Dopamine is a neurotransmitter with a complex molecular structure consisting of a benzene ring, hydroxyl groups, and an amine group. It acts as an agonist on D1-5 receptors in the brain, affecting regions like the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex. Dopamine is synthesized from phenylalanine and tyrosine in the brain and impacts mood. Any issues with its synthesis can lead to reduced dopamine levels and depression. Treatments for depression may involve administering dopamine or other neurotransmitters to address monoamine deficiencies.
Frost & Sullivan Applauds Pexip for Disrupting the Video Conferencing IndustryEtienne Gueye
The company’s Infinity Platform enhances workflows and improves productivity by integrating with multiple applications and simplifying virtual meetings
Best cloud hosting providers offer robust scalable experienceComputeHost
In straightforward terms, cloud computing refers to storing and accessing data and applications over the internet. Cloud computing has made definitive headways these days, and is steadily replacing rigid software and licensing models.
Frost & Sullivan Applauds Pexip for Disrupting the Video Conferencing IndustryEtienne Gueye
The company’s Infinity Platform enhances workflows and improves productivity by integrating with multiple applications and simplifying virtual meetings
Best cloud hosting providers offer robust scalable experienceComputeHost
In straightforward terms, cloud computing refers to storing and accessing data and applications over the internet. Cloud computing has made definitive headways these days, and is steadily replacing rigid software and licensing models.
Running head COCAINE1COCAINE5Pharmacological As.docxtodd271
Running head: COCAINE 1
COCAINE 5
Pharmacological Aspects of Cocaine
Lana Eliot
Psychology 630
Professor Benton
September 19, 2018
Pharmacological Aspects of Cocaine
General Description of Cocaine
Cocaine that is also popularly known as coke, blow, crack, rock, or now. It is made from the leaves of the coca plant, which was initially grown in South America. The drug is among the strongest addictive stimulants (Simon & Kreek, 2016). In most cases, this drug is abused since it is used for recreational purposes despite being illegal in the country. The drug has an appearance of white, fine, and crystal powder. Mostly, the drug is mixed by the street dealers with different things such as talcum powder, cornstarch, or flour to raise the level of their profits. They may also mix it with other drugs such as the stimulant amphetamine, or synthetic opioids, including fentanyl. Its users tend to inhale it in the form of smoke, snort, or dissolve it into other liquids and inject it directly into their veins (Simon & Kreek, 2016). The drug has various mental effects such as felling of agitation or happiness as well as inability to understand the reality(Simon & Kreek, 2016). Nonetheless, the drug is used by health care providers for various medical purposes. In particular, cocaine is used as an anesthesia during various surgeries. While cocaine has a wide concept, this paper will focus on its pharmacological aspects. In particular, it will address the effect of the drug on neurotransmitters, receptors, route of administration, its half-life, doses, side effects, drug interactions, and contraindications.
Pharmacological Aspects
Cocaine has an effect on neurotransmitters. The drug tends to disrupt neurotransmission process that involves communication between the brain and the neurons (Graziani, Nencini & Nisticò, 2014). Therefore, it affects the way people think, feels, and behave. Essentially, the functioning of the central nervous system particularly brain is altered by the use of cocaine for a long period. Most effects of cocaine on brain resemble those impacted by other stimulants such as caffeine and amphetamines.
On the other hand, when cocaine is used as an aesthetic during surgeries it has similar effects to those of other local anesthetics, for example, it stabilizes the potent membrane. Additionally, the metabolism process of dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and acetylcholine are altered by cocaine (Graziani, Nencini & Nisticò, 2014). The drug has the capacity to cause convulsion among its users. However, under other conditions, the drug does not portray any anticonvulsant feature. The drug is also associated with the blocking of norepinephrine reuptake (Graziani, Nencini & Nisticò, 2014). Besides, it inactivates epinephrine and norepinephrine. The drug also similarly affects the catecholamine systems as amphetamines. The serotoninergic mechanisms are also affected by the drug. For instance, cocaine tends to block the synaptosomal up.
chapter 4 PsychopharmacologyOutline· ■ Principles of Psy.docxrobertad6
chapter 4 Psychopharmacology
Outline
· ■ Principles of Psychopharmacology
Pharmacokinetics
Drug Effectiveness
Effects of Repeated Administration
Placebo Effects
Section Summary
· ■ Sites of Drug Action
Effects on Production of Neurotransmitters
Effects on Storage and Release of Neurotransmitters
Effects on Receptors
Effects on Reuptake or Destruction of Neurotransmitters
Section Summary
· ■ Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators
Acetylcholine
The Monoamines
Dopamine
Amino Acids
Peptides
Lipids
Nucleosides
Soluble Gases
Section Summary
Several years ago I spent the academic year in a neurological research center affiliated with the teaching hospital at a medical center. One morning as I was having breakfast, I read a brief item in the newspaper about a man who had been hospitalized for botulism. Later that morning, I attended a weekly meeting during which the chief of neurology discussed interesting cases presented by the neurological residents. I was surprised to see that we would visit the man with botulism.
We entered the intensive care unit and saw that the man was clearly on his way to recovery. His face was pale and his voice was weak, but he was no longer on a respirator. There wasn’t much to see, so we went back to the lounge and discussed his case.
Just before dinner a few days earlier, Mr. F. had opened a jar of asparagus that his family had canned. He noted right away that it smelled funny. Because his family had grown the asparagus in their own garden, he was reluctant to throw it away. However, he decided that he wouldn’t take any chances. He dipped a spoon into the liquid in the jar and touched it to his tongue. It didn’t taste right, so he didn’t swallow it. Instead, he stuck his tongue out and rinsed it under a stream of water from the faucet at the kitchen sink. He dumped the asparagus into the garbage disposal.
About an hour later, as the family was finishing dinner, Mr. F. discovered that he was seeing double. Alarmed, he asked his wife to drive him to the hospital. When he arrived at the emergency room, he was seen by one of the neurological residents, who asked him, “Mr. F., you haven’t eaten some home-canned foods recently, have you?”
Learning that he had indeed let some liquid from a suspect jar of asparagus touch his tongue, the resident ordered a vial of botulinum antitoxin from the pharmacy. Meanwhile, he took a blood sample from Mr. F.’s vein and sent it to the lab for some in vivo testing in mice. He then administered the antitoxin to Mr. F., but already he could see that it was too late: The patient was showing obvious signs of muscular weakness and was having some difficulty breathing. He was immediately sent to the intensive care unit, where he was put on a respirator. Although he became completely paralyzed, the life support system did what its name indicates, and he regained control of his muscles.
What fascinated me the most was the in vivo testing procedure for the presence of botulinum toxin in Mr. F..
Running head COCAINE1COCAINE5Pharmacological As.docxtodd271
Running head: COCAINE 1
COCAINE 5
Pharmacological Aspects of Cocaine
Lana Eliot
Psychology 630
Professor Benton
September 19, 2018
Pharmacological Aspects of Cocaine
General Description of Cocaine
Cocaine that is also popularly known as coke, blow, crack, rock, or now. It is made from the leaves of the coca plant, which was initially grown in South America. The drug is among the strongest addictive stimulants (Simon & Kreek, 2016). In most cases, this drug is abused since it is used for recreational purposes despite being illegal in the country. The drug has an appearance of white, fine, and crystal powder. Mostly, the drug is mixed by the street dealers with different things such as talcum powder, cornstarch, or flour to raise the level of their profits. They may also mix it with other drugs such as the stimulant amphetamine, or synthetic opioids, including fentanyl. Its users tend to inhale it in the form of smoke, snort, or dissolve it into other liquids and inject it directly into their veins (Simon & Kreek, 2016). The drug has various mental effects such as felling of agitation or happiness as well as inability to understand the reality(Simon & Kreek, 2016). Nonetheless, the drug is used by health care providers for various medical purposes. In particular, cocaine is used as an anesthesia during various surgeries. While cocaine has a wide concept, this paper will focus on its pharmacological aspects. In particular, it will address the effect of the drug on neurotransmitters, receptors, route of administration, its half-life, doses, side effects, drug interactions, and contraindications.
Pharmacological Aspects
Cocaine has an effect on neurotransmitters. The drug tends to disrupt neurotransmission process that involves communication between the brain and the neurons (Graziani, Nencini & Nisticò, 2014). Therefore, it affects the way people think, feels, and behave. Essentially, the functioning of the central nervous system particularly brain is altered by the use of cocaine for a long period. Most effects of cocaine on brain resemble those impacted by other stimulants such as caffeine and amphetamines.
On the other hand, when cocaine is used as an aesthetic during surgeries it has similar effects to those of other local anesthetics, for example, it stabilizes the potent membrane. Additionally, the metabolism process of dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and acetylcholine are altered by cocaine (Graziani, Nencini & Nisticò, 2014). The drug has the capacity to cause convulsion among its users. However, under other conditions, the drug does not portray any anticonvulsant feature. The drug is also associated with the blocking of norepinephrine reuptake (Graziani, Nencini & Nisticò, 2014). Besides, it inactivates epinephrine and norepinephrine. The drug also similarly affects the catecholamine systems as amphetamines. The serotoninergic mechanisms are also affected by the drug. For instance, cocaine tends to block the synaptosomal up.
chapter 4 PsychopharmacologyOutline· ■ Principles of Psy.docxrobertad6
chapter 4 Psychopharmacology
Outline
· ■ Principles of Psychopharmacology
Pharmacokinetics
Drug Effectiveness
Effects of Repeated Administration
Placebo Effects
Section Summary
· ■ Sites of Drug Action
Effects on Production of Neurotransmitters
Effects on Storage and Release of Neurotransmitters
Effects on Receptors
Effects on Reuptake or Destruction of Neurotransmitters
Section Summary
· ■ Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators
Acetylcholine
The Monoamines
Dopamine
Amino Acids
Peptides
Lipids
Nucleosides
Soluble Gases
Section Summary
Several years ago I spent the academic year in a neurological research center affiliated with the teaching hospital at a medical center. One morning as I was having breakfast, I read a brief item in the newspaper about a man who had been hospitalized for botulism. Later that morning, I attended a weekly meeting during which the chief of neurology discussed interesting cases presented by the neurological residents. I was surprised to see that we would visit the man with botulism.
We entered the intensive care unit and saw that the man was clearly on his way to recovery. His face was pale and his voice was weak, but he was no longer on a respirator. There wasn’t much to see, so we went back to the lounge and discussed his case.
Just before dinner a few days earlier, Mr. F. had opened a jar of asparagus that his family had canned. He noted right away that it smelled funny. Because his family had grown the asparagus in their own garden, he was reluctant to throw it away. However, he decided that he wouldn’t take any chances. He dipped a spoon into the liquid in the jar and touched it to his tongue. It didn’t taste right, so he didn’t swallow it. Instead, he stuck his tongue out and rinsed it under a stream of water from the faucet at the kitchen sink. He dumped the asparagus into the garbage disposal.
About an hour later, as the family was finishing dinner, Mr. F. discovered that he was seeing double. Alarmed, he asked his wife to drive him to the hospital. When he arrived at the emergency room, he was seen by one of the neurological residents, who asked him, “Mr. F., you haven’t eaten some home-canned foods recently, have you?”
Learning that he had indeed let some liquid from a suspect jar of asparagus touch his tongue, the resident ordered a vial of botulinum antitoxin from the pharmacy. Meanwhile, he took a blood sample from Mr. F.’s vein and sent it to the lab for some in vivo testing in mice. He then administered the antitoxin to Mr. F., but already he could see that it was too late: The patient was showing obvious signs of muscular weakness and was having some difficulty breathing. He was immediately sent to the intensive care unit, where he was put on a respirator. Although he became completely paralyzed, the life support system did what its name indicates, and he regained control of his muscles.
What fascinated me the most was the in vivo testing procedure for the presence of botulinum toxin in Mr. F..
Pharmacology Short Notes and Mnemonics By Muhammad Ramzan Ul Rehmaan.pdf
Dopamine
1. Running head: ANALYZING DOPAMINE Trivedi 1
The Compound Dopamine’s Structure, Purpose, and Use in Society
Sohum Trivedi
The Gwinnet School of Math, Science, and Technology
2. ANALYZING DOPAMINE Trivedi 2
Abstract
My purpose in this paper was to carefully analyze the compound dopamine. This included taking
a thorough look at the structure, synthesis, and use of dopamine. Dopamine consists of a benzene
ring, two hydroxyl groups, and an attached amine group (National Library of Medicine [NLM],
1993).Dopamine, an agonist to D1-5 receptors, causes a chemical reaction when bonded with the
receptor. Dopamine presents itself within the space between neurons, and affects the frontal lobe
and prefrontal cortex of the brain. The neurotransmitter is synthesized in the brain from the
amino acid, phenylalanine, to tyrosine, which is then converted to dopamine through the addition
and subtraction of various molecules and compounds (NLM, 1993). Any malfunction or error in
this process will lead to reduced levels of dopamine, causing depression (Newton, 1991). The
treatment for depression would be addition of one of the various neurotransmitters, possibly
dopamine (Donna, 2000).
Keywords: agonist, receptor, amino acid, neurotransmitter, benzene, hydroxyl,
depression
3. ANALYZING DOPAMINE Trivedi 3
The Compound Dopamine’s Structure, Purpose, and use in Society
Everywhere we look we see the effects of our body’s natural drugs on our health, mood,
and interactions. Through all these drugs, one distinguishes itself in playing a vital role of
regulating our mood. Dopamine was originally synthesized in 1910 (Newton, 1991), at which
point its uses expanded until today, where dopamine is related to and used for treatment in over
two hundred diseases and disorders (NLM, 1993). To truly understand why and how this drug
works, we have to look deep into its structure, and mechanism. Dopamine has the properties of a
complex organic molecule with the ability to impact our mental health.
Dopamine has a complex molecular structure. The compound itself can be broken into
two parts: a catechol structure, and a phenethylamine structure (NLM, 1993). These structures
are held together by a single covalent bond. A catechol structure can be broken down into a
benzene ring and two hydroxyl groups (NLM, 1993). A hydroxyl is simply a hydrogen atom
covalently bonded to an oxygen atom. The benzene ring involves six carbon atoms alternating in
double and single bonds forming a ring. Now, hydrogen atoms are bonded to each carbon atom
with single covalent bonds extruding outwards from the ring. A phenethylamine structure
consists of a benzene ring with an attached amine group, which is in this case amidogen (seen in
the chemical formula NH2) (NLM, 1993). Each of these individual structures are relatively
simple in nature. Only when all these components are carefully bonded together, either in a lab
or naturally within our bodies, is dopamine justified to be a complex molecule.
While the chemical structure of any compound contains importance, the mechanism of
action is what truly allows the drug to “work”. Dopamine has a large impact on mental health
specifically due to its mechanism of action. To understand how dopamine works, we must have
some basic background knowledge. Most drugs work on the principle of receptor agonist
4. ANALYZING DOPAMINE Trivedi 4
relationship. A drug, known as an agonist, is attracted to a receptor due to their opposing charges
(Donna, 2000). If the agonist fits into the receptor, a series of chemical chain reactions occur.
Dopamine targets several receptors, but one in particular shows an observable change in mood
and behavior. This is the D1-5 receptor (Donna, 2000). One chain reaction on a molecular level
adds up to nothing. However, with thousands of reactions occurring across thousands of
receptors, a physiological reaction is seen. In dopamine’s case, the D1-5 receptor stimulates the
brain in the regions of the frontal lobes, and the prefrontal cortex (NLM, 1993). Dopamine is
primarily seen within the synaptic cleft, or space between neurons, classifying dopamine as a
neurotransmitter (NLM, 1993).
Now we are left with one question: how does dopamine actually treat mental
disorders. As I have stated previously, dopamine has a large impact on mental health, and treats
over two hundred diseases and disorders. One disorder in particular is affects over nineteen
million people in America- depression (Donna, 2000). To understand how neurotransmitters treat
depression, we have to understand how depression occurs. The main theory behind depression
originates in the monoamine hypothesis. The monoamine hypothesis states, in a basic
vocabulary, that too many neurotransmitters will increase our mental activity above normal (this
would cause disorders such as mania) and that not enough neurotransmitters will decrease mental
activity below normal (causing disorders such as depression) (Newton, 1991). Dopamine itself is
created through a series of chemical processes which we need to understand in order to see how
our body could lack this neurotransmitter. Deep within our brain, an amino acid known as
phenylalanine is converted into tyrosine by the addition of a hydroxyl pair (NLM, 1993).
Tyrosine is then converted to dopamine through the addition of another hydroxyl group, and the
removal of a carboxyl group (carbon dioxide bonded to hydrogen) (NLM, 1993). From here, we
5. ANALYZING DOPAMINE Trivedi 5
realize that if the body lacks any of the needed substances required to make dopamine, or cannot
synthesize any of the primary compounds, dopamine will not be produced. Mood and mental
activity is now decreased, this manifests in the form of depression. Treatment for depression
includes, based on the symptoms, a possible variety of neurotransmitters, including, as you may
have guessed, dopamine (Donna, 2000).
Dopamine’s carefully synthesized structure paired with its inherently complicated
structure allows us to see how an unbelievably small compound can have such a large impact on
our health as well as our understanding of chemical structures. Dopamine as a neurotransmitter
has had a huge effect on the twenty-first century in terms of treating mental illness, and
understanding how our mood is correlated to our mind. Even now, in the age of technology, we
don’t completely understand how dopamine and other neurotransmitters work. Maybe one day
in the future we’ll be able to unlock all the secrets of the mind.
6. ANALYZING DOPAMINE Trivedi 6
References
Donna, F. (2000, January). Dopamine Injection: Uses, Dosage & Side Effects - Drugs.com.
Retrieved February/March, 2015, from http://www.drugs.com/dopamine.html
Donna’s website contains a wealth of information over thousands of prescription
drugs, their method of action, and their side effects. Her site is much unbiased, and
shows mainly hard fact, with no opinion interjections. The site is founded for the
purpose of providing people with the knowledge of their medication’s risks and
method of action. I found this site to be useful when wondering how dopamine
actually treated mental disorders such as depression. This source helped to increase the
understanding of my topic, and the risks associated with dopamine.
National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. (1993, March 20). Retrieved
February/March, 2015, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/
The National Library of Medicine is the largest online source of information for
anything related to medicine, such as diseases, disorders, and pharmacology. This
source also contains information on current research in the medical realm, and advice
for new doctors.
This source contains biased and unbiased views depending on the article being read.
All drug and disease descriptions were unbiased, however bias is introduced in blog
type sections, as well as some personal reflections. I would say this source contains
more information than any of my other used sources. The NLM exists to provide a
7. ANALYZING DOPAMINE Trivedi 7
wealth of information on almost all topics within medicine to anyone who necessitates
it.
This source really blew my mind, simply with the fact that any questions I had were
explained on an in depth level which can be reached only by a professional with
experience in the area. This was no doubt my most helpful source.
Newton, P. M. (1991, September 10). Psychology Today. Retrieved February/March, 2015, from
https://www.psychologytoday.com/basics/dopamine
Newton’s site contains explanations of current debates and previously established
principles within psychology. New articles are introduced weekly on his site, and
readers have the opportunity to post and reflect on his articles through the comments
option below every article. Topics are explained with a slowly increasing depth, so
that both a ten year old and a psychologist could both gleam some new information
from his articles. Articles are divided into separate sections, and readers can click any
section in which they are interested in to see available related articles.
The site is very straightforward, and while Newton adds a human touch to his articles,
no heavy bias can be detected- he represents all sides of an argument and leaves the
option of choosing sides to the reader. Any major bias is only seen in the comments
section of his articles, which are posted by the readers.
This source was very handy for simplifying complex concepts into an understandable
phenomenon, which was essential to understanding what the heck I was reading in the
other sources. I would say this site contains much less hard fact than my other sources,
8. ANALYZING DOPAMINE Trivedi 8
however it makes up for it by adding more thought to each topic, so a greater
understanding is achieved of the chosen topic..