The document discusses digital logic design and covers the following topics: - Basics of logic gates and digital circuits including transistors, integration levels, and logic functions. - Combinational circuits such as multiplexers, demultiplexers, decoders, comparators, adders, and arithmetic logic units (ALUs). Specific circuit examples and implementations are provided. - Sequential circuits are mentioned but not covered in detail.

1. Lecture 2
Digital Logic Design
 Basics
 Combinational Circuits
 Sequential Circuits
Thanks to Adapted from the slides prepared by S. Dandamudi for the book,
Fundamentals of Computer Organization and Design.
Inam Ul-Haq
Senior Lecturer in Computer Science
University of Education Okara Campus
Inam.bth@gmail.com
Member at IEEE & ACM

2. Introduction to Digital Logic Basics
 Hardware consists of a few simple building blocks
 These are called logic gates

AND, OR, NOT, …

NAND, NOR, XOR, …
 Logic gates are built using transistors

NOT gate can be implemented by a single transistor

AND gate requires 3 transistors
 Transistors are the fundamental devices

Pentium consists of 3 million transistors

Compaq Alpha consists of 9 million transistors

Now we can build chips with more than 100 million transistors

3. Basic Concepts
 Simple gates
 AND
 OR
 NOT
 Functionality can be
expressed by a truth table
 A truth table lists output for
each possible input
combination
 Precedence
 NOT > AND > OR
 F = A B + A B
= (A (B)) + ((A) B)

4. Basic Concepts (cont.)
 Additional useful gates
 NAND
 NOR
 XOR
 NAND = AND + NOT
 NOR = OR + NOT
 XOR implements
exclusive-OR function
 NAND and NOR gates
require only 2 transistors
 AND and OR need 3
transistors!

5. Basic Concepts (cont.)
 Number of functions
 With N logical variables, we can define
22
N
functions
 Some of them are useful

AND, NAND, NOR, XOR, …
 Some are not useful:

Output is always 1

Output is always 0
 “Number of functions” definition is useful in proving
completeness property

6. Logic Chips (cont.)

7. Logic Chips (cont.)
 Integration levels
 SSI (small scale integration)

Introduced in late 1960s

1-10 gates (previous examples)
 MSI (medium scale integration)

Introduced in late 1960s

10-100 gates
 LSI (large scale integration)

Introduced in early 1970s

100-10,000 gates

VLSI (very large scale integration)

Introduced in late 1970s

More than 10,000 gates
Explore how many transistors in SSI?
Explore how many transistors in MSI?
Explore how many transistors in LSI?
Explore how many transistors in VLSI?

8. Logic Functions
 Logical functions can be expressed in several
ways:
 Truth table
 Logical expressions
 Graphical form
 Example:
 Majority function

Output is one whenever majority of inputs is 1

We use 3-input majority function

9. Logic Functions (cont.)
Truth Table
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
 Logical expression form
F = A B + B C + A C
Graphical Form

10. Logical Equivalence
 All three circuits implement F = A B function

11. Logical Equivalence (cont.)
 Proving logical equivalence of two circuits
 Derive the logical expression for the output of each circuit
 Show that these two expressions are equivalent

Two ways:
1. You can use the truth table method

For every combination of inputs, if both expressions yield the
same output, they are equivalent

Good for logical expressions with small number of variables
1. You can also use algebraic manipulation

Need Boolean identities

12. Logical Equivalence (cont.)
 Derivation of logical expression from a circuit(graphical form)
 Trace from the input to output

Write down intermediate logical expressions along the path

(write down truth table of expression F3)

13. Logical Equivalence (cont.)
 Proving logical equivalence: Truth table method
 (write down graphical form from below truth table)
A B F1 = A B F3 = (A + B) (A + B) (A + B)
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1

14. Boolean Algebra (2nd
method)
(Prove each property through truth table)

15. Boolean Algebra (cont.)
(Prove each property through truth table)

16. Boolean Algebra (cont.)
 Proving logical equivalence: Boolean algebra
method
 To prove that two logical functions F1 and F2 are
equivalent

Start with one function and apply Boolean laws to
derive the other function

Needs intuition as to which laws should be applied
and when
 Practice helps

Sometimes it may be convenient to reduce both
functions to the same expression
 Example: F1= A B and F3 are equivalent

17. Logic Circuit Design Process
 A simple logic design process involves
1. Problem specification
2. Truth table derivation
3. Derivation of logical expression
4. Simplification of logical expression
5. Implementation

18. Deriving Logical Expressions
 Derivation of logical expressions from truth tables
 sum-of-products (SOP) form
 product-of-sums (POS) form
 SOP form
 Write an AND term for each input combination that
produces a 1 output

Write the variable if its value is 1; complement
otherwise
 OR the AND terms to get the final expression
 POS form
 Dual of the SOP form

19. Deriving Logical Expressions (cont.)
 3-input majority function
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
 SOP logical expression
 Four product terms
 Because there are 4 rows
with a 1 output
F = A B C + A B C +
A B C + A B C

20. Deriving Logical Expressions (cont.)
 3-input majority function
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
 POS logical expression
 Four sum terms
 Because there are 4 rows
with a 0 output
F = (A + B + C) (A + B + C)
(A + B + C) (A + B + C)

21. Logical Expression Simplification
 Algebraic manipulation

Use Boolean laws to simplify the expression
 Difficult to use
 Don’t know if you have the simplified form

22. Algebraic Manipulation
 Majority function example
A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C =
A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C + A B C
 We can now simplify this expression as
B C + A C + A B
 A difficult method to use for complex expressions
Added extra

23. Implementation Using NAND Gates
 Using NAND gates
 Get an equivalent expression
A B + C D = A B + C D
 Using de Morgan’s law
A B + C D = A B .
C D
 Can be generalized

Majority function
A B + B C + AC = A B .
BC .
AC
Idea: NAND Gates: Sum-of-Products, NOR Gates: Product-of-Sums

24. Implementation Using NAND Gates
(cont.)
 Majority function

25. Introduction to Combinational Circuits
 Combinational circuits

Output depends only on the current inputs
 Combinational circuits provide a higher level of
abstraction
 Help in reducing design complexity
 Reduce chip count
 We look at some useful combinational circuits

26. Multiplexers
 Multiplexer
 2n
data inputs
 n selection inputs
 a single output
 Selection input
determines the
input that should
be connected to
the output
4-data input MUX

27. Multiplexers (cont.)
4-data input MUX implementation

28. Multiplexers (cont.)
MUX implementations

29. Multiplexers (cont.)
Example chip: 8-to-1 MUX

30. Multiplexers (cont.)
Efficient implementation: Majority function

31. Demultiplexers
Demultiplexer (DeMUX)

32. Decoders
 Decoder selects one-out-of-N inputs

33. Decoders (cont.)
Logic function implementation
(Full Adder)

34. Comparator
 Used to implement comparison operators (= , > , < , ≥ , ≤)

35. Comparator (cont.)
4-bit magnitude comparator chip
A=B: Ox = Ix (x=A<B, A=B, & A>B)

36. Comparator (cont.)
Serial construction of an 8-bit comparator

37. 1-bit Comparator
x y
x>y
x=y
x<y
x y x>y x=y x<y
CMP

38. 8-bit comparator
x y
x>y
x=y
x<y
CMP
xn>yn
xn=yn
xn<yn

39. Adders
 Half-adder
 Adds two bits

Produces a sum and carry
 Problem: Cannot use it to build larger inputs
 Full-adder
 Adds three 1-bit values

Like half-adder, produces a sum and carry
 Allows building N-bit adders

Simple technique

Connect Cout of one adder to Cin of the next

These are called ripple-carry adders

40. Adders (cont.)

41. Adders (cont.)
A 16-bit ripple-carry adder

42. Adders (cont.)
 Ripple-carry adders can be slow
 Delay proportional to number of bits
 Carry lookahead adders
 Eliminate the delay of ripple-carry adders
 Carry-ins are generated independently

C0 = A0 B0

C1 = A0 B0 A1 + A0 B0 B1 + A1 B1

. . .
 Requires complex circuits
 Usually, a combination carry lookahead and
ripple-carry techniques are used

43. 1-bit Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Preliminary ALU design
2’s complement
Required 1 is added via Cin

44. 1-bit Arithmetic and Logic Unit (cont.)
Final design

45. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (cont.)
16-bit ALU

46. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (cont’d)
4-bit ALU