex Simple

205. Some Questions for revision
1. Explain three (3) principles of teaching (3 marks)
2. Outline four (4) differences between formative and
summative evaluation (4 marks)
3. State three (3) clinical teaching methods used in
nursing education (3 marks)
4. State four (4) advantages of student-centered
learning (4marks)
5. Illustrate a lesson plan for teaching session
(6marks)
6. State five (5) advantages of simulation as a teaching
method (5marks)

206.  THE END