1. From Cradle to Antipodean Grave:
Reconstructing 19th Century Criminal Lives
Prof Hamish Maxwell-Stewart
University College Dublin
With thanks to the Australian Research Council, the Australian National Data Service, the Institute for a Broadband Enabled Society
and the Universities of Melbourne, Flinders, ANU, Oxford (UK) and Guelph (Canada)
1
2. The Voyage to Australia!
340 voyages from the
British Isles to Australia the
830 convict voyages from
British
Isles to Van Diemen’s
Land!
1787-1868.
India!
Carrying 160,000 prisoners
340 to VDL 1803-1853
67,000 prisoners
Mauritius!
A further 5,500 locally
Norfolk Island!
convicted or arrived on
intercolonial transports Cape !
New Zealand!
2
3. 1 1st assessment of the impact of transportation from conviction through to end of sentence
2 Look at long-run social and epidemiological impact.
3 and intergenerational
3
4. Height Hair Colour
Hair Colour
Height
Eye Colour
Eye Colour
Expanded and
Unexpanded Chest
Measurement
Civil, marriage,
birth and death Weight
records
Convicts 59,000 men 13,500 women transported 1803-1853 WWI recruits 14,899 Born in Tasmania
Intergenerational height data
+ Year of birth and death + Socio-economic data + Some medical records
4
5. Questions
1. What can we learn about the health transition from transportation?
What can we learn about the long-run effects of various life course
2.
events on health (including intergenerational effects)?
3. What can we learn about the efficacy of various penal policies?
4. Can we transmit useful information to the descendants of convicts?
5. Can we supply useful information to the heritage tourism industry?
5
6. Fig. 2 Death rates at sea and during the first year in the colony for male and female convicts arriving
on voyages to VDL 1830-1853
8.00
Voyage Van Diemen’s Land
6.40
5.6
4.80
4.4
Deaths per 1000 per month
3.20
3.5
3.3 3.3
3.0
2.3 2.1
1.60 2.1 1.9 1.9
1.8 1.8
1.5 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6
1.4 1.3 1.4
1.1 1.0
0.7 0.9 0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.6 0.6
0 0.4
*
r
r
ter
r
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
h
h
h
te
arte
te
10t
11t
12t
ort
uar
uar
uar
In P
Qu
Q
Q
Q
Months after landing
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
Males No of voyages = 208: Mean length of voyage = 116 days: No of convicts embarked = 48097
Females No of voyages = 81: Mean length of voyage = 118 days: No of convicts embarked = 12514
* For 59 male voyages and 36 female voyages the surgeon provides the date when convicts were first embarked and the date of sailing. The mean length of the
embarkation process was slightly longer for male ships, 17 days, as opposed to 14 for female vessels. Deaths for the period in port and the four quartiles of the voyage
have been weighted to 30 days.
6
7. Diarrhoea and dysentery Diarrhoea and dysentery
Diseases of the digestive system
Diseases of the digestive system
Other fever
Diseases of the respiratory system
Fever
Respiratory tuberculosis
Diseases of the respiratory system Diseases of the circulatory system
Sexually transmitted diseases
Respiratory tuberculosis
Nausea
Diseases of the circulatory system Debility and marasmus
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue
Sexually transmitted diseases Mental and behavioral disorders
Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium
Nausea
Diseases of the eye and ear
Debility and marasmus Diseases of the genitourinary system
Diseases of the nervous system
Diseases of the skin
Diseases of the blood and blood forming organs
Endocrine, deficiency and metabolic disorders
Mental and behavioral disorders
Neoplasm
Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium Other infectious diseases
Unclassifiable
Diseases of the eye and ear
Accident
Convulsions and teething
Diseases of the genitourinary system
Old age and decay
Diseases of the nervous system Deaths per 1000 convicts
Other tuberculosis
Diagnoses per 1000 convicts
Paralysis
Diseases of the blood
Suicide
Scurvy Unknown
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system
0 1.75 3.50 5.25 7.00
0 22.5 45.0 67.5 90.0
7
9. Route of the Isabella Watson taken from the log of Captain J.A.McDonald,
Mitchell Library Sydney MSS 1808 /2x Item 3
Seasickness and Accidents (cases per 1000 convicts)
1.6 0.90
Roaring 40s
1.2 0.68
0.8 0.45
0.4 0.23
Accidents
Nausea
0 0
rt
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
0-
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
Po
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
In
Accidents Seasickness Percentage of Voyage Elapsed
9
10. Indents
Height
Age on arrival
Occupation
Native Place
10
11. Marital Status
No Children
Religion
Literacy
Statement on family and circumstances
Offence transported for + priors
11
12. Father and Mother [Father]
James native place 2 brothers William Douce
Richard and William on board; 7
sisters Mary, Sarah, Lydia,
Sophia, Eliza, Emma, Phoebe; Church St, Safron Walden
Sarah London and Lydia
James Douce
Sarah Douce
Lydia Douce Lydia Douce 14
Mary Douce
Aged 45
Sophia Douce Sophia Douce 17 Agricultural labourer
Flora Douce
James Douce Eliza Douce Eliza Douce 8 James Douce
? Douce Emma Douce 4 SARAH Douce
Phoebe Douce Phoebe Douce 2
Aged 40
Richard Douce Richard Douce 11
12
13. Occupation
Native Place
Age on arrival Height
Physical disabilities
Description Registers
13
15. Confession — marital status,
transportable offence, prior offences
Each bench appearance
religion and literacy
Date
(names of parents and siblings)
Where employed
Charge
Sentence (lashes, days irons, cells etc)
Magistrate who heard case
Conduct Registers
15
16. 1816-1839
! Full Pardon
1840-1853
Cond. Pardon
Ticket of Leave
Assigned or Public Works
Road Parties
Chain Gangs
Males
Penal Stations
Gallows
1816-1843
!
1844-1853 Full Pardon
Cond. Pardon
Ticket of Leave
Assigned to Private Settlers
Factory 1st Class
Factory 2nd Class
Factory Crime Class Females
Gallows
16
17. Distribution of Male Convicts 1st January 1839 Distribution of Female Convicts 1st January 1839
Hospital & Invalid
Missing & Establishment
absconded 2% Confined in Gaols Invalid Establishment
1% 2%
Port Arthur
9% Ticket of Leave Female Factories
24% 18%
Chain
Gangs
Ticket of Leave Road Gangs
25% 11%
Public Works
9%
Constables
2%
Artificers on loan to settlers
2%
Assigned Assigned
34% 56%
! Full Pardon
Cond. Pardon
Ticket of Leave
Assigned or Public Works
Road Parties
Chain Gangs
Males
Penal Stations
Gallows
17
19. Transp[orte]d for theft. Goal report ‘Bad character and connections’. Hulk report ‘orderly single’. Stated this offence
Housebreaking been 9 or 10 times before the Magistrates but cannot tell what for.
May 16 1832, Murray, Gross insolence, 25 lashes & returned to his master, J. Simpson.
Augt 6 1832, Murray, Disobed[ien]ce of orders, 2 months impris[onmen]t & hard labor & ret[urne]d to his service, J.
Simpson.
Octr 6 1832, Murray, Insolence, Rep[rimande]d, J. Leake.
Octr 221832, Murray, Insolence, Ret[urne]d to P[ublic] W[orks], J England.
Feby 18 1833, R[oa]d Party, Absco[ndin]g, 50 lashes, W[illiam] L. [yttleton]
March 7 1833, Road Party, Abscond[in]g, 70 lashes, WL & WK
May 4 1833, R[oa]d P[ar]ty, Having in his possession a quantity of potatoes for which he cannot account, Placed on
No. 3 ration one month, W Lyttleton.
Septr 17 1833, R[oa]d P[arty], Abscond[in]g, 3 mo[nth]s imprison[men]t & hard labor, Notman’s gang recomm[ende]d,
WL.
Septr 27 1833, Notmans ch[ain] g[ang], Inciting his fellow prisoners to insubord[inatio]n & refusing to work, 50 lashes,
WL.
Jan 2 1834, R[oa]d P[ar]ty, Absconding, 6 months imprisonment & hard labor, Notman’s gang recomm[ende]d, RCG.
Octr 29 1834, Brand, Inducing Mr. Warne’s serv[an]t to leave his masters premises, 7 days Bread and Water and
Sol[itar]y Conf[inemen]t, WL.
Jany 28 1835, Brand, Neglect of duty and making use of profane language, 3 months hard labor Westbury Road Party
recomm[ende]d, RCG — Long meadows R[oa]d P[ar]ty Launceston vide L[ieutenan]t Gov[ernor’]s Decis[io]n 5 Feby
1835
Decr 1835, Newland, Disorderly conduct & violently assaulting Geo[rge] Williams, 6 mo[nth]s hard labour in ch[ain]s,
RCG — At Laun[cesto]n vide L[ieutenan]t Gov[ernor’]s Decis[io]n 24 Decr 1835
Septr 30 1837, Newland, Larceny, Disch[arge]d, WF
The Lieutenant Governor has been pleased to grant this man a free pardon and 50 sovereigns for his praiseworthy
conduct in apprehending Benjamin Ball, a bushranger of desperate character. Vide Gov[ernment]t. Notice 157.
19
20. David Gow’s Progress through the Convict System
Captures Bushranger — Free
Wicked Chain Gang Road Party Assigned Good
AND PUBLIC
AL PARDON
CONDITION
ABSOLUTE
TICKET OF
ASSIGNED
GALLOWS
STATION
PARDON
WORKS
PARTY
LEAVE
PENAL
CHAIN
GANG
ROAD
20
21. EDWARD KENNEDY
per ELIZABETH Employment History Fellow Workers
December 1832 — Assigned to Mr Thomas Parker MR THOMAS PARKER 367 John Andrews
1106 William Courtney
26 July 1833 — Parker — Gross in subordination also 1338 William Counsel
assaulting his master and violently beating and 1392 George Cornish
assaulting his fellow servant. Original sentence 274 William Elliot
extended two years and recommended to be sent to a 404 John French
penal settlement. MLS and JW. — Con 31/26 723 Daniel Groves
504 James Leverett
December 1833, Public Works ROAD PARTY
595 Charles Lane
728 Charles Pizzie
17 February 1834 — Road Party — Absent from the 1377 Andrew West
GRASS TREE HILL
huts at an improper hour — 6 Mos Hard Labour Grass 1379 John Wilson
Tree Hill Recommended. WJP. — Con 31/26
211 Jane Boulter
19 March 1835 — Mack — Insolence and violent J. D. MACK
conduct in Mr Muir’s Public House — 36 Lashes and Macquarie District
returned to his service. CPM. — Con 31/26
23 Sept 1835 — Transferred from J. D. Mack, Macquarie ALEXANDER DOWNIE
District to Alexander Downie, <[Norton Mandiville]> Norton Mandeville
— Hobart Town Gazette, 24 Sept 1835. Hamilton
December 1835, Assigned to Mr A Drought REV A. DROUGHT 347 Thomas Fisher
Church of England
18 April 1839 — The remaining part of his extended Rector Green
sentence remitted by order of His Excellency, vide Ponds
memo of P. Supt. — Con 31/26
21
23. 3. Penal policy shifts
a) Premodern - modern. Foucaultian shift punishments that focus on the body to punishments that focus on the mind.
Number of lashes and days cells per man (5 year moving average)
10.00 3.0
Election of Whig Government
Introduction of probation system
7.50 2.3
Days solitary confinement per man per year
Number of lashes per man per year
5.00 1.5
2.50 0.8
0 0
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
41
43
45
47
49
51
53
55
57
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
Lashes Cells
23
24. Number of lashes received by convict over the course of their sentence
White collar
Wood
Weavers twice as likely to be flogged as agricultural labourers
Agricultural
Food and drink
Metal
Construction
land transport
Unskilled
Maritime transport
Domestic service
Clothing
Textile
0 15 30 45 60
24
25. Charges brought against male convicts per man on strength (5 year moving average) and
mechanics wages
Introduction of probation
0.900 12.00
Wages of mechanics (shillings per day)
0.675 9.75
Charges per man on strength
0.450 7.50
0.225 5.25
0 3.00
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18
25
26. 9Days spent in road parties or chain gang per year per man on strength (3 year moving average).
(a) (b)
60 14 £40
Days labour per man on strength per year
45 12.5 £30
30
£ 9 £20
15 7.5 £10
0 4 £0
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 848 850 852 854 856 858
18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 18 1 1 1 1 1 1
Road party (days per man) Chain gang (days per man)
(a) Male convict deaths per 1000 per year (b) Cost of rationing a convicts for one year
26
28. Death rates male convicts and prisoners, Van Diemen’s Land, Millbank
and Eastern State Penitentiary.
70.0
52.5
35.0
Deaths per 1000 per year
17.5
0
1 YEAR 2 YEARS 3 YEARS 4/5 YEARS
Assignment System, VDL, 1830-39
Probation System, VDL, 1840-53
Millbank Penitentiary, London
Eastern Penitentiary, Philadelphia
28
29. Sampling Strategy
Certificate of Freedom
Conditional Pardon
Full Pardon
10.5 years (counting life as 30 yrs)
8.7 years
26.8 years old
Pauper
1 in 25 sample Rearrested
Permission to marry
Con 40
Male convicts
arriving Probation
Era 1840-1853 Marriage
Escape Departure
Death
29
35. 4. Can we transmit useful information to the descendants of convicts?
Disproportionate number of
descendants from a few fertile couples
Generation 2
50% childless Age at marriage + high rate of STDs amongst women (?)
Generation 1
Convict
Free
Link to marriage 25% 90%
Long sentence Short sentence
Unskilled Skilled
35
