The document summarizes key aspects of contract law in India based on the Indian Contract Act of 1872. It outlines the general principles of contract law, including definitions of important terms like offer, acceptance, agreement and contract. It also describes essential elements for a valid contract such as intention to create legal obligations, lawful consideration, certainty and possibility of performance. Additionally, it discusses different types of contracts based on their creation, validity, execution and liability. The document provides examples to illustrate different contract law concepts and principles.

2. o This Act may be called the Contract Act, 1872.
o It shall come into force on the first day of September, 1872.
o Prior to this English law of contract was followed in Subcontinent
o The law of contract deals with the common principles of law governing all contracts 'and covers the special
provisions relating to contracts like bailment, pledge, indemnity, guarantee and agency.
o Law of contract creates jus-in-personem and not in jus-in-rem
o Before 1930, this Act also contained the special provisions relating to contracts of sale of goods and partnership.
o In 1930, though, these provisions were repealed and separate Acts described the 'Sale of Goods Act‘ and the 'Indian
Partnership Act' was passed governing the contracts of sale of goods and partnership respectively.

3. The Contract Act consists of the following two parts
(a) General principals of the Law of Contract
• The general principals of the Law of Contract
are contained in Sections 1 to 75 of the Contract
Act.
• These principles apply to all kinds of contracts
irrespective of their nature.
(b) Special kinds of contracts
• Special contracts are contained in Sections
124 to 238 of the Contract Act.
• Special contracts are Indemnity,
Guarantee, Bailment, pledge and Agency

4. Offer(i.e. Proposal) [section 2(a)] When one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing
anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other person either to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a
proposal.
Acceptance 2(b) When the person to whom the proposal is made, signifies his assent there to , the proposal is said to
be accepted.
Promise 2(b) A Proposal when accepted becomes a promise. In simple words, when an offer is accepted it becomes
promise.
Agreement 2(e) Every promise and set of promises forming the consideration for each other.
In short, agreement = offer + acceptance.
Contract 2(h) An agreement enforceable by Law is a contract.
In short, Contract = Agreement + Legal enforceability(Obligation)

5. Legal Obligation i.e., it should be enforceable at law.
o An agreement may be regarded as a contract, if it creates a legal obligation i.e., it necessity be enforceable through
law.
o Any obligation (duty) which is not enforceable through law is not regarded as a contract.
o Social, moral, or religious agreements do not make any legal obligation.
o In case of social agreement there is no intention to create legal relationship and there the is no contract
o In case of business agreements, though, the usual presumption is that the parties intend to make a legal connection.
For instance, an agreement to sell a scooter for Rs. 8,000 is a contract because it provides rise to an obligation
enforceable through law.
For Example, an agreement to take lunch jointly or to go to a picnic is not a contract because it does not make a duty
enforceable through law.
A and B agree to go to a movie on coming Sunday. A does not turn in resulting in loss of B’s time B cannot claim any
damages from B since the agreement to watch a movie is a domestic agreement which does not result in a contract.

6. For making of a valid Contract you must need

7. Contract can also be defined as “All agreements are contracts if they are made by free consent of parties, competent to
contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object and are not hereby expressly declared to be void.”

8. Therefore, an agreement becomes a valid contract if it has the following elements.
1. Proper offer and its proper acceptance
2. Intention to make legal connection
3. Free consent
4. Capability of parties to contract
5. Lawful consideration
6. Lawful substance
7. Agreement not expressly declared void
8. Certainty of meaning
9. Possibility of performance
10. Legal formalities
1. Proper offer and proper acceptance:
o In order to make a valid contract it is necessary that there necessity be at least two parties, one creation the offer
and the other accepting it.
o The offer must be definite and duly communicated to the other party.
o Likewise, the acceptance must be unconditional and communicated to the offered in the prescribe mode, and so on.
2. Intention to make legal connection:
o There must be an intention in between the of the parties to make a legal connection.
o If an agreement is not capable of creating a legal obligation it is not a contract.
o In case of social or domestic agreements, usually there is no intention to make legal connection.
o In commercial. or business transactions the usual assumption is that the parties intend to make legal dealings.

9. Case study
Likewise, sure agreements flanked by husband and wife do not become contracts because there is no intention to
make legal connection. This point can well be illustrated through the well-known case of Balfour v. Balfour. Mr.
Balfour had promised to pay £ 30 per month to his wife livelihood in England when she could not accompany him to
Caulon where he was employed. Mr. Balfour failed to pay the promised amount. Mrs. Balfour filed a suit against her
husband for breach of this agreement, It was held that she could not recover the amount as it was a social agreement
and the parties never planned to make any legal dealings.
3. Free consent:
o For a contract to be valid, it is essential that there must be free and genuine consent of the parties to the contract.
o They must make the contract of their own free will and not under any fear or pressure.
o Consent of a party can be influenced through
(i) coercion,
(ii) undue power,
(iii) fraud,
(iv) misrepresentation, or
(v) mistake.
o Where the consent is obtained through any of the first four factors, the contract would be voidable at the option of
the aggrieved party.
o But if the agreement is induced through mutual mistake which is material to the agreement, it would be void.

10. 4. Capability of parties:
The parties to an agreement necessity be competent to contract i.e., they necessity be capable of entering into a
contract.
If any party to the contract is not competent to contract, the contract is void-ab-initio.
Competence to contract can be defined as
o every person is competent to contract who
i. is of the age of majority and
ii. who is of sound mind, and
iii. is not disqualified from contracting through any law to which he is subject.

11. 5. Lawful consideration
o An agreement must be supported through consideration.
o Consideration means something in return.
o It can also be defined as the price paid through one party to buy the promise of the other. However, this price need
not always be in conditions of money.
o The consideration may be an act (doing something) or forbearance (not doing something) or a promise to do or not
to do something.
o The consideration may be past, present or future, consideration necessity be real i.e., it necessity have some value in
the eyes of law. However, the consideration need not be adequate.
o For a contract to be valid, the consideration should also be lawful.
o The consideration is measured lawful unless it is
i. forbidden by law, or
ii. is fraudulent, or
iii. involves or implies injury to the person or property of another; or
iv. is immoral, or
v. is opposed to public policy.
Examples
A agrees to sell his book to B for Rs. 2,000. Here the consideration for A is Rs. 2,000 and for B it is the book.
A sells his car worth Rs. 50,000 to B for Rs. 10,000 only. This is a valid promise provided the consent of A is free.

12. 6. Lawful substance/ object
o The substance of an agreement necessity is lawful.
o An agreement made for any act which is prohibited through law will not be valid.
o Therefore, the consideration as well as the substance, of the agreement should be lawful.
7. Agreement not expressly declared void:
The agreement necessity not have been expressly declared void under Contract Act.
Sections 24 to 30 specify sure kinds of agreements which have been expressly declared void.
They are agreement
i. in restraint of marriage,
ii. Agreement in restraint of legal proceedings,
iii. agreement in restraint of deal, and
iv. agreement through method of wager.
For Example A agreed to pay Rs. 1,000,000 to B if he (B) does not marry throughout his life. B promised not to marry at
all. This agreement shall not be valid because it is in restraint of marriage which has been expressly declared void
under Section 26.
If an agreement possesses all other essential elements of a valid contract but is belongs to the category of such
agreements that have been expressly declared void through the Contract Act, no power on earth can create it a valid
contract.

13. 8. Certainty of meaning:
o Section 29 of the Contract Act gives that Agreements, the meaning of which is not sure or capable of being made
sure, are void.
o Therefore to create a valid contract it is absolutely essential that its conditions necessity be clear and not vague or
uncertain.
For Example,
A agreed to sell 100 tones of oil to B. Here it is not clear what type of oil is planned to be sold. So, this agreement is not
valid on the ground of uncertainty. If, though, the meaning of the agreement could be made sure from the
circumstances of the case, it will be treated as a valid contract.
If we know that A and B are dealers in mustard oil only, and then the agreement shall be enforceable because the
meaning of the agreement could be easily ascertained from the circumstances of the case.
A agreed to pay Rs.5 lakh to B for ultra-modern decoration of his drawing room. The agreement is void because the
meaning of the term “ ultra – modern” is not certain.
9. Possibility of performance:
The conditions of the agreement necessity also are such as are capable of performance. An agreement to do an act
impossible in itself is void. (Section 56.)
If the act is impossible of performance, physically or legally, the agreement cannot be enforced through law. The
reasoning is very easy.
Example : A agrees to B to discover treasure by magic. The agreement is void because the act in itself is impossible to
be performed from the very beginning.

14. Legal formalities:
An oral agreement is as good as is a written agreement.
The Contract Act does not require that a contract necessity be in writing to be valid.
But, in some cases the Act has specified that the agreement necessity be made in writing.
For Example, a promise to pay a debt necessity be in writing and an agreement for a sale of immovable property
necessity be in writing and registered under the Transfer of Property Act,
In such a situation, the agreement necessity comply with the necessary formalities as to writing, registration, etc. If
these legal formalities are not accepted out, then the contract is not enforceable through law.

16. TypesofContract
Contract can be segregated into different categories on the
basis of
o Creation
o Validity
o Execution
o Liability

18. 1. On the Basis of Creation
(a) Express contract
o A contract made by word spoken or written.
o According to sec 9 in so for as the proposal or acceptance of any promise is made in words, the promise is said to be
express.
Example : Ali says to Babar ‘will you purchase my bike for Rs.20,000?” Babar says to Ali “Yes”.
(b) Implied contract
o A contract inferred by
i. The conduct of person or
ii. The circumstances of the case.
By implies contract means implied by law (i.e.) the law implied a contract through parties never intended.
According to sec 9 in so for as such proposed or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be
implied.
Example:
A stops a taxi by waving his hand and takes his seat. There is an implied contract that A will pay the prescribed fare.
(c) Tacit contract
A contract is said to be tacit when it has to be inferred from the conduct of the parties.
Example obtaining cash through automatic teller machine (ATM), sale by fall hammer of an auction sale.

19. (d) Quasi Contracts are contracts which are created
o Neither by word spoken
o Nor written
o Nor by the conduct of the parties.
o But these are created by the law.
Example:
If Mr. Ahmad leaves his goods at Mr. Sabir’s shop by mistake, then it is for Mr. Sabir to return the goods or to
compensate the price. In fact, these contracts depend on the principle that “nobody will be allowed to become rich at
the expenses of the other”.
(e) e – Contract: An e – contract is one, which is entered into between two parties via the internet.

20. 2. On the Basis of Validity
(a) Valid contract:
o An agreement which fulfills all the requirements prescribed by law On the basis of creation
(b) Void contract 2(j)
o A contract which ceases to be enforceable by law because void
i. when of ceased to be enforceable
ii. When both parties to an agreement are:-
iii. Under a mistake of facts [20]
iv. Consideration or object of an agreement is unlawful [23]
v. Agreement made without consideration [25]
vi. Agreement in restrain of marriage [26]
vii. Restraint of trade [27]
viii.Restrain legal proceeding [28].
ix. Agreement by wage of wager [30]
(c) Voidable contract 2(i)
an agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more the parties but not at the option of the other or
others is a voidable contract. Contracts entered through coercion, undue influence, fraud and misrepresentation are
examples of voidable contract.

21. (d) Unenforceable contract
An unenforceable contract is a written or oral agreement that will not be enforced by courts. There are many different
reasons that a court may not enforce a contract. Contracts may be unenforceable because of their subject matter,
because one party to the agreement unfairly took advantage of the other party, or because there is not enough proof of
the agreement.
Example: Writing registration or stamping.
Example: An agreement which is required to be stamped will be unenforceable if the same is not stamped at all or is
under stamped.
(e) Illegal contract
It is a contract which the law forbids to be made. All illegal agreements are void but all void agreements or contracts
are not necessary illegal.
o Contract that is immoral or opposed to public policy are illegal in nature.
o Unlike illegal agreements there is no punishment to the parties to a void agreement.
o Illegal agreements are void from the very beginning agreements are void from the very beginning but sometimes
valid contracts may subsequently becomes void.

22. 3. On the Basis of Execution
(a) Executed contract
A contract in which both the parties have fulfilled their obligations under the contract.
Example: A contracts to buy a car from B by paying cash, B instantly delivers his car.
(b) Executory contract
A contract in which both the parties have still to fulfilled their obligations.
Example : D agrees to buy V’s cycle by promising to pay cash on 15th July. V agrees to deliver the cycle on 20th July.
(c) Partly executed and partly executory
A contract in which one of the parties has fulfilled his obligation but the other party is yet to fulfill his obligation.
Example : A sells his car to B and A has delivered the car but B is yet to pay the price. For A, it is excuted contract
whereas it is executory contract on the part of B since the price is yet to be paid.

23. (a) 4. On the Basis of Liability
(b) Bilateral contract
A contract in which both the parties commit to perform their respective promises is called a bilateral contract.
Example A offers to sell his fiat car to B for Rs.1,00,000 on acceptance of A’s offer by B, there is a promise by A to Sell
the car and there is a promise by B to purchase the car there are two promise.
(b) Unilateral contract
A unilateral contract is a one sided contract in which only one party has to perform his promise or obligation party has
to perform his promise or obligation to do or forbear.
Example
A wants to get his room painted. He offers Rs.500 to B for this purpose B says to A “ if I have spare time on next
Sunday I will paint your room”. There is a promise by A to pay Rs 500 to B. If B is able to spare time to paint A’s room.
However there is no promise by B to Paint the house. There is only one promise.

26. OFFER
The words 'proposal' and 'offer' are synonymous and are used interchangeably.
Section 2(a) defines the term 'proposal' as follows: ”When one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to
abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to
create a proposal.”
“When one person signifies to another his willingness –
• to do or to abstain from doing anything,
• with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal.
The person who makes an offer is called “Offeror” or “ Promisor” and the person to whom the offer is made is called
the Offeree” or “Promisee”.
Example
Mr. Ahmad says to Mr. Zaheer, “Will you purchase my car for Rs.1,00,000?” In this case, Mr. Ahmad is making an
offer to Mr. Zaheer Here Ahmad is the offeror and Zaheer is the offeree.
A offers to sell his book to B for Rs. 30. A is creation a proposal to do something i.e., to sell his book. It is a positive act
on the part of the propose A. On the other hand, when A offers not to file a suit against B if the latter pays A the
outstanding amount of Rs. 1,000, the act of A is a negative one i.e., he is offering to abstain from filing a suit.

27. Essentials elements of an offer:-
(1) There must be two parties.
(2) The offer must be communicated to the offeree.
(3) The offer must show the willingness of offeror. Mere telling the plan is not offer.
(4) The offer must be made with a view to obtaining the assent of the offeree.
(5) A statement made jokingly does not amount to an offer.
(6) An offer may involve a positive act or abstinence by the offeree.
(7) Mere expression of willingness does not constitute an offer.

28. Legal Rules as to valid offer:-
1. Offer must be communicated to the offeree: The offer is completed only when it has been communicated to the
offeree. Until the offer is communicated, it cannot be accepted. Thus, an offer accepted without its knowledge,
does not confer any legal rights on the acceptor.
Example:
A’s nephew has escaped from his home. He sent his servant to trace his missing nephew. When he servant had left, A
then announced that anybody who discovered the missing boy, would be given the reward of Rs.500. The servant
discovered the missing boy without knowing the reward. When the servant came to know about the reward, he
brought an action against A to recover the same. But his action failed. It was held that the servant was not entitled to
the reward because he did not know about the offer when the discovered the missing boy.
2. The offer must be certain definite and not vague unambiguous and certain.
Example:
A offered to sell to B. ‘a hundred tons of oil’. The offer is uncertain as there is nothing to show what kind of oil is
intended to be sold.
3. The offer must be capable of creating legal relation.
A social invitation is not create legal relation.
Example:
A invited B to a dinner and B accepted the invitation. It is a mere social invitation. And A will not be liable
if he fails to provide dinner to B.

29. 4. Offer may be express and implied
The offer may be express or implied; An offer may be express as well as implied. An offer which is expressed by
words, written or spoken, is called an express offer. The offer which is expressed by conduct, is called an implied offer
[Section 9].
5. Communication of complete offer
Example:
A offered to sell his pen to B for Rs.1,000. B replied, “I am ready to pay Rs.950”. On A’s refusal to sell at this price, B
agreed to pay Rs.1,000. held, there was not contract at the acceptance to buy it for Rs.950 was a counter offer, i.e.
rejection of the offer of A. Subsequent acceptance to pay Rs.1,000 is a fresh offer from B to which A was not bound go
give his acceptance.
6. Counter offer – A counter offer amounts to rejection of the original offer
7. Cross offer do not conclude a contract
8. An offer must not thrust the burden of acceptance on the offeree.
Example:
A made a contract with B and promised that if he was satisfied as a customer he would favorably consider his case for
the renewal of the contract. The promise is too vague to create a legal relationship. ¾ The acceptance cannot be
presumed from silence.¾ Acceptance is valid only if it is communicated to the offeror.

30. 9. Offer must be distinguished from invitation to offer.
Example:
Menu card of restaurant is an invitation to put an offer.
Example ;
Price – tags attached with the goods displayed in any showroom or supermarket is also an invitation to proposal. If
the salesman or the cashier does not accept the price, the or the cashier does not accept the price, the interested
buyer cannot compel him to sell, if he wants to buy it, he must make a proposal.
Example:
Job or tender advertisement inviting applications for a job or inviting tenders is an invitation to an offer.
Example:
An advertisement for auction sale is merely an invitation to make an offer and not an offer for sale. Therefore, an
advertisement of an auction can be withdrawn without any notice. The persons going to the auction cannot claim for
loss of time and expenses if the advertisement for auction is withdrawn.
10. Offeror should have an intention to obtain the consent of the offeree.
11. An answer to a question is not a offer.

31. Difference between Offer and Invitation to offer

33. 1. Express offer
When the offeror expressly communication the offer the offer is said to be an express offer the express communication
of the offer may be made by
a) Spoken word/Oral
b) Written word/Written
2. Implied offer
when the offer is not communicate expressly. An offer may be implied from:-
a) The conduct of the parties or
b) The circumstances of the case
3. Specific offer
It means an offer made in
(a) a particular person or
(b) a group of person: and
It can be accepted only by that person to whom it is made communication of acceptance is necessary in case of specific
offer.
4. General offer
It means on offer which is made to the public in general.
o General offer can be accepted by anyone.
o If offeree fulfill the term and condition which is given in offer then offer is accepted.
o Communication of acceptance is not necessary is case of general offer

34. Case Study
Company advertised that a reward of Rs.100 would be given to any person who would suffer from influenza after
using the medicine (Smoke balls) made by the company according to the printed directions.
One lady, Mrs, Carlill, purchased and used the medicine according to the printed directions of the company but
suffered from influenza, She filed a suit to recover the reward of Rs.100. The court held that there was a contract as she
had accepted a general offer by using the medicine in the prescribed manner and as such as entitled to recover
the reward from the company.
5. Counter offer
When the offeree give qualified acceptance of the offer subject to modified and variations in the terms of original offer.
Counter offer amounts to rejection of the original offer.
Legal effect of counter offer:-
(1) Rejection of original offer
(2) The original offer is lapsed
(3) A counter offer result is a new offer.
In other words an offer made by the offeree in return of the original offer is called as a counter offer.
Example:
A offered to sell his pen to B for Rs.1,000. B replied, “ I am ready to pay Rs.950.” On A’s refusal to sell at this price, B
agreed to pay Rs.1,000. Held, there was not contract as the acceptance to buy it for Rs.950 was a counter offer, i.e.
rejection of the offer of A. Subsequent acceptance to pay Rs.1,000 is a fresh offer from B to which A was not bound to
give his acceptance.
It is also called conditional acceptance.

35. 6. Standing, open and continuous offer
An offer is allowed to remain open for acceptance over a period of time is known as standing, open or continually
offer. Tender for supply of goods is a kind of standing offer.
Example
When we ask the newspaper vendor to supply the newspaper daily. In such case, we do not repeat our offer daily
and the newspaper vendor supplies the newspaper to us daily. The offers of such types are called Standing Offer.
Cross offer:- When two parties exchange identical offers in ignorance at the time of each other’s offer the offer’s are
called cross offer.
Two cross offer does not conclude a contract. Two offer are said to be cross offer if
1. They are made by the same parties to one another
2. Each offer made in ignorance of the offer made by the
3. The terms and conditions contained in both the offers’ are same.
Example : A offers by a letter to sell 100 tons of steel at Rs.1,000 per ton. On the same day, B also writes to A offering
to buy 100 tons of steel at Rs.1,000 per ton.
When does a contract come into existence: - A contract comes into existence when any of the parties, accept the cross
offer made by the other party.

37. An offer should be accepted before it lapses (i.e. comes to an end). An offer may come to an end in any of the
following ways stated in Section 6 of the Contract Act:
1. By communication of notice of revocation
An offer may come to an end by communication of notice of revocation by the offeror. It may be noted that an offer
can
be revoked only before its acceptance is complete for the offeror. In other words, an offeror can revoke his offer at any
time before he becomes before bound by it. Thus, the communication of revocation of offer should reach the offeree
before the acceptance is communicated.
2. By lapse of time; Where time is fixed for the acceptance of the offer, and it is not acceptance within the fixed time,
the offer comes to an end automatically on the expiry of fixed time. Where no time for acceptance is prescribed, the
offer has to be accepted within reasonable time. The offer lapses if it is not accepted within that time. The term
‘reasonable time’ will depend upon the facts and circumstances of each case.
3. By failure to accept condition precedent: Where, the offer requires that some condition must, be fulfilled before the
acceptance of the offer, the offer lapses, if it is accepted without fulfilling the condition.
Lapse of an Offer

38. 4. By the death or insanity of the offeror
Where, the offeror dies or becomes, insane, the offer comes to an end if the fact of his death or insanity comes to the
knowledge of the acceptor before he makes his acceptance. But if the offer is accepted in ignorance of the fact of death
or insanity of the offeror, the acceptance is valied. This will result in a valid contract, and legal representatives of the
deceased offeror shall be bound by the contract.
On the death of offeree before acceptance, the offer also comes to an end by operation of law.
5. By counter – offer by the offeree
Where, a counter – offer is made by the offeree, and then the original offer automatically comes to an end, as the
counter – offer amounts to rejections of the original offer.
6. By not accepting the offer, according to the prescribed or usual mode
Where some manner of acceptance is prescribed in the offer, the offeror can revoke the offer if it is not accepted
according to the prescribed manner.
7. By rejection of offer by the offeree
Where, the offeree rejects the offer, the offer comes to an end. Once the offeree rejects the offer, he cannot revive the
offer by subsequently attempting to accept it. The rejection of offer may be express or implied.
8. By change in law Sometimes, there is a change in law which makes the offer illegal or incapable of performance. In
such cases also, the offer comes to an end.

40. ACCEPTANCE
Section 2(b) of the Contract Act defines the term 'acceptance' as "when the person to whom the proposal is made
signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to he accepted. A proposal when accepted becomes a promise. For
Example, A offers to sell his book to B for Rs. 20. B agrees to buy the book for Rs. 20. This is an acceptance of A's offer
through B.
Who Can Accept?
An offer can be accepted only through the person or persons to whom it is made. An offer made to a scrupulous
person (specific offer) can be accepted only through him and none else. The rule of law is that if A wants to enter into
a contract with B, then C cannot substitute himself for B without A's consent.
Case Study
Bakir sold his business to Zahid but this information was not recognized to an old customer Junaid. Junaid sent an
order for goods to Bakir through name. Zahid supplied the goods to Junaid. It was held that there was no contract
flanked by Zahid and Junaid because Junaid never made any offer to Zahid.
If an offer is made to the world at big (common offer) any person can accept the offer provided he has the knowledge
of the offer.
In case a reward has been offered for giving information in relation to the missing person or a lost article, any person
who provides the necessary information first, shall be entitled to the reward.

41. Legal Rules for the Acceptance
1. Acceptance must be absolute and unqualified
Example: A offers to sell his house to B for Rs. two lakhs. B accepts the offer and promises to pay the price in four
installments. This is not pay the acceptance as the acceptance is with variation in the terms of the offer.
2. Acceptance must be communicated: Mere mental acceptance is no acceptance, But there is no requirement of
communication of acceptance of general offer.
Example The manager of Railway Company received a draft agreement relating to the supply of coal. The manager
marked the draft with the words “Approved” and put the same in the drawer of his table and forgot all about it. Held,
there was no contract between the parties as the acceptance was not communicated. It may however, be pointed out
that the Court construed a conduct to parties as railway company was accepting the supplies of coal from time to time.
3. Manner of acceptance
General rule say that it must be as per the manner prescribed by offeror. If no mode is prescribed in which it can be
accepted, then it must be in some usual and reasonable manner.
4. If there is deviation in communication of an acceptance of offer, offeror may reject such acceptance by sending
notice within reasonable time. If the offeror doesn’t send notice or rejection, he accepted acceptance of offer.
Example: A offers B and indicates that the acceptance be given by telegram. B sends his
acceptance by ordinary post. It is a valid acceptance unless A insists for acceptance in the
prescribed manner.

42. 5. Acceptance of offer must be made by offeror.
Example : A applied for the headmastership of a school. He was selected by the appointing authority but the decision
was not communicated to him. However, one of members in his individual capacity informed him about the selection.
Subsequently, the appointing authority cancelled its decision. A sued the school for breach of contract. The Court
rejected the A’s action and held that there was no notice of acceptance.
“Information by unauthorized person is as insufficient as overhearing from behind the door”.
6. Acceptance must be communicated to offeror
7. Time limit for acceptance
o If the offer prescribes the time limit, it must be accepted within specified time.
o If the offer does not prescribe the time limit, it must be accepted within reasonable time.
Example : A applied (offered) for shares in a company in early June. The allotment (Acceptance) was made in late
November. A refused to take the shares. Held, A was entitled to do so as the reasonable time for acceptance had
elapsed.
8. Acceptance of offer may be expressly (by words spoken or written); or impliedly (by acceptance of consideration);
or by performance of conditions (e.g.in case of a general offer)

43. 9. Mere silence is not acceptance of the offer
Example A offers to B to buy his house for Rs.5 lakhs and writes “If I hear no more about it within a week, I shall
assume the house is mine for Rs.5 lakhs. “B does not respond. Here, no contract is concluded between A and B.
10. However, following are the two exceptions to the above rule. It means silence amounts as acceptance of offer.
o Where offeree agrees that non – refusal by him within specified time shall amount to acceptance of offer.
o When there is custom or usage of trade which specified that silence shall amount to acceptance.
11. Acceptance subject to the contract is no acceptance
If the acceptance has been given ‘subject to the contract” or subject to approval by certain persons, it has not effect at
all. Such an acceptance will not create binding contract until a formal contract is prepared and signed by all the
parties.

44. 1. In case of acceptance by post
Where the acceptance is given by post, the communication of acceptance is complete as against the proposer when the
letter of acceptance is posted. Thus, mere posting of letter of acceptance is sufficient to conclude a contract. However,
the letter must be properly addressed and stamped.
2. Delayed or no delivery of letter
Where the letter of acceptance is posted by the acceptor but it never reaches the offeror, or it is delayed in transit, it
will not affect the validity of acceptance. The offeror is bound by the acceptance.
General Rules as to Communication of Acceptance

45. 3. Acceptance by telephones telex or tax
If the communication of an acceptance is made by telephone, tele-printer, telex, fax machines, etc, it completes when
the acceptance is received by the offeror. The contract is concluded as soon as the offeror receives not hears the
acceptance.
4. The place of Contract
In case of acceptance by the post, the place where the letter is posted is the place of contract. Where the acceptance is
given by instantaneous means of communication (telephone, fax, tele-printer, telex etc.), the contract is made at the
place where the acceptance is received,

46. 5. The time of Contract
In case of acceptance by post, the time of posting the letter of acceptance to the time of contract. But in case of
acceptance by instantaneous means of communication, the time of contract is the time when the offeror gets the
communication, the time of contract is the time when offeror gets the communication of acceptance.
6. Communication of acceptance in case of an agent.
Where the offer has been made through an agent, the communication of acceptance is completed when the acceptance
is given either to the agent or to the principal. In such a case, if the agent fails to convey the acceptance received from
offeree, still the principal is bound by the acceptance.
7. Acceptance on loudspeakers
Acceptance given on loudspeaker is not a valid a acceptance.

47. CONSIDERATION A contract not supported by consideration is void .

48. The term 'consideration' is used in the sense of quid pro quo which in turn means 'something in return'.
This 'something' may be some benefit, right, interest or profit that may accrue to one party or it may be some
forbearance, detriment, loss, or responsibility upon the other party.
Section 2(d) of the Contract Act defines consideration as when at the desire of the promisor, the promise or any other
person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or to abstain from doing
something, such act or abstinence or promise is described a consideration for the promise.
Explanation
Definition [Sec 2(d)]
when at the desire of the Promisor, the promise or any other person.
(a) has done or abstained from doing , or [Past consideration]
(b) does or abstains from doing, or [Present consideration]
(c) promises to do or abstain from doing something [Future consideration ]
such act or abstinence or promise is called a consideration for the promise.

49. Example
(i) ‘P’ aggress to sell his car to ‘Q’ for Rs.50,000 Here ‘Q’s Promise to pay Rs50,000 is the consideration for P’s promise
and ‘P’s promise to sell the car is the consideration for ‘Q’s promise to pay Rs.50,000.
(ii) ‘A’ promises his debtor ‘B’ not to file a suit against him for one year on ‘A’s agreeing to pay him Rs.10,000 more.
Here the abstinence of ‘A’ is the consideration for ‘B’s Promise to pay.
Therefore, all contracts consist of two clearly separable parts:
i. The promise, and
ii. The consideration for the promise.
Abdul Aziz v. Mazum All:
In this case a person verbally promised the Secretary of the Mosque Committee to subscribe Rs. 500 for rebuilding of a
mosque. Later on; he declined to pay the said amount. Held, there was no consideration and hence the agreement was
void.

50. 1. Consideration necessity move at the desire of the promisor:
To create a contract binding and enforceable, it is not enough that there is consideration but also that consideration has
been supplied at desire of the promisor. Therefore, where an act is done at the desire of a third party and not the
promisor, that act cannot constitute valid consideration.
Example
D constructed a market at the instance of District collector. Occupants of shops promised to pay D a commission on
articles sold through their shops. Held, there was no consideration because money was not spent by Plaintiff at the
request of the Defendants, but at instance of a third person viz. the Collector and, thus the contract was void.
2. Consideration may move from the promisee or any other person
The second rule as to consideration is that the act which is to constitute consideration may be done through the
promisor himself or through any other person.
"Any other person” is technically referred to as stranger to consideration. This is sometimes described as doctrine of
constructive consideration.
A through a deed of gift transferred sure property to her daughter, with a direction that the daughter should pay an
annuity to A's brother, as had been done through A. On the similar day the daughter executed a writing in favor of the
brother, agreeing to pay the annuity. Afterwards, she declined to fulfill her promise saying that no consideration had
moved from her uncle ('A's brother') The Court, though, held that the words 'the promise or any other person' in
Section 2(d) clearly illustrate that the consideration need not necessarily move from the promise, it may move from
any other person. Hence. A's brother was entitled to uphold the suit.

51. 3. Consideration may be past, present, or future
Past Consideration:
Past consideration is something wholly done, forborne or suffered before the creation of the agreement.
Example A renders some services to B at B’s request in the month of November: In December B promises to pay A, a
sum of Rs100 for his services. The services of A will be past consideration. A can recover the past amount.
Present consideration such as cash sale or service
Future Consideration:
When the consideration is to move at a future date, it is described future or executory consideration. It takes the form
of a promise to be performed in the future. For instance, A promises B to deliver him 100 bags of wheat at a future
date. B promises to pay for it on delivery.
4. Consideration should be real and not illusory.
Illusory consideration renders the transaction void consideration is not valid if it is.
(i) Physically impossible
(ii) Legally not permissible
(iii) Uncertain
(iv) illusory (fulfillment of a pre existing obligation)

52. 5. Must be legal
Consideration must not be unlawful, immoral or opposed to public policy.
6. Consideration must be of some value and may need not be adequate.
A contract is not void merely became of the fact that the consideration is inadequate. The law simply requires that
contract should be supported by consideration. So long as consideration exists and it is of some value, courts are not
required to consider its adequacy.
Example:
A agreed to sell a watch worth Rs.500 for Rs.20, A’s consent to the agreement was freely given. The consideration,
though inadequate. Will not affect the validity of the contract. However, the inadequacy of the consideration can be
considered in order to know whether the consent of the promisor was free or not .
7. The performance of an act what one is legally bound to perform is not
Consideration for the contract mean’s something other than the promisor’s existing obligation

53. STRANGER TO A CONTRACT AND STRANGER TO CONSIDERATION
consideration is permitted to be supplied through any person and it need not necessarily be supplied through the
promise himself. Therefore, the concept of 'stranger to consideration' is a valid and acceptable concept. Though, a
stranger to the consideration necessity is distinguished from a stranger to a contract. A stranger to a contract means a
person who is not a party to the contract. Such a person can not, bring a valid suit.
Example A who is indebted to B, sells his property to C and C promises to pay off the debt to B. In case C fails to pay,
B has no right to sue C being stranger to the contract.

54. Ex. Nudo Pacto non oritur action, i,e, an agreement without consideration is void.
A contract not supported by consideration is void .
Exceptions to the Rule “ No consideration . No contract”.
1. Written and registered agreements arising out of love and affection:- [25 (1)]
o Expressed in writing and registered under law for the time being in force for registration of document
o Natural love and affection
o Between parties standing in a near relation to each other
Example:- An elder brother, on account of natural love and affection, promised to pay the debts of his younger
brother. Agreement was put to writing and registered. Held, agreement was valid.
Example: A husband by a registered document, after referring to quarrels and disagreements between himself and his
wife, promised to pay his wife a sum of money for her maintenance and separate residence. Held that the promise was
unenforceable since natural love and affection was missing.
2. Promise to compensate [25(2)]
o Promise to compensate wholly or in part
o Who has already voluntarily done something for the promisor
o Something which the promisor was legally compellable to do.
Example:- A finds B’s purse and give to him. B Promise to give A Rs.500. This is a valid contract.

55. 3. Promise to pay a time – barred debt. [Sec 25(3)]
o A debt barred by limitation con not recovered. Hence, a promise to pay a such a debt is without any consideration.
o Can be enforced only when – in writing and sighed by Debtor or his authorized agent.
Example : A owes B Rs.10,000 but the debt is barred by Limitation Act. A signs a written promise to pay B Rs.8,000 on
account of debt. This is a valid contract.
4. Completed gift- gift do not require any consideration.
5. Agency (185) – According to the contract Act. No consideration is necessary to create an agency.
6. Charity- If a person promises to contribute to charity and on this faith the promises undertakes a liability to the
extent not exceeding the promised subscription, the contract shall be valid.

56. To sum up, an agreement without consideration shall be valid in the following cases:
o If the agreement is in writing and registered resulting from natural love and affection flanked by persons in close to
connection.
o If it is a promise to compensate for something voluntarily done for the promisor.
o If it is a written promise to pay a debt barred through the law of limitation.
o If it is a promise with regard to completed gifts, i.e., gifts made and accepted through the other.
o If it relates to creation of an agency.
o If it is a promise to contribute to charity and with this faith, the promise undertakes a liability.

58. CAPACITY TO CONTRACT
A person’s ability to enter into a contract

59. Competency to make a contract:-
Section 11. Every person is competent to contract who is of age of majority according to the Law to which he is subject,
who is of sound mind and not is disqualified from contracting by any Law to which he is subject.
This Sec of the Act clearly states as to who shall be competent to contract.
It gives that every person is competent to contract
a) Who is of the age of majority just as to the law to which he is subject,
b) Who is of sound mind, and
c) Who is not disqualified from contracting through any law to which he is subject.

60. Age of majority:- Every person domiciled in Pakistan attains majority on the completion of 18 years of age.
A person shall be treated as minor if he has not attained the age of 18 years. An agreement with minor is void ab-
initio.
Exception: In the following cases.
a. Where a guardian of a minor’s person or property is appointed under the Guardian and wards Act, 1890.
b. Where minor’s property has passed under the superintendence of the court of words.

61. Position of Agreements by Minor:-
1. Validity: - An agreement with a minor is void-ab-initio
Example :
Mr. D, a minor, mortgaged his house for Rs.20,000 to a money – lender, but the mortgagee, i.e. the money – lender,
paid him a sum of Rs.8000. Subsequently, the minor sued for setting aside the mortgage. Held that the contract was
void, as Mr. D was minor and therefore he is not liable to pay anything to the lender.
2. A minor’s has received any benefit under a void contract, he cannot be asked to return the same.
3. If a minor has received any benefit under a void contract, he cannot be asked to return the same.
4. Fraudulent representation by a minor- no difference in the status of agreement. The contract remains void.
5. A minor with the consent of all the partners, be admitted to the benefits of an existing partnership.
6. Contracts entered into by minors are void-ab-initio. Hence no specific performance can be enforced for such
contracts.
7. Minor’s parent/guardians are not liable to a minor’s creditor for the breach of contract by the minor.
8. A minor can act as an agent but not personally liable. But he cannot be principal.
9. A minor cannot become shareholder of a the company except when the shares are fully paid up and transfer by
share.

62. 10. A minor cannot be adjudicated as insolvent.
11. Can enter into contracts of Apprenticeship, Services, Education, etc:
(a) A minor can enter into contract of apprenticeship, or for training or instruction in a special art, education, etc.
(b) These are allowed because it generates benefits to the Minor.
12. Guarantee for and by minor
A contract of guarantee in favour of a minor is valid. However, a minor cannot be a surety in a contract of guarantee.
This is because, the surety is ultimately liable under a contract of guarantee whereas a minor can never be held
personally liable.
13. Minor as a trade union member
Any person who has attained the age of fifteen years may be a member for registered trade union, provided the rules
of the trade union allow so. Such a member will enjoy all the rights of a member.

63. EXCEPTION
• Contract for the benefit of a minor.
• Contract by Guardian
Benefit of a minor by his guardian or manager of his estate.
a. within the scope of the authority of the guardian.
b. Is for the benefit of the minor.
• Contract for supply of Necessaries.
Example :
Food, clothes, bed, shelter, shoes, medicines and similar other things required for the maintenance of his life or for the
life of his dependents, expenses for instruction in grade or arts; expenses for moral religions or intellectual education,
funeral expenses of his deceased family members, marriage expenses of a dependent female member in the family or
expenses incurred in the protection of his property etc. have been held by courts to be necessaries of life. However, the
things like earrings for a male, spectacles for a blind person or a wild animal cannot be considered as necessaries.
• Liability for tort: A minor is liable for a tort, i.e., civil wrong committed by him.
Example :
A, a 14 – year – old boy drives a car carelessly and injures B. He is liable for the accident i.e., tort.

64. Person of Unsound Mind
A person who is usually of unsound mind, but occasionally of sound mind can make a contract when he is of sound
mind. Similarly, a person who is usually of sound mind, but occasionally of unsound mind, may not make a contract
when he is of unsound mind.
At time of entering into a contract, a person must be sound mind. Law presumes that every person is of sound mind
unless otherwise it is proved before court. An agreement by a person of unsound mind is void. The following are
categories of a person considered as person of a unsound mind.

65. An idiot
An idiot is a person who is congenital (by birth) unsound mind.
His incapacity is permanent and therefore he can never understand contract
and make a rational judgment as to its effects upon his interest.
Consequently, the agreement of an idiot is absolutely void ab initio.
He is not personally liable even for the payment of necessaries of life supplied to him.
Delirious persons
A person delirious from fever is also not capable of understanding the nature and
implications of an agreement. Therefore, he cannot enter into a contract so long as
delirium lasts.

66. Hypnotized persons
Hypnotism produces temporary incapacity till a person is under the effect of
artificial induced sleep.
Mental decay
There may be mental decay or senile mind the to old age or poor health. When
such person is not capable of understanding the contract and its effect upon
his interest, he cannot enter into contract.
Lunatic is not permanently of unsound mined. He can enter into contract
during lucid intervals i.e., during period when he is of sound mind.
Drunken person
An agreement made by intoxicated person is void.

67. Person Disqualified by Law
Body corporate or company or corporation
Contractual capacity of company is determined by object clause of its memorandum of association. Any act done in
excess of power given is ultra – virus and hence void.
Alien enemy
An ‘alien’ is a person who is a foreigner to the land. He may be either an ‘alien friend’ or an ‘alien enemy. If the
sovereign or state of the alien is at peace with the country of his stay, he is an alien friend. An if a war is declared
between the two countries he is termed as an alien enemy.
During the war, contract can be entered into with alien enemy with the permission of central government.

68. Convict can’t enter into a contract while he is undergoing imprisonment. But he can enter into a contract with
permission of central government while undergoing imprisonment. After the imprisonment is over, be becomes
capable of entering into contract. Thus the incapacity is only during the period of sentence.
Insolvent
When any person is declared as an insolvent, his property vests in receiver and therefore, he can’t enter into contract
relating to his property. Again he becomes capable to enter into contract when he is discharged by court.
Foreign sovereigns, diplomatic staff and representative of foreign staff can enter into valid contract. However, a suit
cannot be filed against them, in the counts without the prior sanction of the central Government.

69. Doctrine of privities of contract
Third party to a contract cannot sue or a stranger to a contract cannot sue.
Only those persons, who are parties to a contract, can sue and be sued upon the contract.
This Rule is called “Doctrine of privities of contract.” Exception.
i. Trust:- In case of trust a beneficiary can sue upon the contract.
Example:
A transferred certain properties to B to be held by him in trust for the benefit of C. In this case, C although not a party
to the trust, can sue for the benefits available to him under the trust.
ii. Family settlement / Marriage contract:- In case of family settlement members who were not originally party to the
contract can also sue upon it.
Example:
H sued her father – in – law K to recover Rs.15,000 being arrears of allowance called Pin money payable to her by K
under an agreement between K and H’s father, consideration being H’s marriage to K’s son D. Both H and D were
minors at the time of marriage. Held, the promise can be made enforceable by H.
iii. Acknowledgement of liability:- Where a person admits his Liability thereafter if he refused be will be stopped
from denying his liability.
Example
X receives money from Y for paying it to Z. X admits the receipt of that amount to Z. Z can recover the amount from X,
even though the money is due from Y.

70. iv. Assignment of contract. Assignee (the person to whom benefits of contract are assigned) can enforce upon the
contract..
v. Contract entered into through an agent.
vi. Covenants running with land.
Stranger to consideration:- “Stranger to contract” must be distinguished from a stranger to consideration need not
necessarily be provided by the promises if may flow from a third party also such a person is ‘ stranger to
consideration.

71. According to section 13. Two persons are said to have consented when they agree upon same thing in the same sense.
In English law, this is called ‘consensus – ad – idem’
Effect of absence of consent:
When there is no consent at all, the agreement is void – ab – initio’.
It is not enforceable at the option of either party
Example 1:-
X have two car one Toyota car and one Honda city car. Y does not know that X has two cars Y offers to buy car at
Rs.50,000. Here, there is no identity of mind in respect of the subject matter. Hence there is no consent at all and the
agreement is void – ab – inito.
Example 2:-
An Illiterate woman signed a gift deed thinking that it was a power of attorney – no consent at all and the agreement
was void – ab – inito
FREE CONSENT

72. Free consent
Consent is said to be free when it is not caused by [ Section 14]
(a) coercion [Section 15]
(b) Undue influence [Section 16]
(c) Fraud [Section 17]
(d) Misrepresentation [ Section 18]
(e) Mistake [Section 20, 21,22]
Effect of absence of Free Consent :- If consent coercion, undue influence, fraud ,Misrepresentation the contract is
voidable at the option of party whose consent was not free [19, 19A]
The consent is not free if it can be proved that it has been caused through coercion, undue power, fraud,
misrepresentation, or mistake, For instance, X, at a gun point, creates Y agree to sell his home to X for Rs.50,000. Here,
Y‟s consent has been obtained through coercion and so, it shall not regard as free.

73. COERCION
Coercion means forcibly compelling a person to enter into a contract i.e., the consent of the party is obtained through
use of force or under a threat.
Section 15 of the Contract Act defines 'coercion' as Coercion is:
The committing or threatening to commit, any act forbidden through the Pakistan Penal Code; or
The unlawful detaining or threatening to detain, any property, to the prejudice of any person whatever, with the
intention of causing any person to enter into an agreement.
(a) Committing any act which is forbidden by the PPC
(b) Threatening to commit any act which is forbidden by the PPC.
(c) Unlawful detaining of any property or
(d) Threatening to detain any property.

74. Essential elements of coercion
Above four [a – d]
(e) coercion need not necessary proceed from party to contract.
(f) Coercion need not necessary be directed against the other contracting party.
(g) It is immaterial whether the PPC is or is not in force at the time or at the place where the coercion is employed
Effect of threat to file a suit:- A threat to file a suit (whether civil or court) does not amount to coercion unless the suit
is on false charge. Threat to file a suit on false charge is an act forbidden by the PPC and thus will amount to an act of
coercion.
Effect of Threat to commit suicide:- Threat to commit suicide amounted to coercion and Therefore voidable.
Duress V Coercion
English Law
Duress does not include detaining of property or threat to detain property.
Duress can be employed only by a party to the contract or his agent.
Effect:- when coercion is employed to obtain the consent of a party the contract is voidable at the option of the party
where consent was obtained by coercion. A threat to strike by employees in support of their demands is not regarded
as coercion. This is because the threat to strike is not an offence under the P.P.C. it is a right given under the Industrial
Disputes Act.
Detaining property under mortgage: Detention of property by a mortgage until the payment of loan does not amount
to coercion.

75. Examples
1) A threatens to shoot B, if he does not sell his ship to A for Rs. 1, 00,000. B agrees to sell his ship to A. Here the
consent of B has been obtained through coercion.
2) An agent refused to hand in excess of the explanation books of the principal to the new agent appointed in his lay
unless the principal released him from all liabilities. The principal had to provide a release deed as demanded. It
was held that the release was not binding because the consent of the principal was obtained through exercising
coercion.
3) A threatens to kill B‟s son C if B refuses to sell his car to him. Here, the threat is directed against C (B‟s son). So, the
consent is treated as induced through coercion.
4) A threatens to kill B if he, does not sell his home to D. B agrees to sell his home to D. Though A is a Stranger to the
contract the consent is caused through coercion.
5) A threatens to kill B if he refuses to sell his scooter for Rs. 1,000 to A. B sells his scooter to A and receives the
payment Here B‟s consent was 'not free and if B decides to avoid the contract then he will have to return Rs. 1,000
which he had received from A.
Burden of Proof
The burden of proving that consent was induced through coercion lies on the party who wants to avoid the contract.
In other words, it is for the aggrieved party to prove that his consent was not free. This could be done through proving
that he would not have entered into this contract had coercion not been employed.

76. Undue influence [Section 16]
Meaning of undue influence :- dominating the will of the other person to obtain an unfair advantages over the others.
(a) where the relation subsisting between the parties must be such that one party is in position to dominate the will of
the other.
(b) The dominant party use his position.
(c) Obtain an unfair advantage over the other.

77. No. Presumption of Domination of will:-
i. Landlord and Tenant
ii. Creditor and Debtor
iii. Husband and wife
iv. Principal and Agent
Example :-
A Poor widow agreed to pay interest at 100% P. a because she need the money to established her right of
maintenance. It was held that the lender was in position to dominate the will of widow.

78. Example
A, a lady gifted all her property to B, her spiritual guru so that she may secure benefits to her soul in after that world.
Later on, she disputed the validity of the gift deed. Here, the spiritual guru was in a location to control the will of his
disciple A and through by his strong location obtained an unfair advantage. Hence, it was held that the consent of A
was obtained through undue power.
Effect of undue Influence:-[Section 19A]
When consent to an agreement is caused by undue influence, the contract is voidable at the option of the party whose
consent was so caused.
Burden of Proof:- A contract is presumed to be induced by undue influence if the following two condition:-
a) A party has the position to dominate the will of the others
b) The transaction is unconscionable (unreasonable)
In such a case dominant party is under the burden to prove the undue influence was not employed.
Unreasonable transactions:-
If transaction appears to unreasonable the dominant party to prove that there is no undue influence.
Any other transaction:-
Weaker party to prove the influence was employed Where some transaction is entered into in the ordinary course of
business, but due to certain contingencies, one party is able to make the other party agree to certain terms and
conditions then it is not undue influence.
Example :
A applies to a banker for a loan at a time when there is stringency in the money market. The banker declines to make
the loan except at an unusually high rate of interest. A accepts the loan on these terms. This is a transaction in the
ordinary course of business, and the contract is not induced by undue influence.

80. Fraud basically means a willful wrong representation of information, made through a party to a contract with the
intention to deceive the other party or to induce him to enter into a contract. The term 'fraud' is defined through
Sec.17 Fraud means any act committed by a party to a contract or with his connivance or by his agent with intent to
deceive another party there to or his agent or to induce to enter into contract.
Fraud – definition include
The suggestion, as to fact, of that which is not true by one who does not believe it to be true.
The active concealment of a fact by one having knowledge or belief of the fact.
Example
A furniture dealer conceals the crakes in furniture by polish work.
A promise made without any intention of performing it.
Any other act fitted to deceive.

81. Any such act or omission as the law specially declared to be fraudulent.
Example
T bought a cannon from H. It was defective, but H had plugged it. T did not examine the cannon, but it burst when he
used it. Held as the plug had not deceived T, he was liable to pay for the cannon.
Example
Where the representation was true at the time of when it was made but becomes untrue before the contract is entered
into and this fact is known to the party who made the representation. If must be corrected. If it is not so corrected it
will amount to be fraud.
Essentials of fraud :-
i. By a party to the contract
ii. There must be representation – [an opinion a statement of expression – does not fraud].
iii. The representation must be false.
iv. Before conclusion of contract.
v. The misrepresentation must be made willfully.
vi. The misrepresentation must be made with a view to deceive the other party.
vii. The other party must have actually been deceived.
viii.The other party have suffered a loss.

82. When the silence amount to fraud:-
(a) General rule:- Mere (only) Silence as to facts likely to affect the willingness of a person
to enter into a contract is not fraud.
EXCEPTION
where the circumstances of the case are such that regarding being had to them. It is duty of the person keeping silence
to speak.
Such duty arises in the following two cases.
(1) Duty to speak exists where the parties stand in a fiduciary relationship, e.g. father and son, guardian and ward,
trustee and beneficiary etc. or where contract is a contract of ubberima fidei (requiring utmost good faith), e.g.
contracts of insurance.
Example:-
A sells by auction to B a horse which A knows to be unsound. B’ is A’s daughter and has just come of age. Here the
relation between the parties would make it A’s duty to tell B is the horse is unsound.
When silence itself equivalent to speech. B says to A “ if you do not deny it I shall assume that the horse is sound”. A
say nothing – A’s silence equivalent to speech. A can held liable to fraud.
Half Truth is worse than a blatant

83. Example
A intending to deceive B creates a false statement to him that 100 units are manufactured every month in his factory,
though A is aware that only 75 to 80 units are produced every month. B is induced to buy the factory. Here B‟s
consent is obtained through fraud.
A while selling his scooter to B says that it is brand new knowing fully well that it is a used one. A's statement
amounts to
fraud.
A says to B while selling his horse, "my horse is as good as that of Y”. This is a statement of opinion. But, if A says that
this horse cost him Rs.5000, it becomes a statement of information and if it is incorrect it amounts to fraud.
A, a horse dealer showed a horse to B. A knew that the horse had a cracked hoof which he had filled up in such a
method as to defy discovery. The defect was subsequently exposed through B. So, he refused to buy the horse. It was
held that the contract could be avoided through B as his consent was obtained through fraud.
A is selling his horse to B. The horse appears to be sound. Even then B says to A, "If you don't deny it, I shall assume
that the horse is sound" A says nothing. Here A's silence is equivalent to speech.

84. Effect of Fraud:-
Sec. 19: A contract induced by fraud is voidable at the option of the party defrauded. Till the exercise of such option,
the Contract is valid.
1. Rescinds of contract
2. Right to insist upon performance
3. Right to claim damages – if he suffered loss.
Exception : The contract is not voidable in the following cases.
i. When the party who consent was caused by silence amount to fraud and be has the means of discovering the truth
with ordinary diligence.
ii. When the party give the consent in ignorance of fraud.
iii. When the party after become aware of fraud takes a benefit.
iv. When the parties can’t be restored to their original position.
v. Where interests of third parties intervene before the contract is avoided.
Example
A fraudulently informs B that A's estate is free from encumbrances. B, believing the statement to the true, bought the
estate. It was later exposed that the estate was subject to a mortgage. In this case, B may either avoid the contract or
insist on its being accepted out subject to the mortgage debt being redeemed.

85. Misrepresentation is when a party (person) asserts something which is not true though he believes is to be true. In
other words misrepresentation is a falls representation made innocently.
An agreement is said to be influenced by misrepresentation if all the following conditions are satisfied.
I. The party makes a representation of a fact [The representation by a stranger (By anyone with his connivance or by
agent) to the contract does not affect the validity of the contract.
II. The misrepresentation was made innocently i.e. if was not made with a view to deceive the other party.
III. The other party has actually acted believing the misrepresent to be true.
Example
1. A while selling his car to B, informs him that the car runs 18 kilometers per liter of petrol. A he believes this. Later
on, B discovers that the car runs only 10 kilometers per liter. This is a misrepresentation through A.

86. 2. A while selling his farm to B, tells him that 100 quintals of rice are produced in his farm. A honestly believes the
statement to be true. Later on, it is establish that the farm produces only 80 quintals of rice. Here, A has made a
misrepresentation.
3. A through misrepresentation, leads B erroneously to consider that 500 quintals of indigo are made annually at A's
factory. B examines the records of the factory, which illustrate that only 400 quintals of indigo have been produced.
After this B decides to buy the factory. Here, the contract cannot be avoided through B on the ground of
misrepresentation.
Misrepresentation include:-
i. Unjustified statement of facts – positive assertion – Believe true really not true no basis Misrepresentation
ii. Breach of duty.
iii. Inducing other to make mistake as to qualify or nature of subject matter.
(1) Right to Rescind contract:-
Can’t do
i. Discovering the truth with ordinary diligence.
ii. Give consent in ignorance of misrepresentation
iii. Become aware of misrepresentation takes a benefit
iv. Where an innocent third party before the contract is rescinds acquires consideration
v. some interest in the property passing under the contract.
vi. Where the parties can’t be restored to their original position.
(2) Right to insist upon performance.
Ex.:- Unlike Fraud he cannot sue for damage.

87. DISTINCTION BETWEEN FRAUD AND
MISREPRESENTATION
1. Wrong statement is made intentionally.
2. The person creation the wrong
statement does not consider it to be
true.
3. There is an intention to deceive.
4. Besides rescinding the contract, the
aggrieved party can also
5. claim damages.
6. Except where the silence amounts to
fraud, the contract is
7. voidable even if the party defrauded
had the means of
8. discovering the truth with ordinary
diligence.
1. Wrong statement is made innocently.
2. The person creation the wrong
statement believes it to be true.
3. There is no intention to deceive.
4. The aggrieved party can rescind the
contract but cannot claim
5. damages.
6. The aggrieved party cannot avoid the
contract if he had the
7. means of discovering the truth with
ordinary diligence.

88. MISTAKE
Pakistan

89. Mistake of Law
Mistake of law may be:
I. Mistake of Pakistan Law, or
II. Mistake of foreign law.
Mistake of Pakistan Law
The common rule is that mistake of law of the land is no excuse. Section 21 lays down that a contract is not voidable
because it was caused through a mistake as to any law in force in Pakistan. It is because every one is supposed to
know the law of the country and if a person does not know the law of his country, then he necessity suffer the
consequences. Therefore, a mistake of Pakistan law will not affect the validity of the contract.
Mistake of Foreign Law
A person is supposed to know the laws of his country but he cannot be expected to know the laws of other countries.
So, the rule that 'ignorance of law is no excuse' cannot be applied to foreign law. A mistake of foreign law is
treated as a mistake of information. Section 21 lays down that a mistake as to a law not in force in Pakistan has the
similar effect as a mistake of information.
Hence, the contract will be void, if both the parties are under a mistake as to a foreign law.

90. Mistake of Information
mistake of information may be classified into two groups viz
Bilateral mistake, and
Unilateral mistake.
Bilateral mistake
Where both the parties to an agreement are under a mistake as to a matter of facts essential to the agreement, the agreement is
void. An erroneous opinion as to the value of the thing which forms the subject matter of the agreement is not to be deemed a
mistake as to a matter of facts. [Section 20]
Example
i. A buys' a painting believing it to be worth Rs 100,000 while in fact it is worth only Rs 10,000. The contract is not void.
ii. A agrees to sell to B a specific cargo of goods supposed to be on its way from England to Karachi. It turns out that, before the
date of the bargain, the ship conveying the cargo had been cast away and the goods lost. Neither party was aware of facts.
The agreement is void.

91. A bilateral mistake may be
(a) mistake as to the subject-matter, or
(b) mistake as to the possibility of performance.
Mistake as to the subject-matter of the contract:
Where both the parties to an agreement are under a mistake relating to the subject matter of the contract, the
agreement is void. A mistake as to the subject-matter may take following shapes.
a) Mistake as to the subsistence of the subject-matter:
b) Mistake as to the identity of subject-matter:
c) Mistake as to the title of the subject-matter:
d) Mistake as to the quantity of the subject-matter:
e) Mistake as to the excellence of the subject-matter:
f) Mistake as to the price of the subject-matter:

92. Example:
A agrees to buy from B a certain horse. It turns out that the horse was dead at the time of bargain though neither party
was aware of the fact. The agreement is void because there is bilateral mistake as to the existence of subject matter.
A agrees to buy from B all his horses believing that B has two horses but B actually has three horses. The agreement is
void because there is bilateral mistake as to the quantity of subject matter.
A agrees to buy a particular horse from B. Both believe it to be a race horse but it turns to be a cart horse. The
agreement is void because there is bilateral mistake as to the quality of the subject matter.
A agrees to buy a particular horse from B who mentioned in his letter the price as Rs 1,150 instead of 5,150. The
agreement is void because there is bilateral mistake as to the price of the subject matter.
A agrees to buy from B a certain horse. B has one race horse and one cart horse. A thinks that he is buying race horse
but B thinks that he is selling cart horse. The agreement is void because there is bilateral mistake as to the identity of
subject matter.
A agrees to buy a particular horse from B. That horse is already owned by A. The agreement is void because there is
bilateral mistake as to the title of the subject matter.

93. Mistake as to the possibility of performance:
If the parties to the agreement consider that the contract is capable of performance, while in information it is not so,
the agreement is treated as void or. The ground of impossibility. It may be
(i) a physical impossibility or
(ii) a legal impossibility.
Physical impossibility: A contract for the hiring of a room for witnessing the coronation procession of Edward VII
was held to be void because strange to the parties the procession had already keen cancelled and there is no question
of witnessing if...
Legal impossibility: An agreement is void if it gives that something shall be done which cannot legally be done.

94. Unilateral mistake
A contract is not voidable merely because it was caused by one of the parties to it being under a mistake as to
matter of facts. [Section 22]
Example
A buys' a painting believing it to be worth Rs 100,000 while in fact it is worth only Rs 10,000.
Exceptions
Following are the exceptions where agreement is void on the basis of unilateral mistake:
i. Mistake relating to the identity of the person
ii. Mistake relating to the nature of the contract
Example:
i. A knew that on "account of his criticism of the plays in the past, he would not be allowed entry to the
performance of a play at the theatre. The managing director of the theatre gave instructions that ticket should
not be sold to A. A, however, obtained a ticket through one of his friends. On being refused admission to the
theatre, he sued for damages for breach of contract. It was held that there was no contract between the theatre
company and A as the theatre company never intended to contract with A.
ii. An old illiterate man was induced to sign a bill of exchange by means of a false representation that it was a
mere guarantee. It was held that he was not liable for the bill of exchange because he never intended to sign a
bill of exchange.