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Work with Fellow Travelers Collaboration Tools i
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iii Journey to Successful Writing Tour Guide to Technical Communication Production Team Project Manager Editor-in-Chief Jennifer Blackwell Bethany Bowles Copyeditor Copyeditor John Savage Zachary Anderson Authors Chart a Clear Course Work with Fellow Travelers John SavageNathaniel Duvall Katherine Thomas Navigate Cultural Differences Zachary Anderson, Jennifer Blackwell, Bethany Bowles, John Savage Shine in a Sea of Style Nicolay Abdrakhmanov Tara Howard Enhance Your Scenic Experience Christopher Morris, James Roysden, Charles Zaffery Bring Home a Souvenir Allan Mair David O‘Farrill Presented To Professor Gomrad University of Central Florida ENC 4293.0M02 • Spring 2011
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v Acknowledgments We give a special thanks to Monica Ibarra for the creation of the cover design and cover graphics. We appreciate University Printing Services for the publication of this style guide. Our contact with Nikki Cason made the process simple, organized, and informative. Thanks to Professor Mary Ellen Gomrad for all of the knowledge, experience, and consultation services that she gave. We are grateful for this learning opportunity.
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vii Table of Contents Beginning Your Journey… ..................................................... xv The Path this Book Explores .............................................xv Advice for the Road ......................................................... xvii Chart a Clear Course: Research and Planning....................... 1 Introduction.............................................................................. 5 Researching Effectively........................................................... 5 Brainstorming...................................................................... 5 Mind Mapping .......................................................................... 5 Free Writing ............................................................................. 6 Preliminary Research .............................................................. 7 Determining Your Research Topic...................................... 7 Asking a Question.................................................................... 7 Motivating Your Topic.............................................................. 8 Focusing on a Research Question........................................... 8 Diving into Your Research .................................................. 9 Web ......................................................................................... 9 Library...................................................................................... 9 Field Research....................................................................... 10 Observation....................................................................... 10 Interview ........................................................................... 11 Managing Your Sources........................................................ 11 Tracking Your Sources ..................................................... 12 Evernote ................................................................................ 12 Zotero .................................................................................... 12 Evaluating Your Sources .................................................. 13 Purpose ................................................................................. 13 Accuracy................................................................................ 14 Authority ................................................................................ 14 Relevancy.............................................................................. 15 Currency................................................................................ 15 Objectivity .............................................................................. 16 Coverage............................................................................... 16 Completing Your Research ................................................... 16
viii Refining Your Research Question.......................................... 17 Consolidating Your Research ........................................... 17 Citations................................................................................. 17 MLA................................................................................... 17 APA................................................................................... 18 Avoiding Plagiarism .......................................................... 19 Summarize............................................................................. 19 Paraphrase ............................................................................ 20 Quote ..................................................................................... 20 Planning................................................................................. 21 Project Management......................................................... 21 Responsibilities...................................................................... 21 Charters ................................................................................. 22 Schedules ......................................................................... 24 Calendars............................................................................... 25 Google Calendar............................................................... 26 Audience Analysis............................................................. 26 Creating a Profile of Your Reader.......................................... 27 Identifying Stakeholders......................................................... 28 Summary............................................................................... 28 Work with Fellow Travelers: Collaboration Tools ................ 31 Introduction............................................................................ 35 Social Aspects....................................................................... 35 Traditional Collaborative Tools.............................................. 36 Meetings............................................................................ 37 Teleconferencing ................................................................... 37 Fax Machines.................................................................... 37 Printed Documents and Letters ........................................ 38 Online Collaboration Tools.................................................... 38 Email ................................................................................. 38 Gmail ..................................................................................... 39 Instant Messaging............................................................. 40 Google Talk............................................................................ 41 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) .................................. 42 Videoconferencing ................................................................. 42 Skype..................................................................................... 43
ix Document Editors ............................................................. 44 Google Docs.......................................................................... 45 Synchronization Services.................................................. 45 Dropbox................................................................................. 46 Sharing Spaces and Wikis................................................ 46 Wiggio.................................................................................... 47 Podcasts ........................................................................... 47 Audacity................................................................................. 48 Blogs ................................................................................. 49 Blogger .................................................................................. 50 Forums.............................................................................. 50 ProBoards.............................................................................. 51 Presentation Tools ............................................................ 52 Prezi ...................................................................................... 52 Summary............................................................................... 53 Navigate Cultural Differences: Cross-Cultural Communication........................................................................ 55 Introduction............................................................................ 59 Cultural Considerations......................................................... 59 Cultural Bias...................................................................... 60 Interactive Communication ............................................... 61 Language............................................................................... 62 Paralanguage ........................................................................ 62 Primary Qualities............................................................... 62 Qualifiers........................................................................... 63 Differentiators.................................................................... 63 Alternates.......................................................................... 63 Kinesics ................................................................................. 64 Kinesic Coding and Decoding........................................... 65 Examples of Cross-Cultural Miscommunication ............... 66 Cultural Variables.................................................................. 69 Economic .......................................................................... 69 Educational ....................................................................... 70 Linguistic ........................................................................... 71 Political.............................................................................. 72 Religious ........................................................................... 73
x Social ................................................................................ 73 Technological.................................................................... 73 Modules of Cultural Dimensions ........................................... 74 The Iceberg Module .......................................................... 75 Hofstede’s Cultural Value Dimensions ............................. 76 Individualism vs. Collectivism................................................. 76 Power Distance Index ............................................................ 77 Uncertainty Avoidance Index ................................................. 77 Masculine vs. Feminine ......................................................... 78 Short and Long Term Orientation........................................... 79 Hall’s Theory of Contexting............................................... 80 High-Context.......................................................................... 80 Low-Context........................................................................... 81 How Hall’s Theory Affects Your Writing ................................. 81 Summary............................................................................... 82 Shine in a Sea of Style: Writing Style and Clarity ................ 83 Introduction............................................................................ 87 Grammar Basics.................................................................... 87 Parts of Speech ................................................................ 87 Sentence Structure ........................................................... 88 Clauses.................................................................................. 88 Sentence Types..................................................................... 89 Punctuation ....................................................................... 90 Persuasiveness in Writing..................................................... 91 Voice ................................................................................. 91 Readers’ Expectations ........................................................... 92 Readers’ Reactions................................................................ 92 Rhetoric............................................................................. 93 Logos ..................................................................................... 93 Ethos...................................................................................... 94 Pathos.................................................................................... 95 Professionalism in Writing................................................. 95 Terminology and Jargon ........................................................ 95 Formal Documents................................................................. 96 Casual Documents................................................................. 96 Chatting and Texting.............................................................. 96
xi Formatting ............................................................................. 97 Business Documents ........................................................ 98 Letters.................................................................................... 98 Memorandums....................................................................... 99 Faxes..................................................................................... 99 Emails.................................................................................... 99 Marketing Documents.......................................................... 100 Job Search Documents................................................... 101 Résumés ............................................................................. 101 Cover Letters ....................................................................... 102 Technical Documents ..................................................... 102 Technical Manuals............................................................... 103 User Manuals ...................................................................... 103 Technical Reports ........................................................... 105 Proposals............................................................................. 105 Background Reports............................................................ 106 Empirical Research Reports ................................................ 106 Feasibility Reports ............................................................... 107 Summary............................................................................. 107 Enhance Your Scenic Experience: Visual Design and Graphics ................................................................................. 109 Introduction.......................................................................... 113 Page Layout Principles........................................................ 113 Harmony and Consistency.............................................. 113 Emphasis ........................................................................ 115 Contrast........................................................................... 115 White Space ........................................................................ 115 Proximity ......................................................................... 117 Balance ........................................................................... 117 Symmetry ............................................................................ 118 Asymmetry........................................................................... 118 Graphics .............................................................................. 118 Graphs and Charts.......................................................... 119 Line Graphs......................................................................... 119 Bar Graphs .......................................................................... 120 Pie Charts............................................................................ 121
xii Flowcharts............................................................................ 122 Gantt Charts......................................................................... 123 Tables .................................................................................. 124 Pictures ........................................................................... 125 Illustrations........................................................................... 125 Line Drawings and Diagrams .......................................... 125 Maps ............................................................................... 126 Icons and Symbols.......................................................... 126 Photographs......................................................................... 127 Screen Shots................................................................... 128 Labeling Graphics ........................................................... 129 Ethical Use of Graphics .................................................. 130 Typography ......................................................................... 131 Legibility .......................................................................... 132 Readability ...................................................................... 132 Typefaces........................................................................ 133 Choosing a Type Size.......................................................... 135 Alignment ........................................................................ 136 Spacing ........................................................................... 136 Color.................................................................................... 138 Color Principles............................................................... 138 Hue ...................................................................................... 138 Saturation............................................................................. 138 Brightness............................................................................ 139 Color Wheel .................................................................... 139 Color Schemes ............................................................... 140 Monochromatic .................................................................... 140 Complimentary..................................................................... 140 Split Complimentary............................................................. 140 Analogous............................................................................ 141 Triadic .................................................................................. 141 Tetradic................................................................................ 141 Color Models ....................................................................... 141 RGB Color Model............................................................ 142 CMYK Color Model ......................................................... 142 HSB Color Model ............................................................ 143 Summary............................................................................. 144
xiii Bring Home a Souvenir: Production.................................... 145 Introduction.......................................................................... 149 Layout.................................................................................. 149 Beginning the Production .................................................... 150 Prepress.......................................................................... 150 Copy-Editing ................................................................... 151 Proofreading ................................................................... 151 Paper Selection................................................................... 151 Size ................................................................................. 152 Weight............................................................................. 152 Finish............................................................................... 153 Printing ................................................................................ 153 Printing Process.............................................................. 154 Current Printing Techniques ........................................... 155 Offset Printing...................................................................... 155 Laser Printing ...................................................................... 155 Bindings............................................................................... 156 Spiral Binding.................................................................. 156 Comb Binding ................................................................. 157 Wire-O Binding................................................................ 157 Saddle Stitching .............................................................. 157 Perfect Binding................................................................ 158 Coil Binding..................................................................... 158 Case Binding................................................................... 158 Tape Binding................................................................... 159 Summary............................................................................. 159 Completing Your Journey…................................................. 161 References ............................................................................. 163 Graphic References............................................................... 169 Glossary ................................................................................. 175 Index ....................................................................................... 193
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xv Beginning Your Journey… So, you are out of school, you have landed a job, and now you are at your desk trying to remember how to use active voice. It is nine in the morning. You are tired. You learned about active and passive voice three years ago, but your mind is blank. How can you recall this information? You could bring seventy pounds of textbooks to the job every day if you still have them, or you could find a more practical solution. Have your copy of Journey to Successful Writing: Tour Guide to Technical Communication close by, grab a cup of coffee, and let your journey begin. The Path this Book Explores Obviously, reading one book cannot turn an average writer into a superb technical writer, and this book does not attempt to do that. Journey to Successful Writing: Tour Guide to Technical Communication is a refresher. You have already traveled the educational road and learned the material. Your new venture—your career—calls for a guide, which is what you have in this book. This book focuses on six major topics that you will likely encounter in the technical writing field: Research and Planning, Collaboration Tools, Cross-Cultural Communication, Writing Style and Clarity, Visual Design and Graphics, and Production.
xvi Chart a Clear Course The Research and Planning section tells you about the proper way to plan for a major document and how to research effectively. It will help you recall preliminary and ethical research, audience analysis, and planning. Work with Fellow Travelers The Collaboration Tools section will help you find the best programs for working with others. It will refresh you on face-to-face and online collaboration, presentation tools, and synchronization services. Navigate Cultural Differences The Cross-Cultural Communication section covers the challenges and opportunities that you will encounter when you write for different cultures. It will help you remember cultural awareness, stereotypes, and cultural variables. Shine in a Sea of Style The Writing Style and Clarity section talks about various grammatical and stylistic choices. You can brush up on sentence structure, active and passive voice, professionalism in writing, and approaches to various documents. Enhance Your Visual Experience The Visual Design and Graphics section shows you how to use visual elements within your document. It jogs your memory on white space, graphics, and typography.
xvii Bring Home a Souvenir The Production section walks you down the path of creating a major document. It prompts you on how to create the proper layout, choose the correct type of paper, proofread, edit, and take your major document to the printer. Advice for the Road When you face any roadblocks in technical communication, the answer in Journey to Successful Writing: Tour Guide to Technical Communication is always a flip of the page away. So relax. Sip your coffee. And write with confidence knowing that you have a reliable guide by your side as you travel on your journey as a technical communicator.
1 Chart a Clear Course: Research and Planning Making sure you have all the tools for your journey, this section details organizational tactics, research methods, and planning skills to help you accomplish your journey more effectively. Preliminary and ethical research, audience analysis, and planning are pivotal maneuvers to reach your destination: a successful technical writing document.
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3 Research and Planning Introduction.............................................................................. 5 Researching Effectively........................................................... 5 Brainstorming...................................................................... 5 Determining Your Research Topic...................................... 7 Diving into Your Research .................................................. 9 Managing Your Sources........................................................ 11 Tracking Your Sources ..................................................... 12 Evaluating Your Sources .................................................. 13 Completing Your Research ................................................... 16 Consolidating Your Research ........................................... 17 Avoiding Plagiarism .......................................................... 19 Planning ................................................................................ 21 Project Management......................................................... 21 Schedules ......................................................................... 24 Audience Analysis............................................................. 26 Summary............................................................................... 28
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5 Introduction You are about to enter to enter the land of technical writing. Before embarking on your journey, you should chart a clear course. How do you do this? You research and plan. To succeed in your endeavor, you should survey the area and plot a course that will ensure safe passage. Researching Effectively You cannot plan for your expedition without first conducting careful and thorough research. Just as you would never go to a foreign country without learning some basic information about it, you should never start any technical writing assignment without first doing some research. Brainstorming In a group setting, you must come up with effective means to brainstorm. Throwing out the first idea that comes to mind may interrupt other people‘s flow of ideas or interrupt during their turn to speak. Have a written list of ideas that the group can look over as a whole after all members have had time to go home. Mind Mapping Mind mapping is a brainstorming technique that records free-flowing ideas and links them together in a logical map format to express the thoughts of the group. Mind
Chart a Clear Course 6 mapping can be a real adventure when working in a group setting as it allows for input from all members. Figure 1.2 (below) is an example of mind mapping. Figure 1.2 Example of a Mind Map Free Writing Free writing is a technique used to tap into the unconscious to begin the writing process. Sometimes, environmental elements block great ideas. While free writing, you should record all of your thoughts with no regard to grammar or spelling. Following this stream of consciousness enables you to catch ideas that you would have passed over in other forms of brainstorming. Free writing does not have to be formal in manner. You can even use scrap paper if you like. You can keep your free writing in a journal or a notebook as well as loose- leaf paper until you finalize your project or until you decide what direction you want to take for your writings.
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 7 Preliminary Research Preliminary research is the first step in planning your research. You must conduct initial research to gain an understanding of your topic, and take the steps to finalize your topic and thesis. Determining Your Research Topic Before you begin your journey, you will want to name your topic. Throughout your voyage, you will focus your initial broad topic into a defined research question. Keep ideas simple as to not close off any potential thoughts that may be helpful. When it comes time to research for the project, legitimate sources must be found. Finding research can often be daunting and can end tragically. Where to find legitimate sources can be a big problem for many students and inexperienced employees. You can use mind mapping, free writing, or any other technique to brainstorm what the name of your topic is going to be. The name of your topic should also correlate to the project type. For example, if you are writing a traveling guide or a novel about various expeditions or adventures, the name of the topic should not be Math for Dummies. Your topic should always relate to your project. Asking a Question The next step in effective research is to ask an indirect question. You do not have an answer yet, but the question will guide you in planning your research for
Chart a Clear Course 8 this question. This will help establish the general approach you will take with your research, and ultimately, your final project. Motivating Your Topic When planning a technical writing document, you must find a way to motivate your topic. Motivating your topic is defining why you want your audience to read about your topic and what will they learn. If you do not motivate your topic your path may lead astray, progress could slow down quickly, and your project or technical document could quickly end before it even begins. Focusing on a Research Question Following the previous three steps, you are now ready to focus your research based on your research question. The question will include the topic name, your indirect question, and your motivation for completing the project. This process will help you develop the initial path that you travel as you write your document. Choose your research question wisely. Something too broad may require too much research and too much stress. If your question is too narrow, you may not find the research needed to write the document or begin the project. A proper research question puts a large amount of research at your disposal and is easy enough to explore through without being an overload or creating a block in your path along the way.
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 9 Diving into Your Research The best way to begin your research is to simply dive in. Spend time searching the internet. Go to the library. Ask around. There are so many places to find good sources. All you need to do is look. Web The World Wide Web has become a well-traveled route when digging for research. Search engines such as Google and Yahoo Search will provide advanced search features that allow you to track down specific information and lead you to postings that are more general. Well-executed research, performed on the web, could turn up limitless amounts of research. While the web is a great way to find research, you must also remember to be wary of sites that anyone can log on and add random, possibly fictional, information. Also, be wary of biased information. If a research question leads towards political aspects, researchers should be careful not to get all their information from one political party‘s website because that lends itself to fictional information that does not help with getting to the truth or really examining a research problem. Library Surfing the web is a great way find research, but you should not neglect the resources available to you at the library. If you do not know where to begin with your research, ask a reference librarian. University libraries
Chart a Clear Course 10 and some public libraries have librarians whose specific job is to help people with their research. They can track down sources you might not find on your own or can point you in the right direction. Some legitimate places for you to look for research for a technical document would be online journal articles that are accredited and well-known publications. A public library or better yet, a university library often has resources available that the average person is unable to locate by simply browsing the internet. At university libraries, a person is often able to request from the university that they acquire publications or journal articles at other universities in a particular network. Field Research You should not assume that all of your research must take place in a library or at a computer. Often, you can accomplish more by going out into the field and getting your information firsthand. Observation Sometimes, the information can be gathered from the source. If you are writing about a place or a procedure, it might be a good idea to see it in person. Be sure to take notes during your observation. In addition, it may be beneficial to draw diagrams or illustrations that demonstrate concepts or procedures that you will be writing about.
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 11 Interview If you are researching a process, you should ask the people who are intimately acquainted with the procedure about it. They will be able to give you more insight than you can get from most textbooks. If the project is about a fighter jet, then perhaps talking with a few pilots to explain how to operate the jet for a more personal experience. The table below details what you must do in order to accomplish a productive interview. Table 1.1 Steps to a Successful Interview 1. Choose carefully whom you will interview. 2. Arrange a meeting. 3. Do preliminary research to educate yourself about the subject. 4. Prepare questions that target the information you wish to acquire. 5. Take notes during the interview in order to remember key information. 6. Thank your interviewee for contributing his or her time. 7. Reflect on the information you acquired. 8. Determine how to integrate this research into your writing. (Axelrod and Cooper) Managing Your Sources Research involves gathering many different sources from a wide-range of areas and collating them together. When
Chart a Clear Course 12 writing a document, it is important to keep track of any and all sources used. Tracking Your Sources You can use old-fashioned methods if you prefer. Making detailed notes on index cards can work well. However, you can also take advantage of modern technology that saves you lots of time, especially when you are conducting internet research. Evernote Evernote (Figure 1.3) is an online service that enables you to take notes, save images, and view PDFs. You can access your Evernotes from any computer and never have to worry about losing your research due to computer failure. You can save just about anything, even printed or handwritten text in images. Zotero The online research tool Zotero allows you to track and organize your sources from your browser. Figure 1.4 shows the icons for some of the things can you do with Zotero. You can archive web pages and store documents, images, and links in your online library. The Drag and Drop feature enables you to easily pull items into your collection. You can then make your own notes alongside your sources. All of the major styles of Figure 1.3 Evernote Logo
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 13 citations are available to enable you to easily create bibliographies. Using this online tool allows you to access your research from multiple computers and even browse through your data on your mobile device. You can keep your research private, or share it with the world. Creating group libraries gives you the ability to collaborate on group research. Evaluating Your Sources Finding sources is easy. Ensuring that they are quality sources worthy of being used in your research is more difficult. You cannot follow a magic formula to evaluate a source. Instead, you must consider these different aspects. Purpose When evaluating your sources, it is important to understand the purpose for which the source was produced. The source may be unbiased and serve simply to educate the audience from a neutral standpoint, or the piece may have been produced with a skewed Figure 1.4 Screenshot of Zotero Webpage
Chart a Clear Course 14 perspective for the purpose of persuasion. In either case, if the source was produced with motivations different from your own, it may not be an effective source for your project. If a source makes outrageous claims or only one-sided claims without considering both sides, that source is more than likely not good enough to be used in research for an unbiased document or proposal for a project. Accuracy The accuracy of research sources are of the utmost importance to your technical writing excursion. With a deluge of information available at every turn, confirming the accuracy your sources is what will validate your own ideas and opinions. If your sources cannot be proved accurate, then your research will not be viewed as reliable. If your sources are not accurate, then your project proposal simply has no place being published or finished. Accurate sources form the foundation for the entire project. Authority Consider the authority of the text. Ask yourself these questions: o Was it published by a reputable company? o Is the author a respected scholar? o Does the author have a specific knowledge of the topic?
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 15 If you answered "yes" to all these questions, then you may safely assume that the text comes from an authoritative source and you may use it for your research. However, do not fail to evaluate the text based on the rest of the criteria as well. Relevancy The relevancy of your sources will go a long way in determining the strength of your technical document. If you use resources that are not relevant to the research you are performing, the information you gather from these sources will only loosely support the ideas being formulated. Relevant research sources will form the backbone of any technical writing document. Currency Be sure that the resources you are using have been produced during the appropriate period. Using outdated research materials will lead to a document that is outdated. If you were researching heart surgery, you would not want use a source produced in the 1800s. Also, make sure that the sources you are using do not assume facts that are to come in the future. Looking back at the political example, if you attempt to research from a political party‘s website and they assume that the budget does not get passed and government shuts down, they may offer the worst case scenario should certain needs not be met. When in reality there is a lot more to be accomplished before the government shuts down.
Chart a Clear Course 16 That being said, this example assumes from the future and is not temporally accurate or relevant. Objectivity Objectivity in your research sources must be considered. Sources written with an agenda will only provide information to further that agenda. Pertinent information could be left out in order to lead the reader down a particular path. You will want to find objective, nonbiased sources when performing your research. Coverage In evaluating your sources, you must also consider the coverage of the source or how extensive is the information that is presented in the source. If you use a source that does not thoroughly cover a topic, your document will not provide sufficient coverage of the topic for your readers. Completing Your Research At this point in your journey, you will want to evaluate the research you have completed and determine how it will be used in the production of your document. Take the time to properly evaluate your sources and continue to focus by refining your research question. Try adding new key words or phrases in order to redirect your research efforts
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 17 Refining Your Research Question Now you will continue your research, keeping in mind the new focus you developed by refining your research question. Discover information that is more specific across all media that can be used further to reinforce the ideas in your research project. Consolidating Your Research Citations should be used to consolidate your research once you begin your document. However, before you and your group begin working, a good way to consolidate research is to use flash cards with quotes and references listed so that everyone is able to sort through them quickly. Online or computer based flash cards are best so that everyone can have a copy simultaneously. A collaborative bibliography that everyone can note and survey helps keep things in order. Citations Once those sources are acquired, how to accurately cite them in the report is crucial. APA and MLA are standard formats. However, they do often change with the advent of new technologies and ways of accessing them. MLA The Modern Language Association (MLA) has its own style for formatting papers and citations. Commonly used by students of the arts and humanities, many research papers are written in this style and it is often
Chart a Clear Course 18 appropriate to cite your sources in this format (Russell, Brizee, Angeli, and Keck). You may want to get your own copy of the seventh edition of the MLA style guide shown at the right (Figure 1.5). It will provide you with all of the information you need to write a proper MLA style paper. There are some things that you must do when using MLA format: 1. Set 1 inch margins. 2. Double-space. 3. Use 12pt font. 4. Indent the first line of each paragraph 1 half inch from the left margins. 5. Create a header that includes your last name and page number in the top, right hand corner. APA When writing for the social sciences, the format from the American Psychological Association (APA) is often used. The structure varies from an MLA document. There are four major sections required for APA format: o Title Page o Abstract o Main Body o References Figure 1.5 Latest Edition of the MLA Handbook
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 19 (Russell, Brizee, Angeli, and Keck) Avoiding Plagiarism After you have finished your research process, you need to determine what material you can use without violating intellectual property laws covering patents, trademarks, and copyrights. Taking credit for another‘s work, whether intentional or not, is not simply an ethical violation, but a legal one. In a business setting, misuse of others‘ intellectual party can lead to serious legal ramifications (Anderson 158). By not acknowledging a source, the plagiarist steals the recognition that honest researchers should receive, the enhanced respect that a researcher spends a lifetime struggling to earn. (Booth, Colomb, and Williams, 285) Summarize A summary is shorter and more concise than the text it is based on. It seeks to sum up the main ideas of the material to make them more quickly accessible to the reader. You should summarize when you want to present the quintessence of the text without bogging the reader down in unnecessary details. You must remember to include a citation in order to avoid unintentional plagiarism (Axelrod and Cooper 463).
Chart a Clear Course 20 Paraphrase Paraphrase sources when you can convey the same information more clearly, but not necessarily concisely. Since you are putting things in your own words your paraphrase may be nearly as long as the original text. When paraphrasing, you do not leave out anything that contributes to the meaning of the text. Attempt to be objective when paraphrasing, but remember that the paraphrase always reflects your own interpretation of the text (Axelrod and Cooper 465). Use this method when you want to make the material more accessible to your reader than the original text. Quote Do not overuse long quotes in your writing. Instead, use them when summarizing and paraphrasing are inadequate. There are certain occasions when you should use a quote: o When an author‘s specific words are significant and carry more weight o When you wish to present an author‘s argument without bias. o When you are using the quote as a primary source When you quote another writer‘s words, you must be particularly careful to thoroughly cite the source. Failing to properly cite sources violates ethical standards and can have legal repercussions.
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 21 Planning You cannot begin your project without first carefully planning how you will accomplish your goals. Thorough planning at the beginning will save you a lot of time throughout the rest of the process. Project Management The greatest potential difficulty is how to manage the team dynamic productively. Do not worry if you do not even know how to begin work together as a group. With some careful thought and thorough planning, you will know what to do if group members refuse to do their part, or if it is a new group and people do not know each other. Responsibilities More research could include how to incorporate new programs into your repertoire of experience, and how to plan for those accordingly for you and your group‘s projects at work. If your project dictates that charts, tables, graphs are to be included, you and your group must be aware of how much time it takes to learn a new program if you are unfamiliar with Corel Draw or Photoshop. These things must be added into your planning period, and you must research where to learn how to use them and how to effectively use them. Before you begin working with your group, you should sit down as a group and decide when to meet, how
Chart a Clear Course 22 often, and what to do if a group member should refuse to participate. It is crucial that you create a group contract detailing what each person‘s responsibilities and what the consequences are for not finishing those tasks. All group members must agree to abide by the group charter. In addition, if the student or employee is not working with another person or with a group, you may be unable to get the rest of the members to do their part of the project either as whole or in a timely efficient manner. This can be a cause of great concern for the research and planning department if their research holds up the rest of the project, as there is no research for the rest of the project to be based upon. A phenomenal way for the group to navigate around this challenge is to set aside days to all get together and ensure that everyone does their part. If a member continually refuses to show up for the weekly or bi-weekly meetings or if they show up and simply do nothing while the rest of the group works diligently, then the group as a whole can appeal to their governing body for a replacement or removal of that particular group member. Charters A group charter is a fantastic way to begin a group project. Using a charter ensures that group members know their responsibilities and the consequences for not completing the required tasks to finish the project.
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 23 The group charter should take into account what each member is best at and what his or her skill set is. As stated earlier, people who are best with computer work should keep their responsibilities as close to computer work as they can. This guarantees that the project progresses quickly and with great ease. Once each group member signs off on their responsibilities and consequences, there is no reason to stop meeting and only work alone individual tasks. Instead, have a weekly or even daily meeting to catch up, help one another, and to work collaboratively. Although there is a charter in place, it is still recommended that group members come together and work with one another on each other‘s responsibilities. For example, if one particular member works best with Adobe or on Photoshop, they should not be left on their own to do all the work on those programs on their own, but instead the group should come together as a whole and give input and advice for how they want the document to turn out in the end. Working together on individual responsibilities helps the collaborative process as well and gives the document a cohesive feel instead of a piecemeal feel where the reader is sure to feel and see where one person finished and the next started.
Chart a Clear Course 24 Schedules One way to solve these problems is for you to set out a reasonable time line that allows for some ‗wiggle‘ room. The schedule should ensure that each task would be accomplished with plenty of time to allow review, as well as providing a buffer should something unforeseeable prevent you from meeting the initial deadlines. o Day One: Analyze and confirm the requirements for the project. o Day Two: Research the necessary components for the project. o Day Three: Finalize first draft and ask peer to review to ensure that the draft attempts to cover needed components of project. o …Day X: Submit finalized project. A timeline like the one above is an example of how to check off what needs to be done next to each respective item. It is a great visual representation so that the group members know what still needs to be accomplished. Members are able to place a visual check mark next to each task as it is completed so that other members may simply glance at it to see if each day‘s tasks have been accomplished. If a task is not yet done, they will be able to plan accordingly.
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 25 Also, set aside an individual timeline for each person so that the rest of the group members can see who is doing what. You will know if everyone is accomplishing their tasks or if the entirety of the work is falling on the shoulders of one person. Calendars If you need help managing your team‘s time, consider using an online calendar. These collaborative tools allow your team to have a synchronized schedule. The tool has multiple uses, but most importantly, it can help you monitor deadlines. Online calendars work well because everyone who is invited to use the calendar is able to view the most updated version. You can also designate certain events to certain people. For example, you can write that Bob and Lana have section five due on the fifteenth and Bill and Sarah have section six which is due on the nineteenth. Online calendars can create some confusion. The calendar becomes unreliable when team members make changes to the calendar without alerting the rest of the team. If Bob and Lana expect the due date to be on the fifteenth and you change the date to the twenty-first, do not expect them to automatically know. You must take an extra step to alert your team members to changes.
Chart a Clear Course 26 Google Calendar This free calendar is available to those who have a Google account (Figure 1.6). You are able to create multiple calendars for different events and can share them with others even if they do not have a Google account. Google Calendar can send you reminders or alert you of changes made by email and text message. You can also invite people to events from the calendar. Audience Analysis You must know what your audience needs as well as want they want from your work in order to prepare successful communication for them. Technical writers generally hold themselves accountable for the level of understanding obtained by their audience. This means that if the audience does not understand the technical document, it is the fault of you, not the readers. Therefore thorough audience analysis is crucial as you survey the task that lies ahead. Determining the audience you wish to reach must be done early on in order to provide focus and direction during the research process. Without this consideration, the document you produce may miss the mark in terms relevance for the audience and ultimately fail in its purpose. With the proper identification of your audience, you will be able Figure 1.6 Google Calendar Logo
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 27 to more efficiently plan your research. There are some questions you should ask yourself before beginning your writing: o What task will your communication help your reader perform? o What is your reader‘s purpose? o What is the information your reader wants? o How is the reader going to use this information? o How do you want to affect your reader‘s attitudes? Once you have answered these questions, you should have a pretty clear idea on who your readers are and what they want. Sometimes, you will only need to answer these general questions when conducting audience analysis. Other times, your audience will be someone much more specific, especially in a business environment. Creating a Profile of Your Reader When dealing with an audience composed of a particular individual or individuals, you should create a profile of your reader. Here are some things you need to take into account: o Professional Specialty o Organizational Role o Familiarity with Your Topic
Chart a Clear Course 28 o Knowledge of Your Specialty o Relationship with You o Personal Preferences Most of these points are easy to answer (Anderson 95). You can only plan for your readers‘ preferences if you are personally acquainted with them. Maintaining good relationships with your coworkers and superiors will enable you create more persuasive and usable communication. Identifying Stakeholders Stakeholders are individuals who have something ―at stake‖ in your project. These people have something to gain or lose because of your message. They may be people who have worked with you on the assignment or people whose lives will be influenced more indirectly by your writing. Consider the impact your work will have on the people around you. Summary To plan and research a project, proposal, or a technical document, you must know who your audience is so that you can appropriately direct and write for the correct discourse community. After a group has established their audience, more planning and research can begin. Before any research or further planning can begin, a research question must be formulated. Only then do sources come into play. Having accurate sources and
Chapter 1 Research and Planning 29 reliable resources not only lends itself to credibility but also to a more cohesive technical document that the audience can appreciate. Knowing where to and how to gather those sources is necessary in writing technical documents and projects. Once reliable sources are found and a research question formulated, the group must focus on working successfully together on their journey to complete this project.
31 Work with Fellow Travelers: Collaboration Tools Teamwork is vital for an enjoyable trip. Having the best programs to orchestrate flawless communication with your fellow travelers is imperative for success. Face-to- face and online collaboration, presentation tools, and synchronization services are explained in this section to strengthen your connection with writing in a group.
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33 Collaboration Tools Introduction............................................................................ 35 Social Aspects....................................................................... 35 Traditional Collaborative Tools.............................................. 36 Meetings............................................................................ 37 Fax Machines.................................................................... 37 Printed Documents and Letters ........................................ 38 Online Collaboration Tools.................................................... 38 Email ................................................................................. 38 Instant Messaging............................................................. 40 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) .................................. 42 Document Editors ............................................................. 44 Synchronization Services.................................................. 45 Sharing Spaces and Wikis................................................ 46 Podcasts ........................................................................... 47 Blogs ................................................................................. 49 Forums.............................................................................. 50 Presentation Tools ............................................................ 52 Summary............................................................................... 53
35 Introduction If your job requires you to write, it is likely that you will collaborate with others. The dynamic of your writing shifts when this happens. You will need two things in order make this happen effectively: social skills and collaboration tools. This chapter guides you down the path of becoming a successful collaborator by exploring both of these dimensions. Remember this as you read this chapter: do not choose a collaborative tool just because it has great features. Each tool is ideal for some situations and impractical for others. If you choose a technology just because you like it, you may be giving extra responsibilities to your team with no good reason. Only use a collaborative tool that suits to your purposes and needs. Social Aspects Sometimes working with a group can make working on a project a lot easier by sharing the workload. Other times—it can seem nearly impossible. You may work with people who are hard workers in one group and people who are lazy in another. People also have strengths and weaknesses. You cannot always pick team members, so you must learn to work with all types of personalities. Because you do not want to work in a hostile environment, be considerate.
Work with Fellow Travelers 36 Editors must be especially cautious when working with others. If you must edit another‘s work, consider their feelings while reviewing. This does not mean that you must put every critique as delicately as possible, but you should never be arrogant as you make corrections. Realize that people make mistakes and so do you. Always have a professional attitude and try to word your critiques as positively as possible. Unless you are under strict time constraints, focus on some of the positive aspects of your teammate‘s writing instead of only the negative. Above all else, remain professional. This is the best way to summarize how to work well with others. It may be difficult at times to control your emotions, but doing so helps create an enjoyable work environment for everyone. Avoid profanity so that you do not unintentionally offend a co-worker or client. Be mindful of others‘ feelings. Moreover, treat others how you would like to be treated, an ancient philosophy and great advice. Traditional Collaborative Tools You are probably quite familiar with these technologies, so this section will not go into too many details. These technologies are included to remind you of practical solutions that are not found online. Newer technologies can be excellent tools, but consider the advantages of
Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 37 traditional tools before eliminating them as an option for collaboration. Meetings This may seem obvious, but meetings are an excellent collaboration tool. If your company is located in one location, it will probably be more practical to schedule a meeting face-to-face than set up a conference call. Meetings provide the best environment for collaborating and discussing a project because you can gather a group together and everyone can be seen and heard. Teleconferencing While it is possible to talk to others online, you still may want to keep your landline. If the internet stops working, you must have the ability to have a conference call. It is a lot easier to train employees who are computer illiterate to communicate with a phone than the computer. Fax Machines It is easy to transfer documents online, but what happens when you need to send a signed report? In addition, your client may not be able to open pdf files or there may be some other type of compatibility issue. Some businesses that you will work with may not have Figure 2.2 Fax Machine
Work with Fellow Travelers 38 access to a computer, but they may have a fax machine (Figure 2.2). Printed Documents and Letters In the age of email, sending a letter may seem like an outdated practice, but remember that printed documents can be practical. If you send an email to your team members, co-workers may not open it right away. Printed material has immediacy. Online Collaboration Tools As technology evolves, its ability to be used as a collaboration tool increases. There are hundreds of programs that can assist you in collaborating with a team. This section helps you explore various types of online collaboration tools. It will talk about the technology and then give an example. Most of all of the technologies used as an example have a free version that you can download, but you may want to consider upgrading to the paid versions to experience all of the program‘s features. Email You are already familiar with email, but take the time now to consider it as a collaborative tool. While you may not have considered it before, virtual teams use them extensively when collaborating. Your team collaborates whenever they send an email that contains a question or suggestion.
Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 39 Emails are simple, which makes them easy to use by people who are inexperienced with the internet. You can send emails to one person or multiple people. It is a technology that is well prepared for group work. You can attach documents to your email to share with your team. Depending on your settings, emails can act as an archive for your correspondence. Nearly all received and sent mail is stored in your email account and you control what is deleted or not. Emails can cause problems. A quickly written email may not read the way you intended, because it is written ambiguously. Also, emails can accidentally be sent to the unintended recipient. You should avoid transferring too many documents in an email. If a document only needs to be sent once, email works great. However, when you transfer a document that is being edited and revised by more than two people, the most updated version of the document can easily get lost in the correspondence. You would want to use a file sharing program for this application, mentioned later in this section. Gmail An example of a free email service is Gmail, which was created by Google (Figure 2.3). A nice feature that sets Gmail apart from other email providers is the conversation view. When you send an email, get a reply, and then respond to that message, Gmail keeps all of those correspondences grouped together as a single
Work with Fellow Travelers 40 conversation. This feature helps you organize the emails that you want to save for future reference. When you use Gmail, you are able to use its built-in instant messaging service, which is the next collaborative tool. Instant Messaging If you work with people from different locations, you will need to communicate with them often. You may be able reach them by phone, but this can become impractical if you need to communicate throughout the day. A solution is instant messaging software. With instant messaging, you communicate by typing. Once one person types and submits something, it is instantly transferred to the other person‘s computer, and then that other person has an opportunity to respond. This type of communication works great in situations where audible communication is impractical. With instant messaging, you can chat with multiple people at the same time. You can open separate chats with multiple people individually, or you can include multiple in one group chat so that everyone can talk to each other. Instant messaging also allows you to archive your chat sessions so that you have a record of the conversation. Figure 2.3 Gmail Logo
Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 41 Not all aspects of instant messaging are ideal for all situations. While cellular phones can be used anywhere, you must have an internet connection to use instant messaging. In addition, poor internet connection can cause lagging, which slows down the messages between users. Imagine submitting your reply and having it take thirty seconds for it to post to the other user. This delay can cause much confusion between users. You may want to consider using emoticons in your chatting. Emoticons are punctuation marks that are arranged to represent emotions. Of course, you would never use an emoticon on a professional document, but it could be appropriate in a medium such as instant messaging. Remember that you may only use emoticons in a casual context. You would never send an emoticon to your company‘s CEO. Table 2.1 Translation of Emoticons Emoticon Emotion  Happy, Smiling  Sad, Upset ;) Winking Google Talk An example of a free instant messaging service is Google Talk. All that you need to use Google Talk (Figure 2.4) is a Google account, which is also free.
Work with Fellow Travelers 42 Once you set up the account, you can chat with others who have Google Talk just as you would with any other instant messaging service. It also allows you to transfer files while chatting. With this service, you can change your status so that other chatters can see if you are online or not. You can even set your status to ―invisible‖ so that you can see who else is online, but others cannot see that you are available to chat. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) If your team cannot communicate adequately with instant messaging, consider using Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). This collaborative tool functions like a telephone that operates over the internet. With VoIP, you can talk to your team using audio, or you can talk using a combination of audio and video. Videoconferencing Videoconferencing (Figure 2.5) is a great alternative to the traditional meeting when not all members of a team are located at the same place. This form of VoIP can be set up between two or more locations if there is a microphone, video camera, and screen. The microphone and video camera will record you and the screen will display team members. You can even access VoIP on a laptop. This tool is an effective way to reduce the Figure 2.4 Google Talk Logo
Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 43 distance between team members who are not able to meet face-to-face. If you choose to use this tool, remember that there can be issues with reliability. VoIP is only reliable as your internet connection. If the internet shuts down, whether it is yours or the VoIP‘s hosting service, you will not be able to use this tool. It may also be difficult to train computer illiterate employees how to use the software. Skype A free VoIP is Skype (Figure 2.6). With Skype, you can call other users and phone numbers. However, there are additional fees to call landlines. You can set up videoconferencing between two people for free. You can have a videoconference between more than two people with an upgraded Skype account, which cost money, but may be worth the investment depending on your needs. Skype also has an integrated instant Figure 2.5 Example of Videoconferencing Figure 2.6 Skype Logo
Work with Fellow Travelers 44 messaging service, file transferring service, and text messaging service. Document Editors You are probably familiar with word processing programs like Microsoft Word. Online document editors that are online follow the same basic concepts. The difference is that the document in stored online instead of a file that needs to be transferred in order to be read. With online editors, all you need is the link to the document to access it. It may not be that much easier for you to open up a document online instead of a folder, but it can be efficient when you are collaborating online. You may have some problems transferring files when multiple people edit the same document. You can spend hours editing a document only to find out that the document was not the latest version. Online editing tools can tell you if someone is in the process of editing the document, which prevents you from accidentally doing double the work. Also, you will not have to worry about working on an outdated version of the file that was mixed up during a file transfer. Some online editors do not allow more than one person to work on a document at the same time. If you plan to use this collaborative tool, you should create a schedule that dictates when team members can edit their portion of the document.
Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 45 Google Docs Google Docs (Figure 2.7) is a free editing program actually allows more than one person to edit the document at a time. The other members of your team will be able to see the changes you make as you type. You can create different types of documents, such as forms, drawings, and spreadsheets. Synchronization Services Use a synchronization service to share a large amount of files. This collaborative tool creates a synchronization folder that exists on your computer, other team member‘s computers, and on the program‘s servers. The folder on your computer is connected to the other members‘ folders and synchronized through the internet. Your team will have access to your document when you upload it to the synchronization folder. These services are ideal for sharing files, but there are other benefits as well. Your files are backed up when you upload them to a synchronizations service. You will not lose your files if something happens to your computer. Also, your team will know exactly where to find the files they need because they are all in the same place. If you plan to store many files, you may not want to use a synchronization service. This tool can occupy a Figure 2.7 Google Docs Logo
Work with Fellow Travelers 46 lot of hard drive space on your team‘s computers. Try making your own website and storing the files there if your files take up too much space. However, if most of your files are text documents, you should not have this problem. Dropbox Dropbox (Figure 2.8) allows you to share files on Windows, Mac, and Linux platforms and allows you to share through your mobile device. Dropbox members also get two gigabytes of back up storage for free. If you choose to upgrade, the deluxe version offers more storage space. Sharing Spaces and Wikis You may want to use multiple collaboration tools in order to complete a project, consider using a sharing space or a wiki. These tools usually perform all of the functions mentioned so far in this section. The greatest benefit of these tools is that everything is in a centralized location. Your team will not be confused about where they need to go for information. You will automatically know where to find files, check the calendar, and hold a meeting with instant messaging because it will all be in the same place. Figure 2.8 Dropbox Logo
Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 47 Keep in mind that you may not want to use a sharing space or wiki if your team only needs a few collaborative tools. While sharing spaces and wikis offer many tools in one location, each tool may not function as well as a tool that is designed for a specific purpose. For example, if you use a sharing space or wiki only to share files, you might want to use a synchronization service to better suit your needs. Wiggio This free sharing space offers many of the tools that a virtual team needs. It has calendars, to-do lists, meeting spaces, file sharing, polls, and more. With Wiggio (Figure 2.9), you can enlist in more than one group. Wiggio has a feed feature that updates you with the latest activity of your team. The feed is listed on your Wiggio home page and it can alert you by email or text message. Podcasts If you need to broadcast a message to a wide audience, consider using a podcast. A podcast is a recording of either one person talking or of multiple people having a conversation. The podcast is then converted into an audio format so that you can easily listen to it over the internet. You can listen to a podcast online, or you can download from the internet and burn it onto a CD or Figure 2.9 Wiggio Logo
Work with Fellow Travelers 48 upload it to your mp3 player. You can also record your own podcast with recording software and convert into a digital audio format. Podcasts are a great tool for when working with a large group. Instead of holding a meeting and expecting everyone to remember all of the key information, you could record a podcast and email it to all of your team members. Employees could then listen to it at their convenience. There would be less confusion about the content of your presentation because team members could play the file repeatedly. Again, there could be issues with the internet not working, and not all of your team members may be able to use digital audio formats. Also, it requires some skill to record a podcast. Most recording software required more than just the push of one button. If you plan to use podcasts as a way of communicating with your team, be sure to allow yourself some time to become familiar with the software. Audacity Although it is not specifically a podcast recorder, Audacity (Figure 2.10) is a free recording software that is relatively easy to learn and can help you produce a quality podcast. When you open up the program, make sure you have the microphone configured correctly and then press the Figure 2.10 Audacity Logo
Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 49 record button. You can record one track and then record again over the original it so that the recording sounds like both tracks happened at the same time (Figure 2.11). Once you have your recording, you will need to install a plug-in to convert the track to mp3 format. Then you can send your file to your team. Blogs If you need to keep your team updated, you might want to consider using a blog. Blogs allow you to share short articles. You can choose to allow team members to post comments on your blog so that they could express their opinions or ask questions. Most blogs are very intuitive and easy to use. You can choose your level of security so that either anyone on the internet can view your blog, or only a select few who you invite by email. Some blogs alert you by email or text message when someone comments on your blog if you give the blog that permission. This alert system keeps you updated with your blog. Blogs may not always be the most practical solution. You would never want to put a conversation that should be private on a blog for all to see. Also, if you allow Figure 2.11 Track Recording in Audacity
Work with Fellow Travelers 50 comments, there is a possibility that team members can instigate arguments. Blogger Blogger (Figure 2.12) lets you create your own profile so that you can connect with the community. This free blogging service is designed for beginners or experts. You can design your Blogger site. However, you want by either following a template or entering in computer code. The most important feature for collaboration online is the ability to determine who accesses your blog. Forums This collaborative tool is excellent if you need to ask and answer many questions within your group. Forums can discuss multiple topics at one location. The topics are usually divided into main categories, and each main category has sub-categories. Then each sub-category has threads or conversation topics. You can open your forum to anyone on the internet, or you can set the permissions so that only invited guests can enter the forum. Forums are more practical for large teams. If an issue arises with a small team, it is easy to inform all members Figure 2.0.12 Blogger Logo
Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 51 about the issue. However, larger teams that operate from different locations cannot always communicate as effectively. The benefit of forums is that each conversation becomes a resource. When team members solve a common problem, others can always reference that discussion if they encounter a similar problem. Forums can be difficult maintain. If no one uses the forum to ask questions about their problem, then no one else will be able to use the forum as a reference for future problems. As with blogs, it is possible that team members can begin arguments with each other, which ultimately hurts the moral and productivity of your team. ProBoards ProBoards (Figure 2.13) is a forum community that offers hosting services. It has an extensive security system that helps prevent spammers from using your forum. The free version offers nearly all of the same features as the paid version, but it has advertisements. You can set permissions to determine who is able to enter your forum and who can make administrative decisions. Figure 2.13 ProBoard Logo
Work with Fellow Travelers 52 Presentation Tools If you have ever attended a business meeting, you have probably seen or used PowerPoint, or alternate presentation tool. These programs typically act as a visual aid for speech, but they can also incorporate audio so that the presentation does all of the presenting. The presentation tools mentioned here are similar to PowerPoint except that they exist online. Sometimes written words are not enough to explain a concept. You need visuals. These presentation tools can help you illustrate concepts in a visual way. A person can become confused when they repeatedly read a text, look at the visuals, and then return to the text. You can combine audio, text, and visuals into one presentation to eliminate that confusion. Also, the presentation will always be available for team members to review. While presentation tools are a great way to convey complex information, it can also become time consuming to create a presentation. Do not spend an hour creating a presentation for something that could be said in a two-paragraph email. As with all software, you may also experience compatibility issues with other team members. Be sure to use a program that your team can access without any problems. Prezi This presentation tool takes a different approach because it allows you to zoom in and out of the presentation
Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 53 instead of switching from one slide to the next. This helps the information you present flow more effectively. There is a free version that displays the Prezi logo (Figure 2.14) on your presentation and submits it to a publicly shared database. If you want to keep your information private, you will have to pay a subscription fee. Summary When you work with a team, it is important to remember that there are two aspects of collaboration: social and technological. Develop techniques that will help you work with all types of personalities and always remain professional. Do not forget about traditional technologies when collaborating, but also try to explore some of the options found in the online environment. Remember to choose technologies suited to your needs. You may be partial to one technology or brand, but it may not be the best technology for every situation. Have an open mind when trying out a new technology. You might actually prefer a new technology after you learn to use its features. You will never know if it could increase your team‘s productivity until you take the time to explore the different collaboration tools. Figure 2.14 Prezi Logo
Work with Fellow Travelers 54
55 Navigate Cultural Differences: Cross- Cultural Communication Navigating through cultural awareness, stereotypes, and cultural variables deepens your understanding and knowledge as a communicator. Learn from the mistakes of past cross-cultural communication and consider the perspectives of each individual. You need to remember that inclusion of all people makes for richer and more meaningful communication.
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57 Cross-Cultural Communication Introduction............................................................................ 59 Cultural Considerations......................................................... 59 Cultural Bias...................................................................... 60 Interactive Communication ............................................... 61 Examples of Cross-Cultural Miscommunication ............... 66 Cultural Variables.................................................................. 69 Economic .......................................................................... 69 Educational ....................................................................... 70 Linguistic ........................................................................... 71 Political.............................................................................. 72 Religious ........................................................................... 73 Social ................................................................................ 73 Technological.................................................................... 73 Modules of Cultural Dimensions ........................................... 74 The Iceberg Module .......................................................... 75 Hofstede’s Cultural Value Dimensions ............................. 76 Hall’s Theory of Contexting............................................... 80 Summary............................................................................... 82
59 Introduction As the workplace grows globally, you will find yourself in a culturally diverse work environment. Cultural aspects affect your written and verbal communication. This chapter will provide you with the information you need about certain cultural considerations, variables, and dimensions. After recognizing how cultures vary, you will be prepared for any situation in a cross-cultural environment. Cultural Considerations You should always consider cross-cultural audiences as you write documents about business, science, medicine, travel, or any other form of writing. Remember to understand your audience before writing a technical piece. Your communication will be less effective if you fail to consider your audience. Some cultures may be comfortable with a certain communication style while others may be offended by it (Lannon 645). Ask yourself questions like these when you write for a diverse audience: o How direct should I be in my writing? o Should I be detailed-oriented or simplistic in my descriptions? o Can I use allegories, similes, or metaphors in my writing, or should I avoid them? o Will imperative sentences help or hinder the connection with the reader?
Navigate Cultural Differences 60 o Should I incorporate visuals in my writing or only use text? Think about language differences as you write. Using direct language is accepted in Middle Eastern and Southern European cultures such as the, but it can be considered disrespectful and aggressive in Southeast Asian culture (Lannon 645). You can help the reader understand things better by stating ideas in multiple ways, decreasing miscommunication and improving clarity. Include visuals in your writing to enhance understanding. If there is a language barrier, visuals will help the reader connect to your message. Think about your readers. Consider the importance of verbal and written cues as well as non-verbal or inferred cues of communication when putting together technical document. If you are communicating in a group setting, think about how various cultures relate to each other. Do they work collectively or individually? Personal space is an importance subject to keep in mind as well. Some cultures like to be close and personal while others prefer to be stoic and impersonal. Cultural Bias Dr. Dan Jones believes that ―the culture in which you write influences the way you write your technical
Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 61 documents‖ (Jones 226). Cultural bias influences all people. It is impossible to avoid. In Technical Writing Style, Jones points out: In the United States (and in many industrialized countries), technical communication requires simple, concise expression and clear thinking. Conflict with these requirements can arise in persons whose culture values detailed, subjective analyses and excessively philosophical argumentation. (Jones 226) While it is important to communicate effectively across cultures, it is equally crucial to communicate effectively with people of different genders, races, ages, and physical abilities. It may be controversial to talk about these differences in some circles, but they should not be ignored, especially when your write business documents. In businesses, the words you choose are vital. Carefully construct your tone so that you do not offend anyone. Be careful in the way that you refer to groups of people. Avoid labels that could offend any individual, even to the slightest degree. Interactive Communication From a psychological perspective, Fernando Poyatos researches non-verbal communication across cultures and defines his findings in Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Nonverbal Communication. He explains the triple reality of
Navigate Cultural Differences 62 interactive discourse: language, paralanguage, and kinesics. Language Language can be defined in technical detail as ―lexico- morphological syntactical complex, which has been traditionally considered as autonomous and a complete system‖ (Poyatos 36). However, two co-systems support language. Without these, language could not exist. Paralanguage One co-system is paralanguage, which determines the modifications of your voice, such as pitch or volume. For example, you may use a low-pitched, breathy voice in a passionate situation. There are four paralinguistic categories that researchers have studied across different cultures: primary qualities, qualifiers, differentiators, and alternates. Primary Qualities Primary qualities include the timbre, resonance, volume, tempo, pitch register, and rhythm of your voice. They can manifest biologically (timbre differences in males and females), physiologically (nasal resonance due to inflamed mucus membranes), psychologically (monotonous intonation indicative of depression), socially (slowed tempo to exude superiority), and culturally (higher and lower volumes depending on region) (Poyatos 38).
Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 63 Qualifiers Qualifiers are the sound effects produced by various regional and cultural factors. The nasally twang of a Texan is a good example of this paralinguistic category. Differentiators Differentiators describe the way people laugh, cry, hiccup, belch, whisper, shout, or cough. They are set apart by education, culture, sex, or age. All differentiators can also vary according to culture. Alternates The final paralanguage category is alternates: single or compound sounds such as sighs, clearing of throat, clicks, closed lip and open lip sounds, and meaningful silences. For example, people may say ―Uh!‖, ―Mmhmm!‖, ―Psst!‖, ―Uh-uh‖, and ―Hm‖ (Poyatos, 39). You should consider how different cultures view silence and stillness. These are not necessarily words, but they do convey a certain meaning. People can demonstrate an ―unfilled pause‖ as a response from a motionless speaker with a stance of expectancy or a listener‘s stance of shock. A ―filled pause‖ can also be a lexical paralinguistic alternate such as ―Er” or ―Um‖ (Poyatos 43). Various cultures use both stillness and silence in many ways.
Navigate Cultural Differences 64 Kinesics The second co-system is kinesics, which determines how body language affects communication. For example, you might scratch your head as you talk to someone as a way to express your frustration. Kinesics may affect the way you write more so when you incorporate visuals into a document. Consider how different cultures interpret the body language you represent in your visuals. There are three categories of kinesic behavior: gestures, manners, and postures. This dimension of communication is subtle and nonverbal. There are two different types of kinesic behavior: free and bound. You demonstrate free kinesics by moving one or more parts of your body in the air, such as talking with your hands. You use bound kinesics when you touch yourself, others, or the objective environment (Poyatos 41). You demonstrate bound kinesics by putting a hand to your mouth, gently putting your hand on another person‘s shoulder, and even by placing your hand on a podium. Pay attention to the intensity, range, speed of movement as you communicate with others, and remember that you may interpret these indicators differently than someone from another culture. Consider intrasystems, which are co-behaviors of facial expressions, body movements, and body positions. Consider the other person‘s facial expressions and their entire body language when you communicate.
Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 65 Intersystem behavior such as tear shedding or touch can be neglected in cross-cultural communication, so remembering them will give you an advantage over your competitors. Remain aware of different cultural interpretations of behaviors to avoid embarrassing misunderstandings. Kinesic Coding and Decoding Great technical communicators consider both the verbal and nonverbal sides of communication. You can do this by writing a document first, and then consider any nonverbal aspects associated with it. This process may help your message become decoded and received more accurately. Listed below are some sender/receiver aspects of coding and decoding information and the intent of the information from a cross-cultural interpretation. Table 3.1 Sender/Receiver Aspects of Coding and Decoding Linguistic Coding Example Homomorphs-synonyms: Same form and meaning Having a palm facing receiver with all five fingers extended is considered a hello or greeting in England, America, and Australia. Antomorphs-antonyms: Different form and meaning Eyes downcast in Asian cultures and eye contact in America culture are signs of respect.
Navigate Cultural Differences 66 Antomorphs-synonyms: Different form and same meaning In Japan, pointing an index finger to the nose means of ―I‖. Americans point to the chest for ―I‖. Homomorphs-antonyms: Same form but different meaning. In America, when index and thumb fingers touch and the three other fingers extended, it means everything is good. In Japan, it means the person has no worth. Non-verbal behavior symbolizes more than specific meanings—it is expressive of entire cultural viewpoints (Engel 96). The cultural gap is not just help to exotic and non-exotic cultures. It is found between all cultures including subcultures. Examples of Cross-Cultural Miscommunication Linguist Giacomo Devoto said, ―Words can be robust and flexible (in the terms of meaning), but through misuse they can become deformed, stiff and temporarily ‗sick‘‖ (Zhu 180). Words or expressions that have the same form in two or more languages but convey different meanings are considered by Mona Baker as ―false friends‖ (Zhu 181). These false friends exist because of lexical borrowing from various languages. The meaning of a word may
Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 67 change when it is adapted from another language. The borrowed word may even develop completely different connotation. Consider the similar words that come from the Latin word ―preseruatiuum‖: o ―preservative‖ (English) o ―preservative‖ (French) o ―Präservativ‖ (German) o ―prezervativ‖ (Czech) o ―preservative‖ (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese) o ―prezerwatywa‖ (Polish) In all these languages except English, the word mostly means condom, making it a striking example of a false friend (Zhu 181). This is just one of many examples that technical communicators deal with regularly. It is very important that you understand your audience in all dimensions. American and British negotiators found themselves at a deadlock, because the American company proposed that they ―table‖ particular points. This example of false friends operates on the phrasal level. In America, ―tabling a motion‖ means to not discuss something, and in England, it means to discuss something. Both sides were confused about what to do because of this cultural blunder (Zhu 182). The next example of false friends is on the grammatical level. When the Pope visited Miami, an entrepreneur
Navigate Cultural Differences 68 made t-shirts saying, ―I saw the Pope‖ in Spanish. He did not know that the definite article in Spanish has two genders. Instead of printing ―El Papa‖ (the Pope), he printed ―La Papa‖ (the potato). The venture utterly failed because no one wanted a t-shirt that said, ―I saw the potato‖ (Zhu 183). McDonald‘s failed to consider the Chinese culture when they released a commercial that featured a Chinese man kneeling and begging for a discount. Chinese customers were insulted because they view kneeling as a sign of respect or in this case disrespect. The Chinese also felt that the commercial hinted of American imperialism (Chan 5). The China Business Review mentions a Nike advertising campaign entitled ―Chamber of Fear‖. In the advertisement, Lebron James defeats a master of Kung Fu, ancient fairies, and two dragons in a game of basketball. The characters were Chinese-styled cartoons. China accused Nike of being insensitive and denigrating their culture. China‘s State Administration for Radio, Film, and Television banned the commercial to ―protect national honor and traditional Chinese culture‖ (Chan 6). All of these examples publicly display the incompetence of not only the companies that produced these blunders, but also the incompetency of the writers who wrote them. To avoid these problems, always research your
Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 69 audience before you create any form of communication for them. You may lose your job if you fail to do so. Cultural Variables Cultural variables exist in every facet of your life. They influence your writing whether you know it or not. So what exactly are cultural variables? They can be anything that classifies groups of people by a single variable. For example, people can be grouped by their education level (high school, vocational, or college). This portion of the chapter covers seven important variables that may affect your writing: economic, educational, linguistic, political, religious, social, and technological. Economic Economic variables define cultures by their wealth. Societies determine whether people are rich or poor based on how much material possessions they have or can attain. For example, you might assume that a person is poor or even homeless based on the condition of their clothing. This economic variable would affect the way you would approach and communicate to this person. You should remember that all cultures have economic variables that will affect the way you write. A person‘s economic will impact the way they interpret what they read. Because some people cannot afford certain things (or even anything), you must write with a focus on
Navigate Cultural Differences 70 ‗fairness‘. In other words, you must write to eliminate a sense of entitlement that often arises in economic differences. Take Africa for example. In many areas of Africa, people have few possessions, especially when judged by the standards of western culture. Many Africans are limited economically and cannot gain access to computers or the internet. Therefore, you would not use a webpage to reach an audience that cannot afford a computer. Remember also that cultures measure wealth differently. A wealthy person from the United States may own several laptop computers, whereas a wealthy person from Africa may own several cows. One might not find value each other‘s possession because both people define wealth differently. Consider what each cultures value when you write. Educational Educational variables define cultures by the value they place on education. You might use the terms ―smart‖ and ―dumb‖, or more politely, ―uneducated‖ when discussing this variable. Instead, you should also consider terms like ―access‖ and ―availability‖. Not everyone has the opportunity to become well-educated. Western cultures often stress the importance of education in local and national politics. They attempt to create a stronger foundation of education that will increase the knowledge of society through the public
Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 71 school systems. However, when comparing western cultures with those of Japan, there is a large gap between the educational levels. This gap is mostly due to the level of stress placed on educational values. When looking at some Asian cultures, such as Japan, you may see a completely different stress placed on education. Children are monitored very closely at school and are limited in their extracurricular activity. Social interaction is a lower priority, and a majority of their childhood is spent in the classroom. As a result, Japanese students score higher on annual intelligence tests than American students. As you write, it is important to consider differences in perception of education in other cultures. While the focus tends to be on a person‘s intelligence or their ability to interpret what is written, you should also consider how seriously people feel about their own education. The motivation behind learning is as important as learning itself. Linguistic Linguistic variables define how cultures are affected by language. Even a country uses one primary language that culture can be further broken up by dialects or accents. Linguistics is an important cultural factor because it dictates how you write and how you orally communicate with others.
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  • 2. ii
  • 3. iii Journey to Successful Writing Tour Guide to Technical Communication Production Team Project Manager Editor-in-Chief Jennifer Blackwell Bethany Bowles Copyeditor Copyeditor John Savage Zachary Anderson Authors Chart a Clear Course Work with Fellow Travelers John SavageNathaniel Duvall Katherine Thomas Navigate Cultural Differences Zachary Anderson, Jennifer Blackwell, Bethany Bowles, John Savage Shine in a Sea of Style Nicolay Abdrakhmanov Tara Howard Enhance Your Scenic Experience Christopher Morris, James Roysden, Charles Zaffery Bring Home a Souvenir Allan Mair David O‘Farrill Presented To Professor Gomrad University of Central Florida ENC 4293.0M02 • Spring 2011
  • 4. iv
  • 5. v Acknowledgments We give a special thanks to Monica Ibarra for the creation of the cover design and cover graphics. We appreciate University Printing Services for the publication of this style guide. Our contact with Nikki Cason made the process simple, organized, and informative. Thanks to Professor Mary Ellen Gomrad for all of the knowledge, experience, and consultation services that she gave. We are grateful for this learning opportunity.
  • 6. vi
  • 7. vii Table of Contents Beginning Your Journey… ..................................................... xv The Path this Book Explores .............................................xv Advice for the Road ......................................................... xvii Chart a Clear Course: Research and Planning....................... 1 Introduction.............................................................................. 5 Researching Effectively........................................................... 5 Brainstorming...................................................................... 5 Mind Mapping .......................................................................... 5 Free Writing ............................................................................. 6 Preliminary Research .............................................................. 7 Determining Your Research Topic...................................... 7 Asking a Question.................................................................... 7 Motivating Your Topic.............................................................. 8 Focusing on a Research Question........................................... 8 Diving into Your Research .................................................. 9 Web ......................................................................................... 9 Library...................................................................................... 9 Field Research....................................................................... 10 Observation....................................................................... 10 Interview ........................................................................... 11 Managing Your Sources........................................................ 11 Tracking Your Sources ..................................................... 12 Evernote ................................................................................ 12 Zotero .................................................................................... 12 Evaluating Your Sources .................................................. 13 Purpose ................................................................................. 13 Accuracy................................................................................ 14 Authority ................................................................................ 14 Relevancy.............................................................................. 15 Currency................................................................................ 15 Objectivity .............................................................................. 16 Coverage............................................................................... 16 Completing Your Research ................................................... 16
  • 8. viii Refining Your Research Question.......................................... 17 Consolidating Your Research ........................................... 17 Citations................................................................................. 17 MLA................................................................................... 17 APA................................................................................... 18 Avoiding Plagiarism .......................................................... 19 Summarize............................................................................. 19 Paraphrase ............................................................................ 20 Quote ..................................................................................... 20 Planning................................................................................. 21 Project Management......................................................... 21 Responsibilities...................................................................... 21 Charters ................................................................................. 22 Schedules ......................................................................... 24 Calendars............................................................................... 25 Google Calendar............................................................... 26 Audience Analysis............................................................. 26 Creating a Profile of Your Reader.......................................... 27 Identifying Stakeholders......................................................... 28 Summary............................................................................... 28 Work with Fellow Travelers: Collaboration Tools ................ 31 Introduction............................................................................ 35 Social Aspects....................................................................... 35 Traditional Collaborative Tools.............................................. 36 Meetings............................................................................ 37 Teleconferencing ................................................................... 37 Fax Machines.................................................................... 37 Printed Documents and Letters ........................................ 38 Online Collaboration Tools.................................................... 38 Email ................................................................................. 38 Gmail ..................................................................................... 39 Instant Messaging............................................................. 40 Google Talk............................................................................ 41 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) .................................. 42 Videoconferencing ................................................................. 42 Skype..................................................................................... 43
  • 9. ix Document Editors ............................................................. 44 Google Docs.......................................................................... 45 Synchronization Services.................................................. 45 Dropbox................................................................................. 46 Sharing Spaces and Wikis................................................ 46 Wiggio.................................................................................... 47 Podcasts ........................................................................... 47 Audacity................................................................................. 48 Blogs ................................................................................. 49 Blogger .................................................................................. 50 Forums.............................................................................. 50 ProBoards.............................................................................. 51 Presentation Tools ............................................................ 52 Prezi ...................................................................................... 52 Summary............................................................................... 53 Navigate Cultural Differences: Cross-Cultural Communication........................................................................ 55 Introduction............................................................................ 59 Cultural Considerations......................................................... 59 Cultural Bias...................................................................... 60 Interactive Communication ............................................... 61 Language............................................................................... 62 Paralanguage ........................................................................ 62 Primary Qualities............................................................... 62 Qualifiers........................................................................... 63 Differentiators.................................................................... 63 Alternates.......................................................................... 63 Kinesics ................................................................................. 64 Kinesic Coding and Decoding........................................... 65 Examples of Cross-Cultural Miscommunication ............... 66 Cultural Variables.................................................................. 69 Economic .......................................................................... 69 Educational ....................................................................... 70 Linguistic ........................................................................... 71 Political.............................................................................. 72 Religious ........................................................................... 73
  • 10. x Social ................................................................................ 73 Technological.................................................................... 73 Modules of Cultural Dimensions ........................................... 74 The Iceberg Module .......................................................... 75 Hofstede’s Cultural Value Dimensions ............................. 76 Individualism vs. Collectivism................................................. 76 Power Distance Index ............................................................ 77 Uncertainty Avoidance Index ................................................. 77 Masculine vs. Feminine ......................................................... 78 Short and Long Term Orientation........................................... 79 Hall’s Theory of Contexting............................................... 80 High-Context.......................................................................... 80 Low-Context........................................................................... 81 How Hall’s Theory Affects Your Writing ................................. 81 Summary............................................................................... 82 Shine in a Sea of Style: Writing Style and Clarity ................ 83 Introduction............................................................................ 87 Grammar Basics.................................................................... 87 Parts of Speech ................................................................ 87 Sentence Structure ........................................................... 88 Clauses.................................................................................. 88 Sentence Types..................................................................... 89 Punctuation ....................................................................... 90 Persuasiveness in Writing..................................................... 91 Voice ................................................................................. 91 Readers’ Expectations ........................................................... 92 Readers’ Reactions................................................................ 92 Rhetoric............................................................................. 93 Logos ..................................................................................... 93 Ethos...................................................................................... 94 Pathos.................................................................................... 95 Professionalism in Writing................................................. 95 Terminology and Jargon ........................................................ 95 Formal Documents................................................................. 96 Casual Documents................................................................. 96 Chatting and Texting.............................................................. 96
  • 11. xi Formatting ............................................................................. 97 Business Documents ........................................................ 98 Letters.................................................................................... 98 Memorandums....................................................................... 99 Faxes..................................................................................... 99 Emails.................................................................................... 99 Marketing Documents.......................................................... 100 Job Search Documents................................................... 101 Résumés ............................................................................. 101 Cover Letters ....................................................................... 102 Technical Documents ..................................................... 102 Technical Manuals............................................................... 103 User Manuals ...................................................................... 103 Technical Reports ........................................................... 105 Proposals............................................................................. 105 Background Reports............................................................ 106 Empirical Research Reports ................................................ 106 Feasibility Reports ............................................................... 107 Summary............................................................................. 107 Enhance Your Scenic Experience: Visual Design and Graphics ................................................................................. 109 Introduction.......................................................................... 113 Page Layout Principles........................................................ 113 Harmony and Consistency.............................................. 113 Emphasis ........................................................................ 115 Contrast........................................................................... 115 White Space ........................................................................ 115 Proximity ......................................................................... 117 Balance ........................................................................... 117 Symmetry ............................................................................ 118 Asymmetry........................................................................... 118 Graphics .............................................................................. 118 Graphs and Charts.......................................................... 119 Line Graphs......................................................................... 119 Bar Graphs .......................................................................... 120 Pie Charts............................................................................ 121
  • 12. xii Flowcharts............................................................................ 122 Gantt Charts......................................................................... 123 Tables .................................................................................. 124 Pictures ........................................................................... 125 Illustrations........................................................................... 125 Line Drawings and Diagrams .......................................... 125 Maps ............................................................................... 126 Icons and Symbols.......................................................... 126 Photographs......................................................................... 127 Screen Shots................................................................... 128 Labeling Graphics ........................................................... 129 Ethical Use of Graphics .................................................. 130 Typography ......................................................................... 131 Legibility .......................................................................... 132 Readability ...................................................................... 132 Typefaces........................................................................ 133 Choosing a Type Size.......................................................... 135 Alignment ........................................................................ 136 Spacing ........................................................................... 136 Color.................................................................................... 138 Color Principles............................................................... 138 Hue ...................................................................................... 138 Saturation............................................................................. 138 Brightness............................................................................ 139 Color Wheel .................................................................... 139 Color Schemes ............................................................... 140 Monochromatic .................................................................... 140 Complimentary..................................................................... 140 Split Complimentary............................................................. 140 Analogous............................................................................ 141 Triadic .................................................................................. 141 Tetradic................................................................................ 141 Color Models ....................................................................... 141 RGB Color Model............................................................ 142 CMYK Color Model ......................................................... 142 HSB Color Model ............................................................ 143 Summary............................................................................. 144
  • 13. xiii Bring Home a Souvenir: Production.................................... 145 Introduction.......................................................................... 149 Layout.................................................................................. 149 Beginning the Production .................................................... 150 Prepress.......................................................................... 150 Copy-Editing ................................................................... 151 Proofreading ................................................................... 151 Paper Selection................................................................... 151 Size ................................................................................. 152 Weight............................................................................. 152 Finish............................................................................... 153 Printing ................................................................................ 153 Printing Process.............................................................. 154 Current Printing Techniques ........................................... 155 Offset Printing...................................................................... 155 Laser Printing ...................................................................... 155 Bindings............................................................................... 156 Spiral Binding.................................................................. 156 Comb Binding ................................................................. 157 Wire-O Binding................................................................ 157 Saddle Stitching .............................................................. 157 Perfect Binding................................................................ 158 Coil Binding..................................................................... 158 Case Binding................................................................... 158 Tape Binding................................................................... 159 Summary............................................................................. 159 Completing Your Journey…................................................. 161 References ............................................................................. 163 Graphic References............................................................... 169 Glossary ................................................................................. 175 Index ....................................................................................... 193
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  • 15. xv Beginning Your Journey… So, you are out of school, you have landed a job, and now you are at your desk trying to remember how to use active voice. It is nine in the morning. You are tired. You learned about active and passive voice three years ago, but your mind is blank. How can you recall this information? You could bring seventy pounds of textbooks to the job every day if you still have them, or you could find a more practical solution. Have your copy of Journey to Successful Writing: Tour Guide to Technical Communication close by, grab a cup of coffee, and let your journey begin. The Path this Book Explores Obviously, reading one book cannot turn an average writer into a superb technical writer, and this book does not attempt to do that. Journey to Successful Writing: Tour Guide to Technical Communication is a refresher. You have already traveled the educational road and learned the material. Your new venture—your career—calls for a guide, which is what you have in this book. This book focuses on six major topics that you will likely encounter in the technical writing field: Research and Planning, Collaboration Tools, Cross-Cultural Communication, Writing Style and Clarity, Visual Design and Graphics, and Production.
  • 16. xvi Chart a Clear Course The Research and Planning section tells you about the proper way to plan for a major document and how to research effectively. It will help you recall preliminary and ethical research, audience analysis, and planning. Work with Fellow Travelers The Collaboration Tools section will help you find the best programs for working with others. It will refresh you on face-to-face and online collaboration, presentation tools, and synchronization services. Navigate Cultural Differences The Cross-Cultural Communication section covers the challenges and opportunities that you will encounter when you write for different cultures. It will help you remember cultural awareness, stereotypes, and cultural variables. Shine in a Sea of Style The Writing Style and Clarity section talks about various grammatical and stylistic choices. You can brush up on sentence structure, active and passive voice, professionalism in writing, and approaches to various documents. Enhance Your Visual Experience The Visual Design and Graphics section shows you how to use visual elements within your document. It jogs your memory on white space, graphics, and typography.
  • 17. xvii Bring Home a Souvenir The Production section walks you down the path of creating a major document. It prompts you on how to create the proper layout, choose the correct type of paper, proofread, edit, and take your major document to the printer. Advice for the Road When you face any roadblocks in technical communication, the answer in Journey to Successful Writing: Tour Guide to Technical Communication is always a flip of the page away. So relax. Sip your coffee. And write with confidence knowing that you have a reliable guide by your side as you travel on your journey as a technical communicator.
  • 18.
  • 19. 1 Chart a Clear Course: Research and Planning Making sure you have all the tools for your journey, this section details organizational tactics, research methods, and planning skills to help you accomplish your journey more effectively. Preliminary and ethical research, audience analysis, and planning are pivotal maneuvers to reach your destination: a successful technical writing document.
  • 20. 2
  • 21. 3 Research and Planning Introduction.............................................................................. 5 Researching Effectively........................................................... 5 Brainstorming...................................................................... 5 Determining Your Research Topic...................................... 7 Diving into Your Research .................................................. 9 Managing Your Sources........................................................ 11 Tracking Your Sources ..................................................... 12 Evaluating Your Sources .................................................. 13 Completing Your Research ................................................... 16 Consolidating Your Research ........................................... 17 Avoiding Plagiarism .......................................................... 19 Planning ................................................................................ 21 Project Management......................................................... 21 Schedules ......................................................................... 24 Audience Analysis............................................................. 26 Summary............................................................................... 28
  • 22. 4
  • 23. 5 Introduction You are about to enter to enter the land of technical writing. Before embarking on your journey, you should chart a clear course. How do you do this? You research and plan. To succeed in your endeavor, you should survey the area and plot a course that will ensure safe passage. Researching Effectively You cannot plan for your expedition without first conducting careful and thorough research. Just as you would never go to a foreign country without learning some basic information about it, you should never start any technical writing assignment without first doing some research. Brainstorming In a group setting, you must come up with effective means to brainstorm. Throwing out the first idea that comes to mind may interrupt other people‘s flow of ideas or interrupt during their turn to speak. Have a written list of ideas that the group can look over as a whole after all members have had time to go home. Mind Mapping Mind mapping is a brainstorming technique that records free-flowing ideas and links them together in a logical map format to express the thoughts of the group. Mind
  • 24. Chart a Clear Course 6 mapping can be a real adventure when working in a group setting as it allows for input from all members. Figure 1.2 (below) is an example of mind mapping. Figure 1.2 Example of a Mind Map Free Writing Free writing is a technique used to tap into the unconscious to begin the writing process. Sometimes, environmental elements block great ideas. While free writing, you should record all of your thoughts with no regard to grammar or spelling. Following this stream of consciousness enables you to catch ideas that you would have passed over in other forms of brainstorming. Free writing does not have to be formal in manner. You can even use scrap paper if you like. You can keep your free writing in a journal or a notebook as well as loose- leaf paper until you finalize your project or until you decide what direction you want to take for your writings.
  • 25. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 7 Preliminary Research Preliminary research is the first step in planning your research. You must conduct initial research to gain an understanding of your topic, and take the steps to finalize your topic and thesis. Determining Your Research Topic Before you begin your journey, you will want to name your topic. Throughout your voyage, you will focus your initial broad topic into a defined research question. Keep ideas simple as to not close off any potential thoughts that may be helpful. When it comes time to research for the project, legitimate sources must be found. Finding research can often be daunting and can end tragically. Where to find legitimate sources can be a big problem for many students and inexperienced employees. You can use mind mapping, free writing, or any other technique to brainstorm what the name of your topic is going to be. The name of your topic should also correlate to the project type. For example, if you are writing a traveling guide or a novel about various expeditions or adventures, the name of the topic should not be Math for Dummies. Your topic should always relate to your project. Asking a Question The next step in effective research is to ask an indirect question. You do not have an answer yet, but the question will guide you in planning your research for
  • 26. Chart a Clear Course 8 this question. This will help establish the general approach you will take with your research, and ultimately, your final project. Motivating Your Topic When planning a technical writing document, you must find a way to motivate your topic. Motivating your topic is defining why you want your audience to read about your topic and what will they learn. If you do not motivate your topic your path may lead astray, progress could slow down quickly, and your project or technical document could quickly end before it even begins. Focusing on a Research Question Following the previous three steps, you are now ready to focus your research based on your research question. The question will include the topic name, your indirect question, and your motivation for completing the project. This process will help you develop the initial path that you travel as you write your document. Choose your research question wisely. Something too broad may require too much research and too much stress. If your question is too narrow, you may not find the research needed to write the document or begin the project. A proper research question puts a large amount of research at your disposal and is easy enough to explore through without being an overload or creating a block in your path along the way.
  • 27. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 9 Diving into Your Research The best way to begin your research is to simply dive in. Spend time searching the internet. Go to the library. Ask around. There are so many places to find good sources. All you need to do is look. Web The World Wide Web has become a well-traveled route when digging for research. Search engines such as Google and Yahoo Search will provide advanced search features that allow you to track down specific information and lead you to postings that are more general. Well-executed research, performed on the web, could turn up limitless amounts of research. While the web is a great way to find research, you must also remember to be wary of sites that anyone can log on and add random, possibly fictional, information. Also, be wary of biased information. If a research question leads towards political aspects, researchers should be careful not to get all their information from one political party‘s website because that lends itself to fictional information that does not help with getting to the truth or really examining a research problem. Library Surfing the web is a great way find research, but you should not neglect the resources available to you at the library. If you do not know where to begin with your research, ask a reference librarian. University libraries
  • 28. Chart a Clear Course 10 and some public libraries have librarians whose specific job is to help people with their research. They can track down sources you might not find on your own or can point you in the right direction. Some legitimate places for you to look for research for a technical document would be online journal articles that are accredited and well-known publications. A public library or better yet, a university library often has resources available that the average person is unable to locate by simply browsing the internet. At university libraries, a person is often able to request from the university that they acquire publications or journal articles at other universities in a particular network. Field Research You should not assume that all of your research must take place in a library or at a computer. Often, you can accomplish more by going out into the field and getting your information firsthand. Observation Sometimes, the information can be gathered from the source. If you are writing about a place or a procedure, it might be a good idea to see it in person. Be sure to take notes during your observation. In addition, it may be beneficial to draw diagrams or illustrations that demonstrate concepts or procedures that you will be writing about.
  • 29. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 11 Interview If you are researching a process, you should ask the people who are intimately acquainted with the procedure about it. They will be able to give you more insight than you can get from most textbooks. If the project is about a fighter jet, then perhaps talking with a few pilots to explain how to operate the jet for a more personal experience. The table below details what you must do in order to accomplish a productive interview. Table 1.1 Steps to a Successful Interview 1. Choose carefully whom you will interview. 2. Arrange a meeting. 3. Do preliminary research to educate yourself about the subject. 4. Prepare questions that target the information you wish to acquire. 5. Take notes during the interview in order to remember key information. 6. Thank your interviewee for contributing his or her time. 7. Reflect on the information you acquired. 8. Determine how to integrate this research into your writing. (Axelrod and Cooper) Managing Your Sources Research involves gathering many different sources from a wide-range of areas and collating them together. When
  • 30. Chart a Clear Course 12 writing a document, it is important to keep track of any and all sources used. Tracking Your Sources You can use old-fashioned methods if you prefer. Making detailed notes on index cards can work well. However, you can also take advantage of modern technology that saves you lots of time, especially when you are conducting internet research. Evernote Evernote (Figure 1.3) is an online service that enables you to take notes, save images, and view PDFs. You can access your Evernotes from any computer and never have to worry about losing your research due to computer failure. You can save just about anything, even printed or handwritten text in images. Zotero The online research tool Zotero allows you to track and organize your sources from your browser. Figure 1.4 shows the icons for some of the things can you do with Zotero. You can archive web pages and store documents, images, and links in your online library. The Drag and Drop feature enables you to easily pull items into your collection. You can then make your own notes alongside your sources. All of the major styles of Figure 1.3 Evernote Logo
  • 31. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 13 citations are available to enable you to easily create bibliographies. Using this online tool allows you to access your research from multiple computers and even browse through your data on your mobile device. You can keep your research private, or share it with the world. Creating group libraries gives you the ability to collaborate on group research. Evaluating Your Sources Finding sources is easy. Ensuring that they are quality sources worthy of being used in your research is more difficult. You cannot follow a magic formula to evaluate a source. Instead, you must consider these different aspects. Purpose When evaluating your sources, it is important to understand the purpose for which the source was produced. The source may be unbiased and serve simply to educate the audience from a neutral standpoint, or the piece may have been produced with a skewed Figure 1.4 Screenshot of Zotero Webpage
  • 32. Chart a Clear Course 14 perspective for the purpose of persuasion. In either case, if the source was produced with motivations different from your own, it may not be an effective source for your project. If a source makes outrageous claims or only one-sided claims without considering both sides, that source is more than likely not good enough to be used in research for an unbiased document or proposal for a project. Accuracy The accuracy of research sources are of the utmost importance to your technical writing excursion. With a deluge of information available at every turn, confirming the accuracy your sources is what will validate your own ideas and opinions. If your sources cannot be proved accurate, then your research will not be viewed as reliable. If your sources are not accurate, then your project proposal simply has no place being published or finished. Accurate sources form the foundation for the entire project. Authority Consider the authority of the text. Ask yourself these questions: o Was it published by a reputable company? o Is the author a respected scholar? o Does the author have a specific knowledge of the topic?
  • 33. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 15 If you answered "yes" to all these questions, then you may safely assume that the text comes from an authoritative source and you may use it for your research. However, do not fail to evaluate the text based on the rest of the criteria as well. Relevancy The relevancy of your sources will go a long way in determining the strength of your technical document. If you use resources that are not relevant to the research you are performing, the information you gather from these sources will only loosely support the ideas being formulated. Relevant research sources will form the backbone of any technical writing document. Currency Be sure that the resources you are using have been produced during the appropriate period. Using outdated research materials will lead to a document that is outdated. If you were researching heart surgery, you would not want use a source produced in the 1800s. Also, make sure that the sources you are using do not assume facts that are to come in the future. Looking back at the political example, if you attempt to research from a political party‘s website and they assume that the budget does not get passed and government shuts down, they may offer the worst case scenario should certain needs not be met. When in reality there is a lot more to be accomplished before the government shuts down.
  • 34. Chart a Clear Course 16 That being said, this example assumes from the future and is not temporally accurate or relevant. Objectivity Objectivity in your research sources must be considered. Sources written with an agenda will only provide information to further that agenda. Pertinent information could be left out in order to lead the reader down a particular path. You will want to find objective, nonbiased sources when performing your research. Coverage In evaluating your sources, you must also consider the coverage of the source or how extensive is the information that is presented in the source. If you use a source that does not thoroughly cover a topic, your document will not provide sufficient coverage of the topic for your readers. Completing Your Research At this point in your journey, you will want to evaluate the research you have completed and determine how it will be used in the production of your document. Take the time to properly evaluate your sources and continue to focus by refining your research question. Try adding new key words or phrases in order to redirect your research efforts
  • 35. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 17 Refining Your Research Question Now you will continue your research, keeping in mind the new focus you developed by refining your research question. Discover information that is more specific across all media that can be used further to reinforce the ideas in your research project. Consolidating Your Research Citations should be used to consolidate your research once you begin your document. However, before you and your group begin working, a good way to consolidate research is to use flash cards with quotes and references listed so that everyone is able to sort through them quickly. Online or computer based flash cards are best so that everyone can have a copy simultaneously. A collaborative bibliography that everyone can note and survey helps keep things in order. Citations Once those sources are acquired, how to accurately cite them in the report is crucial. APA and MLA are standard formats. However, they do often change with the advent of new technologies and ways of accessing them. MLA The Modern Language Association (MLA) has its own style for formatting papers and citations. Commonly used by students of the arts and humanities, many research papers are written in this style and it is often
  • 36. Chart a Clear Course 18 appropriate to cite your sources in this format (Russell, Brizee, Angeli, and Keck). You may want to get your own copy of the seventh edition of the MLA style guide shown at the right (Figure 1.5). It will provide you with all of the information you need to write a proper MLA style paper. There are some things that you must do when using MLA format: 1. Set 1 inch margins. 2. Double-space. 3. Use 12pt font. 4. Indent the first line of each paragraph 1 half inch from the left margins. 5. Create a header that includes your last name and page number in the top, right hand corner. APA When writing for the social sciences, the format from the American Psychological Association (APA) is often used. The structure varies from an MLA document. There are four major sections required for APA format: o Title Page o Abstract o Main Body o References Figure 1.5 Latest Edition of the MLA Handbook
  • 37. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 19 (Russell, Brizee, Angeli, and Keck) Avoiding Plagiarism After you have finished your research process, you need to determine what material you can use without violating intellectual property laws covering patents, trademarks, and copyrights. Taking credit for another‘s work, whether intentional or not, is not simply an ethical violation, but a legal one. In a business setting, misuse of others‘ intellectual party can lead to serious legal ramifications (Anderson 158). By not acknowledging a source, the plagiarist steals the recognition that honest researchers should receive, the enhanced respect that a researcher spends a lifetime struggling to earn. (Booth, Colomb, and Williams, 285) Summarize A summary is shorter and more concise than the text it is based on. It seeks to sum up the main ideas of the material to make them more quickly accessible to the reader. You should summarize when you want to present the quintessence of the text without bogging the reader down in unnecessary details. You must remember to include a citation in order to avoid unintentional plagiarism (Axelrod and Cooper 463).
  • 38. Chart a Clear Course 20 Paraphrase Paraphrase sources when you can convey the same information more clearly, but not necessarily concisely. Since you are putting things in your own words your paraphrase may be nearly as long as the original text. When paraphrasing, you do not leave out anything that contributes to the meaning of the text. Attempt to be objective when paraphrasing, but remember that the paraphrase always reflects your own interpretation of the text (Axelrod and Cooper 465). Use this method when you want to make the material more accessible to your reader than the original text. Quote Do not overuse long quotes in your writing. Instead, use them when summarizing and paraphrasing are inadequate. There are certain occasions when you should use a quote: o When an author‘s specific words are significant and carry more weight o When you wish to present an author‘s argument without bias. o When you are using the quote as a primary source When you quote another writer‘s words, you must be particularly careful to thoroughly cite the source. Failing to properly cite sources violates ethical standards and can have legal repercussions.
  • 39. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 21 Planning You cannot begin your project without first carefully planning how you will accomplish your goals. Thorough planning at the beginning will save you a lot of time throughout the rest of the process. Project Management The greatest potential difficulty is how to manage the team dynamic productively. Do not worry if you do not even know how to begin work together as a group. With some careful thought and thorough planning, you will know what to do if group members refuse to do their part, or if it is a new group and people do not know each other. Responsibilities More research could include how to incorporate new programs into your repertoire of experience, and how to plan for those accordingly for you and your group‘s projects at work. If your project dictates that charts, tables, graphs are to be included, you and your group must be aware of how much time it takes to learn a new program if you are unfamiliar with Corel Draw or Photoshop. These things must be added into your planning period, and you must research where to learn how to use them and how to effectively use them. Before you begin working with your group, you should sit down as a group and decide when to meet, how
  • 40. Chart a Clear Course 22 often, and what to do if a group member should refuse to participate. It is crucial that you create a group contract detailing what each person‘s responsibilities and what the consequences are for not finishing those tasks. All group members must agree to abide by the group charter. In addition, if the student or employee is not working with another person or with a group, you may be unable to get the rest of the members to do their part of the project either as whole or in a timely efficient manner. This can be a cause of great concern for the research and planning department if their research holds up the rest of the project, as there is no research for the rest of the project to be based upon. A phenomenal way for the group to navigate around this challenge is to set aside days to all get together and ensure that everyone does their part. If a member continually refuses to show up for the weekly or bi-weekly meetings or if they show up and simply do nothing while the rest of the group works diligently, then the group as a whole can appeal to their governing body for a replacement or removal of that particular group member. Charters A group charter is a fantastic way to begin a group project. Using a charter ensures that group members know their responsibilities and the consequences for not completing the required tasks to finish the project.
  • 41. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 23 The group charter should take into account what each member is best at and what his or her skill set is. As stated earlier, people who are best with computer work should keep their responsibilities as close to computer work as they can. This guarantees that the project progresses quickly and with great ease. Once each group member signs off on their responsibilities and consequences, there is no reason to stop meeting and only work alone individual tasks. Instead, have a weekly or even daily meeting to catch up, help one another, and to work collaboratively. Although there is a charter in place, it is still recommended that group members come together and work with one another on each other‘s responsibilities. For example, if one particular member works best with Adobe or on Photoshop, they should not be left on their own to do all the work on those programs on their own, but instead the group should come together as a whole and give input and advice for how they want the document to turn out in the end. Working together on individual responsibilities helps the collaborative process as well and gives the document a cohesive feel instead of a piecemeal feel where the reader is sure to feel and see where one person finished and the next started.
  • 42. Chart a Clear Course 24 Schedules One way to solve these problems is for you to set out a reasonable time line that allows for some ‗wiggle‘ room. The schedule should ensure that each task would be accomplished with plenty of time to allow review, as well as providing a buffer should something unforeseeable prevent you from meeting the initial deadlines. o Day One: Analyze and confirm the requirements for the project. o Day Two: Research the necessary components for the project. o Day Three: Finalize first draft and ask peer to review to ensure that the draft attempts to cover needed components of project. o …Day X: Submit finalized project. A timeline like the one above is an example of how to check off what needs to be done next to each respective item. It is a great visual representation so that the group members know what still needs to be accomplished. Members are able to place a visual check mark next to each task as it is completed so that other members may simply glance at it to see if each day‘s tasks have been accomplished. If a task is not yet done, they will be able to plan accordingly.
  • 43. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 25 Also, set aside an individual timeline for each person so that the rest of the group members can see who is doing what. You will know if everyone is accomplishing their tasks or if the entirety of the work is falling on the shoulders of one person. Calendars If you need help managing your team‘s time, consider using an online calendar. These collaborative tools allow your team to have a synchronized schedule. The tool has multiple uses, but most importantly, it can help you monitor deadlines. Online calendars work well because everyone who is invited to use the calendar is able to view the most updated version. You can also designate certain events to certain people. For example, you can write that Bob and Lana have section five due on the fifteenth and Bill and Sarah have section six which is due on the nineteenth. Online calendars can create some confusion. The calendar becomes unreliable when team members make changes to the calendar without alerting the rest of the team. If Bob and Lana expect the due date to be on the fifteenth and you change the date to the twenty-first, do not expect them to automatically know. You must take an extra step to alert your team members to changes.
  • 44. Chart a Clear Course 26 Google Calendar This free calendar is available to those who have a Google account (Figure 1.6). You are able to create multiple calendars for different events and can share them with others even if they do not have a Google account. Google Calendar can send you reminders or alert you of changes made by email and text message. You can also invite people to events from the calendar. Audience Analysis You must know what your audience needs as well as want they want from your work in order to prepare successful communication for them. Technical writers generally hold themselves accountable for the level of understanding obtained by their audience. This means that if the audience does not understand the technical document, it is the fault of you, not the readers. Therefore thorough audience analysis is crucial as you survey the task that lies ahead. Determining the audience you wish to reach must be done early on in order to provide focus and direction during the research process. Without this consideration, the document you produce may miss the mark in terms relevance for the audience and ultimately fail in its purpose. With the proper identification of your audience, you will be able Figure 1.6 Google Calendar Logo
  • 45. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 27 to more efficiently plan your research. There are some questions you should ask yourself before beginning your writing: o What task will your communication help your reader perform? o What is your reader‘s purpose? o What is the information your reader wants? o How is the reader going to use this information? o How do you want to affect your reader‘s attitudes? Once you have answered these questions, you should have a pretty clear idea on who your readers are and what they want. Sometimes, you will only need to answer these general questions when conducting audience analysis. Other times, your audience will be someone much more specific, especially in a business environment. Creating a Profile of Your Reader When dealing with an audience composed of a particular individual or individuals, you should create a profile of your reader. Here are some things you need to take into account: o Professional Specialty o Organizational Role o Familiarity with Your Topic
  • 46. Chart a Clear Course 28 o Knowledge of Your Specialty o Relationship with You o Personal Preferences Most of these points are easy to answer (Anderson 95). You can only plan for your readers‘ preferences if you are personally acquainted with them. Maintaining good relationships with your coworkers and superiors will enable you create more persuasive and usable communication. Identifying Stakeholders Stakeholders are individuals who have something ―at stake‖ in your project. These people have something to gain or lose because of your message. They may be people who have worked with you on the assignment or people whose lives will be influenced more indirectly by your writing. Consider the impact your work will have on the people around you. Summary To plan and research a project, proposal, or a technical document, you must know who your audience is so that you can appropriately direct and write for the correct discourse community. After a group has established their audience, more planning and research can begin. Before any research or further planning can begin, a research question must be formulated. Only then do sources come into play. Having accurate sources and
  • 47. Chapter 1 Research and Planning 29 reliable resources not only lends itself to credibility but also to a more cohesive technical document that the audience can appreciate. Knowing where to and how to gather those sources is necessary in writing technical documents and projects. Once reliable sources are found and a research question formulated, the group must focus on working successfully together on their journey to complete this project.
  • 48.
  • 49. 31 Work with Fellow Travelers: Collaboration Tools Teamwork is vital for an enjoyable trip. Having the best programs to orchestrate flawless communication with your fellow travelers is imperative for success. Face-to- face and online collaboration, presentation tools, and synchronization services are explained in this section to strengthen your connection with writing in a group.
  • 50. 32
  • 51. 33 Collaboration Tools Introduction............................................................................ 35 Social Aspects....................................................................... 35 Traditional Collaborative Tools.............................................. 36 Meetings............................................................................ 37 Fax Machines.................................................................... 37 Printed Documents and Letters ........................................ 38 Online Collaboration Tools.................................................... 38 Email ................................................................................. 38 Instant Messaging............................................................. 40 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) .................................. 42 Document Editors ............................................................. 44 Synchronization Services.................................................. 45 Sharing Spaces and Wikis................................................ 46 Podcasts ........................................................................... 47 Blogs ................................................................................. 49 Forums.............................................................................. 50 Presentation Tools ............................................................ 52 Summary............................................................................... 53
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  • 53. 35 Introduction If your job requires you to write, it is likely that you will collaborate with others. The dynamic of your writing shifts when this happens. You will need two things in order make this happen effectively: social skills and collaboration tools. This chapter guides you down the path of becoming a successful collaborator by exploring both of these dimensions. Remember this as you read this chapter: do not choose a collaborative tool just because it has great features. Each tool is ideal for some situations and impractical for others. If you choose a technology just because you like it, you may be giving extra responsibilities to your team with no good reason. Only use a collaborative tool that suits to your purposes and needs. Social Aspects Sometimes working with a group can make working on a project a lot easier by sharing the workload. Other times—it can seem nearly impossible. You may work with people who are hard workers in one group and people who are lazy in another. People also have strengths and weaknesses. You cannot always pick team members, so you must learn to work with all types of personalities. Because you do not want to work in a hostile environment, be considerate.
  • 54. Work with Fellow Travelers 36 Editors must be especially cautious when working with others. If you must edit another‘s work, consider their feelings while reviewing. This does not mean that you must put every critique as delicately as possible, but you should never be arrogant as you make corrections. Realize that people make mistakes and so do you. Always have a professional attitude and try to word your critiques as positively as possible. Unless you are under strict time constraints, focus on some of the positive aspects of your teammate‘s writing instead of only the negative. Above all else, remain professional. This is the best way to summarize how to work well with others. It may be difficult at times to control your emotions, but doing so helps create an enjoyable work environment for everyone. Avoid profanity so that you do not unintentionally offend a co-worker or client. Be mindful of others‘ feelings. Moreover, treat others how you would like to be treated, an ancient philosophy and great advice. Traditional Collaborative Tools You are probably quite familiar with these technologies, so this section will not go into too many details. These technologies are included to remind you of practical solutions that are not found online. Newer technologies can be excellent tools, but consider the advantages of
  • 55. Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 37 traditional tools before eliminating them as an option for collaboration. Meetings This may seem obvious, but meetings are an excellent collaboration tool. If your company is located in one location, it will probably be more practical to schedule a meeting face-to-face than set up a conference call. Meetings provide the best environment for collaborating and discussing a project because you can gather a group together and everyone can be seen and heard. Teleconferencing While it is possible to talk to others online, you still may want to keep your landline. If the internet stops working, you must have the ability to have a conference call. It is a lot easier to train employees who are computer illiterate to communicate with a phone than the computer. Fax Machines It is easy to transfer documents online, but what happens when you need to send a signed report? In addition, your client may not be able to open pdf files or there may be some other type of compatibility issue. Some businesses that you will work with may not have Figure 2.2 Fax Machine
  • 56. Work with Fellow Travelers 38 access to a computer, but they may have a fax machine (Figure 2.2). Printed Documents and Letters In the age of email, sending a letter may seem like an outdated practice, but remember that printed documents can be practical. If you send an email to your team members, co-workers may not open it right away. Printed material has immediacy. Online Collaboration Tools As technology evolves, its ability to be used as a collaboration tool increases. There are hundreds of programs that can assist you in collaborating with a team. This section helps you explore various types of online collaboration tools. It will talk about the technology and then give an example. Most of all of the technologies used as an example have a free version that you can download, but you may want to consider upgrading to the paid versions to experience all of the program‘s features. Email You are already familiar with email, but take the time now to consider it as a collaborative tool. While you may not have considered it before, virtual teams use them extensively when collaborating. Your team collaborates whenever they send an email that contains a question or suggestion.
  • 57. Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 39 Emails are simple, which makes them easy to use by people who are inexperienced with the internet. You can send emails to one person or multiple people. It is a technology that is well prepared for group work. You can attach documents to your email to share with your team. Depending on your settings, emails can act as an archive for your correspondence. Nearly all received and sent mail is stored in your email account and you control what is deleted or not. Emails can cause problems. A quickly written email may not read the way you intended, because it is written ambiguously. Also, emails can accidentally be sent to the unintended recipient. You should avoid transferring too many documents in an email. If a document only needs to be sent once, email works great. However, when you transfer a document that is being edited and revised by more than two people, the most updated version of the document can easily get lost in the correspondence. You would want to use a file sharing program for this application, mentioned later in this section. Gmail An example of a free email service is Gmail, which was created by Google (Figure 2.3). A nice feature that sets Gmail apart from other email providers is the conversation view. When you send an email, get a reply, and then respond to that message, Gmail keeps all of those correspondences grouped together as a single
  • 58. Work with Fellow Travelers 40 conversation. This feature helps you organize the emails that you want to save for future reference. When you use Gmail, you are able to use its built-in instant messaging service, which is the next collaborative tool. Instant Messaging If you work with people from different locations, you will need to communicate with them often. You may be able reach them by phone, but this can become impractical if you need to communicate throughout the day. A solution is instant messaging software. With instant messaging, you communicate by typing. Once one person types and submits something, it is instantly transferred to the other person‘s computer, and then that other person has an opportunity to respond. This type of communication works great in situations where audible communication is impractical. With instant messaging, you can chat with multiple people at the same time. You can open separate chats with multiple people individually, or you can include multiple in one group chat so that everyone can talk to each other. Instant messaging also allows you to archive your chat sessions so that you have a record of the conversation. Figure 2.3 Gmail Logo
  • 59. Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 41 Not all aspects of instant messaging are ideal for all situations. While cellular phones can be used anywhere, you must have an internet connection to use instant messaging. In addition, poor internet connection can cause lagging, which slows down the messages between users. Imagine submitting your reply and having it take thirty seconds for it to post to the other user. This delay can cause much confusion between users. You may want to consider using emoticons in your chatting. Emoticons are punctuation marks that are arranged to represent emotions. Of course, you would never use an emoticon on a professional document, but it could be appropriate in a medium such as instant messaging. Remember that you may only use emoticons in a casual context. You would never send an emoticon to your company‘s CEO. Table 2.1 Translation of Emoticons Emoticon Emotion  Happy, Smiling  Sad, Upset ;) Winking Google Talk An example of a free instant messaging service is Google Talk. All that you need to use Google Talk (Figure 2.4) is a Google account, which is also free.
  • 60. Work with Fellow Travelers 42 Once you set up the account, you can chat with others who have Google Talk just as you would with any other instant messaging service. It also allows you to transfer files while chatting. With this service, you can change your status so that other chatters can see if you are online or not. You can even set your status to ―invisible‖ so that you can see who else is online, but others cannot see that you are available to chat. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) If your team cannot communicate adequately with instant messaging, consider using Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). This collaborative tool functions like a telephone that operates over the internet. With VoIP, you can talk to your team using audio, or you can talk using a combination of audio and video. Videoconferencing Videoconferencing (Figure 2.5) is a great alternative to the traditional meeting when not all members of a team are located at the same place. This form of VoIP can be set up between two or more locations if there is a microphone, video camera, and screen. The microphone and video camera will record you and the screen will display team members. You can even access VoIP on a laptop. This tool is an effective way to reduce the Figure 2.4 Google Talk Logo
  • 61. Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 43 distance between team members who are not able to meet face-to-face. If you choose to use this tool, remember that there can be issues with reliability. VoIP is only reliable as your internet connection. If the internet shuts down, whether it is yours or the VoIP‘s hosting service, you will not be able to use this tool. It may also be difficult to train computer illiterate employees how to use the software. Skype A free VoIP is Skype (Figure 2.6). With Skype, you can call other users and phone numbers. However, there are additional fees to call landlines. You can set up videoconferencing between two people for free. You can have a videoconference between more than two people with an upgraded Skype account, which cost money, but may be worth the investment depending on your needs. Skype also has an integrated instant Figure 2.5 Example of Videoconferencing Figure 2.6 Skype Logo
  • 62. Work with Fellow Travelers 44 messaging service, file transferring service, and text messaging service. Document Editors You are probably familiar with word processing programs like Microsoft Word. Online document editors that are online follow the same basic concepts. The difference is that the document in stored online instead of a file that needs to be transferred in order to be read. With online editors, all you need is the link to the document to access it. It may not be that much easier for you to open up a document online instead of a folder, but it can be efficient when you are collaborating online. You may have some problems transferring files when multiple people edit the same document. You can spend hours editing a document only to find out that the document was not the latest version. Online editing tools can tell you if someone is in the process of editing the document, which prevents you from accidentally doing double the work. Also, you will not have to worry about working on an outdated version of the file that was mixed up during a file transfer. Some online editors do not allow more than one person to work on a document at the same time. If you plan to use this collaborative tool, you should create a schedule that dictates when team members can edit their portion of the document.
  • 63. Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 45 Google Docs Google Docs (Figure 2.7) is a free editing program actually allows more than one person to edit the document at a time. The other members of your team will be able to see the changes you make as you type. You can create different types of documents, such as forms, drawings, and spreadsheets. Synchronization Services Use a synchronization service to share a large amount of files. This collaborative tool creates a synchronization folder that exists on your computer, other team member‘s computers, and on the program‘s servers. The folder on your computer is connected to the other members‘ folders and synchronized through the internet. Your team will have access to your document when you upload it to the synchronization folder. These services are ideal for sharing files, but there are other benefits as well. Your files are backed up when you upload them to a synchronizations service. You will not lose your files if something happens to your computer. Also, your team will know exactly where to find the files they need because they are all in the same place. If you plan to store many files, you may not want to use a synchronization service. This tool can occupy a Figure 2.7 Google Docs Logo
  • 64. Work with Fellow Travelers 46 lot of hard drive space on your team‘s computers. Try making your own website and storing the files there if your files take up too much space. However, if most of your files are text documents, you should not have this problem. Dropbox Dropbox (Figure 2.8) allows you to share files on Windows, Mac, and Linux platforms and allows you to share through your mobile device. Dropbox members also get two gigabytes of back up storage for free. If you choose to upgrade, the deluxe version offers more storage space. Sharing Spaces and Wikis You may want to use multiple collaboration tools in order to complete a project, consider using a sharing space or a wiki. These tools usually perform all of the functions mentioned so far in this section. The greatest benefit of these tools is that everything is in a centralized location. Your team will not be confused about where they need to go for information. You will automatically know where to find files, check the calendar, and hold a meeting with instant messaging because it will all be in the same place. Figure 2.8 Dropbox Logo
  • 65. Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 47 Keep in mind that you may not want to use a sharing space or wiki if your team only needs a few collaborative tools. While sharing spaces and wikis offer many tools in one location, each tool may not function as well as a tool that is designed for a specific purpose. For example, if you use a sharing space or wiki only to share files, you might want to use a synchronization service to better suit your needs. Wiggio This free sharing space offers many of the tools that a virtual team needs. It has calendars, to-do lists, meeting spaces, file sharing, polls, and more. With Wiggio (Figure 2.9), you can enlist in more than one group. Wiggio has a feed feature that updates you with the latest activity of your team. The feed is listed on your Wiggio home page and it can alert you by email or text message. Podcasts If you need to broadcast a message to a wide audience, consider using a podcast. A podcast is a recording of either one person talking or of multiple people having a conversation. The podcast is then converted into an audio format so that you can easily listen to it over the internet. You can listen to a podcast online, or you can download from the internet and burn it onto a CD or Figure 2.9 Wiggio Logo
  • 66. Work with Fellow Travelers 48 upload it to your mp3 player. You can also record your own podcast with recording software and convert into a digital audio format. Podcasts are a great tool for when working with a large group. Instead of holding a meeting and expecting everyone to remember all of the key information, you could record a podcast and email it to all of your team members. Employees could then listen to it at their convenience. There would be less confusion about the content of your presentation because team members could play the file repeatedly. Again, there could be issues with the internet not working, and not all of your team members may be able to use digital audio formats. Also, it requires some skill to record a podcast. Most recording software required more than just the push of one button. If you plan to use podcasts as a way of communicating with your team, be sure to allow yourself some time to become familiar with the software. Audacity Although it is not specifically a podcast recorder, Audacity (Figure 2.10) is a free recording software that is relatively easy to learn and can help you produce a quality podcast. When you open up the program, make sure you have the microphone configured correctly and then press the Figure 2.10 Audacity Logo
  • 67. Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 49 record button. You can record one track and then record again over the original it so that the recording sounds like both tracks happened at the same time (Figure 2.11). Once you have your recording, you will need to install a plug-in to convert the track to mp3 format. Then you can send your file to your team. Blogs If you need to keep your team updated, you might want to consider using a blog. Blogs allow you to share short articles. You can choose to allow team members to post comments on your blog so that they could express their opinions or ask questions. Most blogs are very intuitive and easy to use. You can choose your level of security so that either anyone on the internet can view your blog, or only a select few who you invite by email. Some blogs alert you by email or text message when someone comments on your blog if you give the blog that permission. This alert system keeps you updated with your blog. Blogs may not always be the most practical solution. You would never want to put a conversation that should be private on a blog for all to see. Also, if you allow Figure 2.11 Track Recording in Audacity
  • 68. Work with Fellow Travelers 50 comments, there is a possibility that team members can instigate arguments. Blogger Blogger (Figure 2.12) lets you create your own profile so that you can connect with the community. This free blogging service is designed for beginners or experts. You can design your Blogger site. However, you want by either following a template or entering in computer code. The most important feature for collaboration online is the ability to determine who accesses your blog. Forums This collaborative tool is excellent if you need to ask and answer many questions within your group. Forums can discuss multiple topics at one location. The topics are usually divided into main categories, and each main category has sub-categories. Then each sub-category has threads or conversation topics. You can open your forum to anyone on the internet, or you can set the permissions so that only invited guests can enter the forum. Forums are more practical for large teams. If an issue arises with a small team, it is easy to inform all members Figure 2.0.12 Blogger Logo
  • 69. Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 51 about the issue. However, larger teams that operate from different locations cannot always communicate as effectively. The benefit of forums is that each conversation becomes a resource. When team members solve a common problem, others can always reference that discussion if they encounter a similar problem. Forums can be difficult maintain. If no one uses the forum to ask questions about their problem, then no one else will be able to use the forum as a reference for future problems. As with blogs, it is possible that team members can begin arguments with each other, which ultimately hurts the moral and productivity of your team. ProBoards ProBoards (Figure 2.13) is a forum community that offers hosting services. It has an extensive security system that helps prevent spammers from using your forum. The free version offers nearly all of the same features as the paid version, but it has advertisements. You can set permissions to determine who is able to enter your forum and who can make administrative decisions. Figure 2.13 ProBoard Logo
  • 70. Work with Fellow Travelers 52 Presentation Tools If you have ever attended a business meeting, you have probably seen or used PowerPoint, or alternate presentation tool. These programs typically act as a visual aid for speech, but they can also incorporate audio so that the presentation does all of the presenting. The presentation tools mentioned here are similar to PowerPoint except that they exist online. Sometimes written words are not enough to explain a concept. You need visuals. These presentation tools can help you illustrate concepts in a visual way. A person can become confused when they repeatedly read a text, look at the visuals, and then return to the text. You can combine audio, text, and visuals into one presentation to eliminate that confusion. Also, the presentation will always be available for team members to review. While presentation tools are a great way to convey complex information, it can also become time consuming to create a presentation. Do not spend an hour creating a presentation for something that could be said in a two-paragraph email. As with all software, you may also experience compatibility issues with other team members. Be sure to use a program that your team can access without any problems. Prezi This presentation tool takes a different approach because it allows you to zoom in and out of the presentation
  • 71. Chapter 2 Collaboration Tools 53 instead of switching from one slide to the next. This helps the information you present flow more effectively. There is a free version that displays the Prezi logo (Figure 2.14) on your presentation and submits it to a publicly shared database. If you want to keep your information private, you will have to pay a subscription fee. Summary When you work with a team, it is important to remember that there are two aspects of collaboration: social and technological. Develop techniques that will help you work with all types of personalities and always remain professional. Do not forget about traditional technologies when collaborating, but also try to explore some of the options found in the online environment. Remember to choose technologies suited to your needs. You may be partial to one technology or brand, but it may not be the best technology for every situation. Have an open mind when trying out a new technology. You might actually prefer a new technology after you learn to use its features. You will never know if it could increase your team‘s productivity until you take the time to explore the different collaboration tools. Figure 2.14 Prezi Logo
  • 72. Work with Fellow Travelers 54
  • 73. 55 Navigate Cultural Differences: Cross- Cultural Communication Navigating through cultural awareness, stereotypes, and cultural variables deepens your understanding and knowledge as a communicator. Learn from the mistakes of past cross-cultural communication and consider the perspectives of each individual. You need to remember that inclusion of all people makes for richer and more meaningful communication.
  • 74. 56
  • 75. 57 Cross-Cultural Communication Introduction............................................................................ 59 Cultural Considerations......................................................... 59 Cultural Bias...................................................................... 60 Interactive Communication ............................................... 61 Examples of Cross-Cultural Miscommunication ............... 66 Cultural Variables.................................................................. 69 Economic .......................................................................... 69 Educational ....................................................................... 70 Linguistic ........................................................................... 71 Political.............................................................................. 72 Religious ........................................................................... 73 Social ................................................................................ 73 Technological.................................................................... 73 Modules of Cultural Dimensions ........................................... 74 The Iceberg Module .......................................................... 75 Hofstede’s Cultural Value Dimensions ............................. 76 Hall’s Theory of Contexting............................................... 80 Summary............................................................................... 82
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  • 77. 59 Introduction As the workplace grows globally, you will find yourself in a culturally diverse work environment. Cultural aspects affect your written and verbal communication. This chapter will provide you with the information you need about certain cultural considerations, variables, and dimensions. After recognizing how cultures vary, you will be prepared for any situation in a cross-cultural environment. Cultural Considerations You should always consider cross-cultural audiences as you write documents about business, science, medicine, travel, or any other form of writing. Remember to understand your audience before writing a technical piece. Your communication will be less effective if you fail to consider your audience. Some cultures may be comfortable with a certain communication style while others may be offended by it (Lannon 645). Ask yourself questions like these when you write for a diverse audience: o How direct should I be in my writing? o Should I be detailed-oriented or simplistic in my descriptions? o Can I use allegories, similes, or metaphors in my writing, or should I avoid them? o Will imperative sentences help or hinder the connection with the reader?
  • 78. Navigate Cultural Differences 60 o Should I incorporate visuals in my writing or only use text? Think about language differences as you write. Using direct language is accepted in Middle Eastern and Southern European cultures such as the, but it can be considered disrespectful and aggressive in Southeast Asian culture (Lannon 645). You can help the reader understand things better by stating ideas in multiple ways, decreasing miscommunication and improving clarity. Include visuals in your writing to enhance understanding. If there is a language barrier, visuals will help the reader connect to your message. Think about your readers. Consider the importance of verbal and written cues as well as non-verbal or inferred cues of communication when putting together technical document. If you are communicating in a group setting, think about how various cultures relate to each other. Do they work collectively or individually? Personal space is an importance subject to keep in mind as well. Some cultures like to be close and personal while others prefer to be stoic and impersonal. Cultural Bias Dr. Dan Jones believes that ―the culture in which you write influences the way you write your technical
  • 79. Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 61 documents‖ (Jones 226). Cultural bias influences all people. It is impossible to avoid. In Technical Writing Style, Jones points out: In the United States (and in many industrialized countries), technical communication requires simple, concise expression and clear thinking. Conflict with these requirements can arise in persons whose culture values detailed, subjective analyses and excessively philosophical argumentation. (Jones 226) While it is important to communicate effectively across cultures, it is equally crucial to communicate effectively with people of different genders, races, ages, and physical abilities. It may be controversial to talk about these differences in some circles, but they should not be ignored, especially when your write business documents. In businesses, the words you choose are vital. Carefully construct your tone so that you do not offend anyone. Be careful in the way that you refer to groups of people. Avoid labels that could offend any individual, even to the slightest degree. Interactive Communication From a psychological perspective, Fernando Poyatos researches non-verbal communication across cultures and defines his findings in Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Nonverbal Communication. He explains the triple reality of
  • 80. Navigate Cultural Differences 62 interactive discourse: language, paralanguage, and kinesics. Language Language can be defined in technical detail as ―lexico- morphological syntactical complex, which has been traditionally considered as autonomous and a complete system‖ (Poyatos 36). However, two co-systems support language. Without these, language could not exist. Paralanguage One co-system is paralanguage, which determines the modifications of your voice, such as pitch or volume. For example, you may use a low-pitched, breathy voice in a passionate situation. There are four paralinguistic categories that researchers have studied across different cultures: primary qualities, qualifiers, differentiators, and alternates. Primary Qualities Primary qualities include the timbre, resonance, volume, tempo, pitch register, and rhythm of your voice. They can manifest biologically (timbre differences in males and females), physiologically (nasal resonance due to inflamed mucus membranes), psychologically (monotonous intonation indicative of depression), socially (slowed tempo to exude superiority), and culturally (higher and lower volumes depending on region) (Poyatos 38).
  • 81. Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 63 Qualifiers Qualifiers are the sound effects produced by various regional and cultural factors. The nasally twang of a Texan is a good example of this paralinguistic category. Differentiators Differentiators describe the way people laugh, cry, hiccup, belch, whisper, shout, or cough. They are set apart by education, culture, sex, or age. All differentiators can also vary according to culture. Alternates The final paralanguage category is alternates: single or compound sounds such as sighs, clearing of throat, clicks, closed lip and open lip sounds, and meaningful silences. For example, people may say ―Uh!‖, ―Mmhmm!‖, ―Psst!‖, ―Uh-uh‖, and ―Hm‖ (Poyatos, 39). You should consider how different cultures view silence and stillness. These are not necessarily words, but they do convey a certain meaning. People can demonstrate an ―unfilled pause‖ as a response from a motionless speaker with a stance of expectancy or a listener‘s stance of shock. A ―filled pause‖ can also be a lexical paralinguistic alternate such as ―Er” or ―Um‖ (Poyatos 43). Various cultures use both stillness and silence in many ways.
  • 82. Navigate Cultural Differences 64 Kinesics The second co-system is kinesics, which determines how body language affects communication. For example, you might scratch your head as you talk to someone as a way to express your frustration. Kinesics may affect the way you write more so when you incorporate visuals into a document. Consider how different cultures interpret the body language you represent in your visuals. There are three categories of kinesic behavior: gestures, manners, and postures. This dimension of communication is subtle and nonverbal. There are two different types of kinesic behavior: free and bound. You demonstrate free kinesics by moving one or more parts of your body in the air, such as talking with your hands. You use bound kinesics when you touch yourself, others, or the objective environment (Poyatos 41). You demonstrate bound kinesics by putting a hand to your mouth, gently putting your hand on another person‘s shoulder, and even by placing your hand on a podium. Pay attention to the intensity, range, speed of movement as you communicate with others, and remember that you may interpret these indicators differently than someone from another culture. Consider intrasystems, which are co-behaviors of facial expressions, body movements, and body positions. Consider the other person‘s facial expressions and their entire body language when you communicate.
  • 83. Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 65 Intersystem behavior such as tear shedding or touch can be neglected in cross-cultural communication, so remembering them will give you an advantage over your competitors. Remain aware of different cultural interpretations of behaviors to avoid embarrassing misunderstandings. Kinesic Coding and Decoding Great technical communicators consider both the verbal and nonverbal sides of communication. You can do this by writing a document first, and then consider any nonverbal aspects associated with it. This process may help your message become decoded and received more accurately. Listed below are some sender/receiver aspects of coding and decoding information and the intent of the information from a cross-cultural interpretation. Table 3.1 Sender/Receiver Aspects of Coding and Decoding Linguistic Coding Example Homomorphs-synonyms: Same form and meaning Having a palm facing receiver with all five fingers extended is considered a hello or greeting in England, America, and Australia. Antomorphs-antonyms: Different form and meaning Eyes downcast in Asian cultures and eye contact in America culture are signs of respect.
  • 84. Navigate Cultural Differences 66 Antomorphs-synonyms: Different form and same meaning In Japan, pointing an index finger to the nose means of ―I‖. Americans point to the chest for ―I‖. Homomorphs-antonyms: Same form but different meaning. In America, when index and thumb fingers touch and the three other fingers extended, it means everything is good. In Japan, it means the person has no worth. Non-verbal behavior symbolizes more than specific meanings—it is expressive of entire cultural viewpoints (Engel 96). The cultural gap is not just help to exotic and non-exotic cultures. It is found between all cultures including subcultures. Examples of Cross-Cultural Miscommunication Linguist Giacomo Devoto said, ―Words can be robust and flexible (in the terms of meaning), but through misuse they can become deformed, stiff and temporarily ‗sick‘‖ (Zhu 180). Words or expressions that have the same form in two or more languages but convey different meanings are considered by Mona Baker as ―false friends‖ (Zhu 181). These false friends exist because of lexical borrowing from various languages. The meaning of a word may
  • 85. Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 67 change when it is adapted from another language. The borrowed word may even develop completely different connotation. Consider the similar words that come from the Latin word ―preseruatiuum‖: o ―preservative‖ (English) o ―preservative‖ (French) o ―Präservativ‖ (German) o ―prezervativ‖ (Czech) o ―preservative‖ (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese) o ―prezerwatywa‖ (Polish) In all these languages except English, the word mostly means condom, making it a striking example of a false friend (Zhu 181). This is just one of many examples that technical communicators deal with regularly. It is very important that you understand your audience in all dimensions. American and British negotiators found themselves at a deadlock, because the American company proposed that they ―table‖ particular points. This example of false friends operates on the phrasal level. In America, ―tabling a motion‖ means to not discuss something, and in England, it means to discuss something. Both sides were confused about what to do because of this cultural blunder (Zhu 182). The next example of false friends is on the grammatical level. When the Pope visited Miami, an entrepreneur
  • 86. Navigate Cultural Differences 68 made t-shirts saying, ―I saw the Pope‖ in Spanish. He did not know that the definite article in Spanish has two genders. Instead of printing ―El Papa‖ (the Pope), he printed ―La Papa‖ (the potato). The venture utterly failed because no one wanted a t-shirt that said, ―I saw the potato‖ (Zhu 183). McDonald‘s failed to consider the Chinese culture when they released a commercial that featured a Chinese man kneeling and begging for a discount. Chinese customers were insulted because they view kneeling as a sign of respect or in this case disrespect. The Chinese also felt that the commercial hinted of American imperialism (Chan 5). The China Business Review mentions a Nike advertising campaign entitled ―Chamber of Fear‖. In the advertisement, Lebron James defeats a master of Kung Fu, ancient fairies, and two dragons in a game of basketball. The characters were Chinese-styled cartoons. China accused Nike of being insensitive and denigrating their culture. China‘s State Administration for Radio, Film, and Television banned the commercial to ―protect national honor and traditional Chinese culture‖ (Chan 6). All of these examples publicly display the incompetence of not only the companies that produced these blunders, but also the incompetency of the writers who wrote them. To avoid these problems, always research your
  • 87. Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 69 audience before you create any form of communication for them. You may lose your job if you fail to do so. Cultural Variables Cultural variables exist in every facet of your life. They influence your writing whether you know it or not. So what exactly are cultural variables? They can be anything that classifies groups of people by a single variable. For example, people can be grouped by their education level (high school, vocational, or college). This portion of the chapter covers seven important variables that may affect your writing: economic, educational, linguistic, political, religious, social, and technological. Economic Economic variables define cultures by their wealth. Societies determine whether people are rich or poor based on how much material possessions they have or can attain. For example, you might assume that a person is poor or even homeless based on the condition of their clothing. This economic variable would affect the way you would approach and communicate to this person. You should remember that all cultures have economic variables that will affect the way you write. A person‘s economic will impact the way they interpret what they read. Because some people cannot afford certain things (or even anything), you must write with a focus on
  • 88. Navigate Cultural Differences 70 ‗fairness‘. In other words, you must write to eliminate a sense of entitlement that often arises in economic differences. Take Africa for example. In many areas of Africa, people have few possessions, especially when judged by the standards of western culture. Many Africans are limited economically and cannot gain access to computers or the internet. Therefore, you would not use a webpage to reach an audience that cannot afford a computer. Remember also that cultures measure wealth differently. A wealthy person from the United States may own several laptop computers, whereas a wealthy person from Africa may own several cows. One might not find value each other‘s possession because both people define wealth differently. Consider what each cultures value when you write. Educational Educational variables define cultures by the value they place on education. You might use the terms ―smart‖ and ―dumb‖, or more politely, ―uneducated‖ when discussing this variable. Instead, you should also consider terms like ―access‖ and ―availability‖. Not everyone has the opportunity to become well-educated. Western cultures often stress the importance of education in local and national politics. They attempt to create a stronger foundation of education that will increase the knowledge of society through the public
  • 89. Chapter 3 Cross-Cultural Communication 71 school systems. However, when comparing western cultures with those of Japan, there is a large gap between the educational levels. This gap is mostly due to the level of stress placed on educational values. When looking at some Asian cultures, such as Japan, you may see a completely different stress placed on education. Children are monitored very closely at school and are limited in their extracurricular activity. Social interaction is a lower priority, and a majority of their childhood is spent in the classroom. As a result, Japanese students score higher on annual intelligence tests than American students. As you write, it is important to consider differences in perception of education in other cultures. While the focus tends to be on a person‘s intelligence or their ability to interpret what is written, you should also consider how seriously people feel about their own education. The motivation behind learning is as important as learning itself. Linguistic Linguistic variables define how cultures are affected by language. Even a country uses one primary language that culture can be further broken up by dialects or accents. Linguistics is an important cultural factor because it dictates how you write and how you orally communicate with others.