ABSTRACT: This article investigates whether the MEIM can measure and identify the ethnic identity of
multiple groups at a time. It also explores whether the MEIM contains a two factor or three factor subscale.
Further, this article examines which version of the MEIM is best suited for measuring ethnic identity.
Discussion regarding a comparison of models by Roberts, Sobansky, and Yap is presented. Additionally, the
study indicates that the Yap et al. bi-factor model is the best fit to the data. The least two fitted models, the
Roberts et al Model and Sobansky et al Model have marginal results, which suggest the consideration of some
model adjustments to make the models more defensible. Finally, the article shows that among the three MEIM
models used (Roberts, Sobansky, and Yap), that the Yap et al. bi-factor model is best suited for measuring
ethnic identity as it is the only model that achieves the criteria for non-significant χ2 and satisfactory Fit Indexes
for both groups--African American and Black American.
KEYWORDS: Identity, Ethnicity, Black Women, African American
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology1997, Vol. 73, N.docxtawnyataylor528
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1997, Vol. 73, No. 4, 805-815
Copyright 1997 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
0022-3514/97/$3.00
Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity:
A Preliminary Investigation of Reliability and Construct Validity
Robert M. Sellers, Stephanie A. J. Rowley, Tabbye M. Chavous, J. Nicole Shelton, and Mia A. Smith
University of Virginia
The present study presents preliminary evidence regarding the reliability and validity of the Multidi-
mensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI). The MIBI consists of 7 subscales representing 3
stable dimensions of African American racial identity (Centrality, Ideology, and Regard). Responses
to the MIBI were collected from 474 African American college students from a predominantly
African American university (n = 185) and a predominantly White university (n = 289). As the
result of factor analysis, a revised 51 -item scale was developed. Evidence was found for 6 subscales.
The Public Regard subscale was dropped because of poor internal consistency. Interscale correlations
suggest that the MIBI is internally valid. Relationships among the MIBF subscales and race-related
behavior suggest that the instrument has external validity. Descriptive statistics for the revised MIBI
are provided for the entire sample as well as by school.
Racial identity is one of the most heavily researched aspects
of African Americans' psychological lives. Racial identity has
been associated with a number of phenomena including self-
esteem (Hughes & Demo, 1989; Parham & Helms, 1985; Row-
ley, Sellers, Chavous, & Smith, 1996), academic performance
(Baldwin, Duncan, & Bell, 1987; Chavous, 1996; Taylor,
Casten, Flickinger, Roberts, & Fulmore, 1994), preference for
same-race counselor (Morten & Atkinson, 1983; Parham &
Helms, 1981), and career aspirations (Helms & Piper, 1994;
Parham & Austin, 1994). Despite the prolific nature of this
literature, relatively little consensus exists, beyond the belief
that racial identity plays an important role in the lives of African
Americans. It is unclear, however, as to what the nature of that
role may be. Some theorists (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Penn,
Gaines, & Phillips, 1993) have argued that strong identification
with their racial group can place African Americans at risk for
adverse effects associated with the stigma attached to being
Black, whereas others have argued that a strong identification
with being African American is a protective factor against rac-
ism (Azibo, 1992; Baldwin, 1980). One reason for the equivo-
cal nature of the literature is that there has been no consensus
on either the conceptualization or the measurement of racial
identity for African Americans. Because of the use of different
Robert M. Sellers, Stephanie A. J. Rowley, Tabbye M. Chavous, J.
Nicole Shelton, and Mia A. Smith, Department of Psychology, University
of Virginia. Stephanie A. J. Rowley is now at the Department of Psychol-
ogy, University of North Carol ...
Reaction to Non-Cognitive ability, College Learning.docxmakdul
Reaction to “Non-Cognitive ability, College Learning, and Student Retention”
Marilyn D. Lovett
Florida A&M University
I found the idea of measuring non-cognitive ability intriguing. However, I did not get said measurement in this article. The literature review does not seem to support what the researchers say occurred with the SE2 program. While the policy emphasized rewarding effort with grades, such research was not mentioned in the literature review. As a result, I was not sure how effort was measured. The authors mentioned information in the “sociology literature” but I believe examining psychological literature might have made for a more sound argument. I also wondered if students of African descent were in any of the studies mentioned in the literature review.
In the methodology section, the authors stated that the SE2 policy was developed “to improve student performance by increasing study skills and the preparedness of the students” (Gray & Swinton, 2017, p. 67). However, I do not understand how that would have increased preparedness. I also was not clear on the equations used to answer the research questions, but that is probably because I am not familiar with the Cox proportional hazard model.
There were a couple of times throughout the article that mentioned some information being “available upon request.” I appreciated that because it is a nod toward transparency in research. It reminded me about the replication program touted by the Association for Psychological Science in which researchers are invited to upload their data for other researchers to replicate. I noticed that Table 4 had no non-cognitive skills recorded. I wondered why cognitive and non-cognitive skills could not be increased simultaneously when the authors stated that the SE2 policy “helps those students with unmeasured non-cognitive skills, while potentially harming some of the students with higher measured cognitive skills” (Gray & Swinton, 2017, p. 74). This brought me back to wondering why non-cognitive skills were not operationalized in the first place.
Multiculturally Sensitive Mental Health Scale (MSMHS):
Development, Factor Analysis, Reliability, and Validity
Ruth Chu-Lien Chao and Kathy E. Green
University of Denver
Effectively and efficiently diagnosing African Americans’ mental health has been a chronically unre-
solved challenge. To meet this challenge we developed a tool to better understand African Americans’
mental health: the Multiculturally Sensitive Mental Health Scale (MSMHS). Three studies reporting the
development and initial validation of the MSMHS were conducted with African American student
samples. First, an exploratory factor analysis of an initial item pool yielded 5 factors assessing subscales
of perceived racism, depression, well-being, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts. Second, a confirmatory factor
analysis supported the MSMHS’s 5-dimensional factor structure. Third, test–retest reliability, internal ...
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology1997, Vol. 73, N.docxtawnyataylor528
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1997, Vol. 73, No. 4, 805-815
Copyright 1997 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
0022-3514/97/$3.00
Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity:
A Preliminary Investigation of Reliability and Construct Validity
Robert M. Sellers, Stephanie A. J. Rowley, Tabbye M. Chavous, J. Nicole Shelton, and Mia A. Smith
University of Virginia
The present study presents preliminary evidence regarding the reliability and validity of the Multidi-
mensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI). The MIBI consists of 7 subscales representing 3
stable dimensions of African American racial identity (Centrality, Ideology, and Regard). Responses
to the MIBI were collected from 474 African American college students from a predominantly
African American university (n = 185) and a predominantly White university (n = 289). As the
result of factor analysis, a revised 51 -item scale was developed. Evidence was found for 6 subscales.
The Public Regard subscale was dropped because of poor internal consistency. Interscale correlations
suggest that the MIBI is internally valid. Relationships among the MIBF subscales and race-related
behavior suggest that the instrument has external validity. Descriptive statistics for the revised MIBI
are provided for the entire sample as well as by school.
Racial identity is one of the most heavily researched aspects
of African Americans' psychological lives. Racial identity has
been associated with a number of phenomena including self-
esteem (Hughes & Demo, 1989; Parham & Helms, 1985; Row-
ley, Sellers, Chavous, & Smith, 1996), academic performance
(Baldwin, Duncan, & Bell, 1987; Chavous, 1996; Taylor,
Casten, Flickinger, Roberts, & Fulmore, 1994), preference for
same-race counselor (Morten & Atkinson, 1983; Parham &
Helms, 1981), and career aspirations (Helms & Piper, 1994;
Parham & Austin, 1994). Despite the prolific nature of this
literature, relatively little consensus exists, beyond the belief
that racial identity plays an important role in the lives of African
Americans. It is unclear, however, as to what the nature of that
role may be. Some theorists (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Penn,
Gaines, & Phillips, 1993) have argued that strong identification
with their racial group can place African Americans at risk for
adverse effects associated with the stigma attached to being
Black, whereas others have argued that a strong identification
with being African American is a protective factor against rac-
ism (Azibo, 1992; Baldwin, 1980). One reason for the equivo-
cal nature of the literature is that there has been no consensus
on either the conceptualization or the measurement of racial
identity for African Americans. Because of the use of different
Robert M. Sellers, Stephanie A. J. Rowley, Tabbye M. Chavous, J.
Nicole Shelton, and Mia A. Smith, Department of Psychology, University
of Virginia. Stephanie A. J. Rowley is now at the Department of Psychol-
ogy, University of North Carol ...
Reaction to Non-Cognitive ability, College Learning.docxmakdul
Reaction to “Non-Cognitive ability, College Learning, and Student Retention”
Marilyn D. Lovett
Florida A&M University
I found the idea of measuring non-cognitive ability intriguing. However, I did not get said measurement in this article. The literature review does not seem to support what the researchers say occurred with the SE2 program. While the policy emphasized rewarding effort with grades, such research was not mentioned in the literature review. As a result, I was not sure how effort was measured. The authors mentioned information in the “sociology literature” but I believe examining psychological literature might have made for a more sound argument. I also wondered if students of African descent were in any of the studies mentioned in the literature review.
In the methodology section, the authors stated that the SE2 policy was developed “to improve student performance by increasing study skills and the preparedness of the students” (Gray & Swinton, 2017, p. 67). However, I do not understand how that would have increased preparedness. I also was not clear on the equations used to answer the research questions, but that is probably because I am not familiar with the Cox proportional hazard model.
There were a couple of times throughout the article that mentioned some information being “available upon request.” I appreciated that because it is a nod toward transparency in research. It reminded me about the replication program touted by the Association for Psychological Science in which researchers are invited to upload their data for other researchers to replicate. I noticed that Table 4 had no non-cognitive skills recorded. I wondered why cognitive and non-cognitive skills could not be increased simultaneously when the authors stated that the SE2 policy “helps those students with unmeasured non-cognitive skills, while potentially harming some of the students with higher measured cognitive skills” (Gray & Swinton, 2017, p. 74). This brought me back to wondering why non-cognitive skills were not operationalized in the first place.
Multiculturally Sensitive Mental Health Scale (MSMHS):
Development, Factor Analysis, Reliability, and Validity
Ruth Chu-Lien Chao and Kathy E. Green
University of Denver
Effectively and efficiently diagnosing African Americans’ mental health has been a chronically unre-
solved challenge. To meet this challenge we developed a tool to better understand African Americans’
mental health: the Multiculturally Sensitive Mental Health Scale (MSMHS). Three studies reporting the
development and initial validation of the MSMHS were conducted with African American student
samples. First, an exploratory factor analysis of an initial item pool yielded 5 factors assessing subscales
of perceived racism, depression, well-being, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts. Second, a confirmatory factor
analysis supported the MSMHS’s 5-dimensional factor structure. Third, test–retest reliability, internal ...
Some Better Practices for Measuring Racial and Ethnic Identity.docxrronald3
Some Better Practices for Measuring Racial and Ethnic Identity Constructs
Janet E. Helms
Boston College
Racial and ethnic identity (REI) measures are in danger of becoming conceptually meaningless because
of evaluators’ insistence that they conform to measurement models intended to assess unidimensional
constructs, rather than the multidimensional constructs necessary to capture the complexity of internal-
ized racial or cultural socialization. Some aspects of the intersection of REI theoretical constructs with
research design and psychometric practices are discussed, and recommendations for more informed use
of each are provided. A table that summarizes some psychometric techniques for analyzing multidimen-
sional measures is provided.
Keywords: racial identity, ethnic identity, reliability, validity, factor analysis
In counseling psychology, the measurement of racial identity
constructs is a relatively new phenomenon. Arguably, the practice
began when Jackson and Kirschner (1973) attempted to introduce
complexity into the measurement of Black students’ racial identity
by using a single categorical item with multiple options (e.g.,
“Black,” “Negro”) that the students could use to describe them-
selves. Helms and Parham (used in Parham & Helms, 1981) and
Helms and Carter (1990) built on the idea that assessment of
individual differences in racial identity is important, and they
added complexity to the measurement process by (a) developing
measures that were based on racial identity theoretical frame-
works, (b) using multiple items to assess the constructs inherent to
the theories, and (c) asking participants to use continua (i.e.,
5-point Likert scales) rather than categories to self-describe. These
principles underlie the Black Racial Identity Attitudes Scale
(BRIAS; formerly RIAS–B) and White Racial Identity Attitudes
Scale (WRIAS).
In response to perceived conceptual, methodological, or content
concerns with Helms and associates’ racial identity measures,
many rebuttal measures followed. Rebuttal measures are scales
that the new scale originator(s) specifically described as correc-
tions for one or more such deficiencies in preexisting identity
measures (e.g., Phinney, 1992, p. 157). Subsequent measures have
tended to rely on the previously listed basic measurement princi-
ples introduced by Parham and Helms (1981), although the theo-
retical rationales for the measures have varied. Phinney’s Multi-
group Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), the most frequently used
of the rebuttal measures to date, added the principle of measuring
“ethnic” rather than “racial identity,” which she seemingly viewed
as interchangeable constructs. The MEIM also introduced the
principle of measuring the same identity constructs across racial or
ethnic groups rather than group-specific constructs within them.
The BRIAS and WRIAS may be thought of as representative of
a class of identity measures in which opposing stages, statuses, or
schemas are assessed, wh.
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent AfricanAmer.docxmoirarandell
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent African
American Girls: The Moderating Influence of Family Racial
Socialization
Ellen M. Granberg,
Department of Sociology & Anthropology 132 Brackett Hall Clemson University Clemson SC 29634
864-656-3812 [email protected]
Leslie Gordon Simons, and
Department of Child and Family Development 204 403 Sanford Drive University of Georgia Athens
GA 30602 [email protected]
Ronald L. Simons
Department of Sociology 116 Baldwin Hall University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 706-542-3232
[email protected]
Abstract
Social psychologists have amassed a large body of work demonstrating that overweight African
American adolescent girls have generally positive self-images, particularly when compared with
overweight females from other racial and ethnic groups. Some scholars have proposed that elements
of African American social experience may contribute to the maintenance of these positive self-
views. In this paper, we evaluate these arguments using data drawn from a panel study of socio-
economically diverse African American adolescent girls living in Iowa and Georgia. We analyze the
relationship between body size and social self-image over three waves of data, starting when the girls
were 10 years of age and concluding when they were approximately 14. We find that heavier
respondents hold less positive social self-images but also find that being raised in a family that
practices racial socialization moderates this relationship.
Keywords
obesity; adolescence; racial socialization
The relationship between body weight and self-image among African American adolescent
girls has been the topic of considerable study (Ge, Elder, Regnerus, & Cox, 2001; Lovejoy,
2001; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Overall, the results of this work show that, while African
American girls are more likely to be overweight than females of other racial groups, they also
feel good about their bodies and exhibit a relatively weak association between body size and
outcomes such as self-esteem, self-evaluation, and psychological health (Berkowitz &
Stunkard, 2002; Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, & Croll, 2002). These patterns have led
scholars to suggest that elements of African American life may serve a protective function,
limiting the negative influence of body size on self-image (Roberts, Cash, Feingold, & Johnson,
2006). In this paper, we explore these arguments by assessing the association between body
size and social self-image within a sample of adolescent African American girls. We then
Direct all correspondence to Dr. Ellen Granberg, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, 132 Brackett Hall, Clemson University,
Clemson SC 29634 ([email protected])..
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Youth Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 December 1.
Published in final edited form as:
Youth Soc. 2009 December 1; 41(2): 256–277. doi:10.1177/0044118X09338505.
N
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N
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anuscript
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.
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent AfricanAmer.docxjasoninnes20
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent African
American Girls: The Moderating Influence of Family Racial
Socialization
Ellen M. Granberg,
Department of Sociology & Anthropology 132 Brackett Hall Clemson University Clemson SC 29634
864-656-3812 [email protected]
Leslie Gordon Simons, and
Department of Child and Family Development 204 403 Sanford Drive University of Georgia Athens
GA 30602 [email protected]
Ronald L. Simons
Department of Sociology 116 Baldwin Hall University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 706-542-3232
[email protected]
Abstract
Social psychologists have amassed a large body of work demonstrating that overweight African
American adolescent girls have generally positive self-images, particularly when compared with
overweight females from other racial and ethnic groups. Some scholars have proposed that elements
of African American social experience may contribute to the maintenance of these positive self-
views. In this paper, we evaluate these arguments using data drawn from a panel study of socio-
economically diverse African American adolescent girls living in Iowa and Georgia. We analyze the
relationship between body size and social self-image over three waves of data, starting when the girls
were 10 years of age and concluding when they were approximately 14. We find that heavier
respondents hold less positive social self-images but also find that being raised in a family that
practices racial socialization moderates this relationship.
Keywords
obesity; adolescence; racial socialization
The relationship between body weight and self-image among African American adolescent
girls has been the topic of considerable study (Ge, Elder, Regnerus, & Cox, 2001; Lovejoy,
2001; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Overall, the results of this work show that, while African
American girls are more likely to be overweight than females of other racial groups, they also
feel good about their bodies and exhibit a relatively weak association between body size and
outcomes such as self-esteem, self-evaluation, and psychological health (Berkowitz &
Stunkard, 2002; Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, & Croll, 2002). These patterns have led
scholars to suggest that elements of African American life may serve a protective function,
limiting the negative influence of body size on self-image (Roberts, Cash, Feingold, & Johnson,
2006). In this paper, we explore these arguments by assessing the association between body
size and social self-image within a sample of adolescent African American girls. We then
Direct all correspondence to Dr. Ellen Granberg, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, 132 Brackett Hall, Clemson University,
Clemson SC 29634 ([email protected])..
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Youth Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 December 1.
Published in final edited form as:
Youth Soc. 2009 December 1; 41(2): 256–277. doi:10.1177/0044118X09338505.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
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uthor M
anuscript
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C A S E S T U D YBlack Identity in Bimcial BlackWhitePe.docxclairbycraft
C A S E S T U D Y
Black Identity in Bimcial Black/White
People: A Comparison of Jacqueline Who
Refuses to Be Exclusively Black and
Adolphus Who Wishes He Were
ANGELA R. GILLEM
LAURA RENEE COHN
CAMBRIA THRONE
Arcadia University
Two biracial college freshmen, both of whom identify as Black, were chosen from a
larger sample of participants in a qualitative study of biracial identity development to
exemplify the differences in the paths that 2 biracial individuals could take to achieve
racial identity resolution. Through the case study method, the authors describe the
course and progression of racial identity development (RID) in these 2 individuals and
discuss some key themes in their lives that have contributed to the development of their
RID. The purposes are fourfold: to describe nonclinical subjective experiences of being
biracial in the United States, to explore the differences in the paths that 2 biracial indi-
viduals can take to achieve what looks superficially like similar Black racial identity
resolution, to demonstrate how identifying as Black can have different meanings and
consequences for 2 biracial people, and to contribute to the differentiation of Black RID
from biracial Black/White RID. The authors raise questions about the generalizability
of monoracial Black and ethnic identity theories to biracial individuals.
* biracial identity * biracial Black/White * interracial • racial identity • ethnic identity
• Angela R. Gillem, Laura Renee Cohn, and Cambria Throne, Department of Psychology, Arcadia
University.
This research was supported by the Christian R. and Mary F. Lindback Foundation, the El-
lington Beavers Fund for Intellectual Inquiry, and the Arcadia University Faculty Development
Fund.
Erica Freeman and Michael Mauney, Angela R. Gillem's cousin, who died in a car accident
before he had a chance to see this research computed, shared their insights as biracial people to
help develop the interview schedule. Melissa Bailey and Nancy Grossman Feldman coauthored the
interview schedule. Jeff Shultz and Maria Root contributed their time and wisdom to reviewing the
manuscript.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Angela R, Gillem, Arcadia Uni-
versity, 450 South Easton Road, Glenside, Pennsylvania 19038-3295. Electronic mail may be
sent to [email protected]
Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology Copyright 2001 by the Educational Publishing Foundation
Vol. 7, No. 2, 182-196 1099-9809/01/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//1099-9809.7.2.182
182
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Conducting Culturally Sensitive Qualitative Research DEVIKADIBYA.docxdonnajames55
Conducting Culturally Sensitive Qualitative Research
DEVIKADIBYACHOUDHURI THE MULTICULTURAL GUIDELINES
One of the key elements of the American Psychological Association’s (APA, 2003) “Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists” is the notion of a cultural lens. The Multicultural Guidelines define culture as an embodiment of worldview, a complex of systems of values, beliefs, and resultant practices that shape the way individuals make meaning of the world. Using a visual metaphor, a cultural lens is then simply the field of vision that incorporates the landscape of culture. The Multicultural Guidelines invite psychologists to use a cultural lens, acknowledging the ways in which culture shapes their own lens, the multiple meanings that individuals may make about themselves and their contexts, and ways to be responsive and sensitive to such understandings of the world. Specifically, in terms of conducting research, Guideline 4 asks investigators to appreciate the importance of conducting culture-centered research and be sensitive to cultural issues regarding research focus, design, and methods. A cultural lens, by definition, is rooted in the subjective, the internal worldview view of a particular person from his or her particular location intheworld.Thissubjectivityofinternallyconstructedmeaning,asopposedtoapresumedexternallyobjectiverealitytrueforallpersonsin alltimesandcontexts,isthesociallyconstructedpositionofqualitative research.
OVERVIEW OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The practice of qualitative inquiry covers a variety of research methods and approaches that operate from an interpretive paradigm, developing portrayals of a complex and dynamic reality (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992). Symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969), feminist inquiry (Olesen, 1994), grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) action research, case studies, and ethnographies are examples of the plethora of approaches constituting qualitative inquiry (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Qualitative research strives to understand the epistemological nature of phenomena through the subjective experiences of the persons who are concerned with such phenomena. Essentially, it is the process of finding out what people think and feel impressionistically and narratively rather than quantifiably. As such, this methodology lends itself particularly well to understanding the experiences and worldviews of diverse persons. For instance, Gibson (2002) looked at the experience of African American grandmothers who were caregivers to grandchildren whose parents were not able to provide them with adequate care. This phenomenon of kinship care, culturally congruent in the African American community, needed a qualitative approach to explore a complex, sensitive, and contextually rich situation and capture the lived experience of this clinically significant group. Qualitative approaches are becoming increasingly popular as a methodology for con.
AUTHORGerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. DicksonTITLE.docxrock73
AUTHOR: Gerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. Dickson
TITLE: Psychosocial Foundations of Academic Performance in Culture-Based Education Programs for American Indian and Alaska Native Youth: Reflections on a Multidisciplinary Perspective
SOURCE: Journal of American Indian Education 45 no3 Special Issue 38-59 2006
COPYRIGHT: The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://coe.asu.edu/cie/
Since the Oglalas settled at Pine Ridge, it has been the contention of many policy makers that education is the panacea for the socio-economic ills besetting the society and the means for bringing Indians into the mainstream of American life. Education has been available to the Oglalas for 89 years and the problems remain almost as unresolved as they were that day in 1879 when Red Cloud helped to lay the cornerstone for the first school. For this (and other reasons), the educational system has often become the scapegoat among those impatient for greater progress. Blame has been placed on the schools for many of the social evils, personality disorders and general cultural malaise. But is it fair to expect the schools to counteract all of the negative aspects of the total socio-economic milieu? Is it realistic to expect the educational system alone to achieve a better life for the Oglalas when the environment offers few alternative economic goals and little opportunity to control one's destiny, when many children come from poverty-stricken and unstable family situations? True, the schools have failed in some respects, but the blame is not entirely theirs (Maynard & Twiss, 1970, p. 94).
Can we say the same thing today that was said by Maynard and Twiss and others 34 years ago? What accounts for American Indian/Alaska Native children dropping out at higher rates and having significantly lower academic performances than Euro-Americans? Is lower academic achievement due primarily to schooling or to community and familial factors? Are we following a path towards academic improvement for indigenous children? In this article, we argue that variables outside of the school environment and in-school variables must be carefully and concurrently considered in order to understand and improve the school performance and achievement of American Indian/Alaska Native children. Furthermore, for a culture-based education approach (CBE) to succeed it must chart a course toward a set of ideals and principles that are consistent with the dynamic nature of the lifeways and thoughtways of tribal or village cultures.
Culture-Based Educational Approach
The guiding assumption of CBE is that a discontinuity between home and school environments serves to confuse and alienate indigenous children, fostering a sense of inadequacy and lack of self-efficacy. Factors implicated in this discontinuity include value dif ...
Running Head Racial DiscriminationHouston 6Racial Discrim.docxcharisellington63520
Running Head: Racial Discrimination
Houston 6
Racial Discrimination
Final Project Milestone Two: Article Critique
Johnathen Houston
PSY-216-Q1822
Dr. Liza Smith
10/25/15
Objective Analysis
The article that is well about racism has been well represented in the article’s content. The title that is about the gender and socio-economic differences in the experiences of African Americans is well elaborated in the article. This is because, within the article, the experiment that was done was major to try and find out about how men and women are mistreated on the different socioeconomic environment (Adler, 2000).
Within the introduction, the purpose that is basing on the health effects of racism is well elaborated. Considering the be an exploration on the method to which the investigation will be done through different socioeconomic position such as education, financial and employment status, the prediction of the title is captured well in the introduction of the article.
The discussion is relevant. It is relevant in essence that, it is that we can understand to which discriminations done in the offices that most of the officers operate. The discussion is further relevant given the fact statistical methods have been sued to do the experiment (Barg, 2005).Using the exact figure makes not only a thorough but an actual result to be relied upon.
Using a sample size of 144 people to me is underemphasizing of the discrimination in the states. Given the number of people living in the US are many, a better number of participants would have been used. The issue of the socio-emotional prospect is less emphasized. It should have been made so clear that, in the United States and the United Kingdom, it is in this set ups that moist of the discrimination occur. Limiting the age made the age made the experiment a little bit less factual as the result should have focused more on a range of age like, for instance, the socioeconomic discrimination on young people is not much pronounced as that for the aged people who are workplaces. New York City only should not have been the only place to make the data valid.
The authors’ statements are very clear. It is clear in the sense that, most of the assumptions made are what happens exactly in the field. It is ambiguous for the data to claim that the modest size could have been used which could not limit the sample size. It is of the essence to not that, in an analysis, depending on the population, is a small size can be very useful in making an assumption.
The authors want to validate different assumption his research. First of all, there is an assumption that Africans are a threat to security and as a form of discrimination; they must be frisked very well as in the care of Joan. The author assumes that in most of the cases of racism, men are the target of racism, and they are the ones who are affected more. The third assumption by the author is that the socioeconomic status of the society is not consistent and is sub.
Nathina Marion Kwon, Soo Ah, et al. Racial Segregation and th.docxvannagoforth
Nathina Marion
Kwon, Soo Ah, et al. “Racial Segregation and the Limits of International Undergraduate Student Diversity.” Race, Ethnicity & Education, vol. 22, no. 1, Jan. 2019, pp. 59–72. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/13613324.2017.1417830.
In this study of Kwon he talks about the challenges that influx Asians international undergraduate students in universities in the United States. Creating greater education and better social environments. He gets to talking about how Asians American student leaders and their organizations became difficult institutional task on diversity.
This article pertains to be a good source for my paper because it talks about a particular race that have trouble with being able to fit in with the university. Talks about segregation and racial discrimnation in the community. It could be a useful source for my paper. It’s useful because my topic is about racial discrimination and this source fits perfect.
Walker-DeVose, Dina C., et al. “Southern Assumptions: Normalizing Racialized Structures at a University in the Deep South.” Race, Ethnicity & Education, vol. 22, no. 3, May 2019, pp. 355–373. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/13613324.2017.1417256.
In this study of Walker-DeVose talks about race that’s critical such as how African Americans and White students at a PWI are diverse. He also talks about how Blacks interact with each other. He says when blaack and white socialize its common to say their post-racial environment. In his study he suggest that students of any race recognize the persistence of the racial discrimination.
This source could be a good source for my paper because it has aspects that talks more about race and how they interact on campus and each other. I think this article by far the best one I found because it get in depth with race discrimination in organziations , campuses, and each other. The goal of this source is to inform people on what goes on with each race and people who try to engage with people.
Holmes, Sarah E., and Sean Cahill. “School Experiences of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Youth.” Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues In Education, vol. 1, no. 3, Jan. 2004, pp. 53–66. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1300/J367v01n03_06.
In this study of Sarah Holmes she talks about how GLBT youth comes out more when their younger ages. She also gets into how the schools doesn’t do anything about how the kids of that community get harassed and bullied for being what they want to be. They face problems with racism and the risk of rejection by their community. If parents are apart of the GLBT their children become targets because of them and it affects their ability and focus at school.
This source I feel like wouldn’t be reliable for my paper but it could be a little useful. It could shape my paper in a way that could change my paper. It’s more about the LGBT side than just racism but it some parts of the source it talks about racism. It can be useful because the source is about how LGBT people have to go through things d ...
Research project exploring the relationship between Black racial identity development and Black anti-racist beliefs and behavior. Mixed methods research that evaluates the relationship between the level of transformative awareness (Afrocentricity by Dr. Molefi Asante) and level of Black identity development (Cross Racial Identity Scale, CRIS - 2 by Dr. Cristopher Cross et al.).
The effect of Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth and Profitability on Tax ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research aims to test, analyze and obtain empirical evidence about the influence of
institutional ownership, sales growth and profitability on tax avoidance. The object of this research is
manufacturing companies in the consumer goods industry sector listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI)
in 2018-2022. This research used quantitative research methods and causal research design. The sampling
technique in this research used non-probability sampling with purposive sampling as the basis for determining
the sample so that a sample of 55 samples was obtained. The data used is secondary data obtained from the
official website of the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI) during the 2018-2022 period. The data analysis method
used was multiple linear regression analysis with several tests such as descriptive statistical tests, classical
assumption tests, and hypothesis testing using SPSS version 26 statistical software. The results showed that the
institutional ownership variable has no effect on tax avoidance, while the sales growth and profitability has a
negative and significant effect on tax avoidance.
KEYWORDS: Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth, Profitability, Tax Avoidance
MGA ESTRATEHIYA SA PAGTUTURO KAUGNAY SA PASALITANG PARTISIPASYON NG MGA MAG-A...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRAK: Ang mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ay mahalagang kasangkapan sa paghahatid ng mabisang
pagtuturo sa loob ng silid. Tinukoy sa pag-aaral na ito ang antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa pagsasadula,
pangkatang talakayan at paggawa ng mga koneksyon sa tunay na karanasan sa buhay bilang mga estratehiya sa
pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino at pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral sa Baitang 7 ng Misamis
University Junior High School, Ozamiz City. Ang ginamit na disenyo sa pananaliksik na ito ay deskriptivcorrelational. Ang mga datos sa pag-aaral ay nagmula sa kabuuang populasyon na 120 na mag-aaral at tatlong
mga guro na tagamasid sa pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral. Ang Talatanungan sa Kagamitan sa
Pagtuturo ng Panitikan at Checklist batay sa Obserbasyon sa Pasalita na Partisipasyon ay ang instrumentong
ginamit sa pagkalap ng datos. Mean, standard deviation, Analysis of Variance at Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation Coefficient ang mga ginamit na estatistiko na sangkap. Inihayag sa naging resulta na ang tatlong piling
estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino ay may pinakamataas na antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral.
Ang antas ng pakilahok ng mga mag-aaral sa paggamit ng tatlong estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan ay
pinakamataas na nagpapahiwatig na aktibong nakilahok ang mga mag-aaral sa mga gawain. Inihayag din na
walang makabuluhang kaibahan sa antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng
panitikan sa Filipino. Ito ay nangahulugan na gustong-gusto ng mga mag-aaral ang pagkakaroon ng mga
estratehiya sa pagtuturo. Walang makabuluhang kaugnayan ang kagustuhan sa mga estratehiya at antas ng
pakikilahok ng mga mag-aaral. Hindi nakaapekto sa kanilang pakikilahok ang anumang estratehiyang ginamit ng
guro.
KEYWORDS : estratehiya, karanasan, pagsasadula, pagtuturo, pangkatang talakayan
More Related Content
Similar to Comparison of Three Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Models: A Confirmatory Analysis with Female Population
Some Better Practices for Measuring Racial and Ethnic Identity.docxrronald3
Some Better Practices for Measuring Racial and Ethnic Identity Constructs
Janet E. Helms
Boston College
Racial and ethnic identity (REI) measures are in danger of becoming conceptually meaningless because
of evaluators’ insistence that they conform to measurement models intended to assess unidimensional
constructs, rather than the multidimensional constructs necessary to capture the complexity of internal-
ized racial or cultural socialization. Some aspects of the intersection of REI theoretical constructs with
research design and psychometric practices are discussed, and recommendations for more informed use
of each are provided. A table that summarizes some psychometric techniques for analyzing multidimen-
sional measures is provided.
Keywords: racial identity, ethnic identity, reliability, validity, factor analysis
In counseling psychology, the measurement of racial identity
constructs is a relatively new phenomenon. Arguably, the practice
began when Jackson and Kirschner (1973) attempted to introduce
complexity into the measurement of Black students’ racial identity
by using a single categorical item with multiple options (e.g.,
“Black,” “Negro”) that the students could use to describe them-
selves. Helms and Parham (used in Parham & Helms, 1981) and
Helms and Carter (1990) built on the idea that assessment of
individual differences in racial identity is important, and they
added complexity to the measurement process by (a) developing
measures that were based on racial identity theoretical frame-
works, (b) using multiple items to assess the constructs inherent to
the theories, and (c) asking participants to use continua (i.e.,
5-point Likert scales) rather than categories to self-describe. These
principles underlie the Black Racial Identity Attitudes Scale
(BRIAS; formerly RIAS–B) and White Racial Identity Attitudes
Scale (WRIAS).
In response to perceived conceptual, methodological, or content
concerns with Helms and associates’ racial identity measures,
many rebuttal measures followed. Rebuttal measures are scales
that the new scale originator(s) specifically described as correc-
tions for one or more such deficiencies in preexisting identity
measures (e.g., Phinney, 1992, p. 157). Subsequent measures have
tended to rely on the previously listed basic measurement princi-
ples introduced by Parham and Helms (1981), although the theo-
retical rationales for the measures have varied. Phinney’s Multi-
group Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), the most frequently used
of the rebuttal measures to date, added the principle of measuring
“ethnic” rather than “racial identity,” which she seemingly viewed
as interchangeable constructs. The MEIM also introduced the
principle of measuring the same identity constructs across racial or
ethnic groups rather than group-specific constructs within them.
The BRIAS and WRIAS may be thought of as representative of
a class of identity measures in which opposing stages, statuses, or
schemas are assessed, wh.
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent AfricanAmer.docxmoirarandell
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent African
American Girls: The Moderating Influence of Family Racial
Socialization
Ellen M. Granberg,
Department of Sociology & Anthropology 132 Brackett Hall Clemson University Clemson SC 29634
864-656-3812 [email protected]
Leslie Gordon Simons, and
Department of Child and Family Development 204 403 Sanford Drive University of Georgia Athens
GA 30602 [email protected]
Ronald L. Simons
Department of Sociology 116 Baldwin Hall University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 706-542-3232
[email protected]
Abstract
Social psychologists have amassed a large body of work demonstrating that overweight African
American adolescent girls have generally positive self-images, particularly when compared with
overweight females from other racial and ethnic groups. Some scholars have proposed that elements
of African American social experience may contribute to the maintenance of these positive self-
views. In this paper, we evaluate these arguments using data drawn from a panel study of socio-
economically diverse African American adolescent girls living in Iowa and Georgia. We analyze the
relationship between body size and social self-image over three waves of data, starting when the girls
were 10 years of age and concluding when they were approximately 14. We find that heavier
respondents hold less positive social self-images but also find that being raised in a family that
practices racial socialization moderates this relationship.
Keywords
obesity; adolescence; racial socialization
The relationship between body weight and self-image among African American adolescent
girls has been the topic of considerable study (Ge, Elder, Regnerus, & Cox, 2001; Lovejoy,
2001; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Overall, the results of this work show that, while African
American girls are more likely to be overweight than females of other racial groups, they also
feel good about their bodies and exhibit a relatively weak association between body size and
outcomes such as self-esteem, self-evaluation, and psychological health (Berkowitz &
Stunkard, 2002; Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, & Croll, 2002). These patterns have led
scholars to suggest that elements of African American life may serve a protective function,
limiting the negative influence of body size on self-image (Roberts, Cash, Feingold, & Johnson,
2006). In this paper, we explore these arguments by assessing the association between body
size and social self-image within a sample of adolescent African American girls. We then
Direct all correspondence to Dr. Ellen Granberg, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, 132 Brackett Hall, Clemson University,
Clemson SC 29634 ([email protected])..
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Youth Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 December 1.
Published in final edited form as:
Youth Soc. 2009 December 1; 41(2): 256–277. doi:10.1177/0044118X09338505.
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Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent AfricanAmer.docxjasoninnes20
Body Size and Social Self-Image among Adolescent African
American Girls: The Moderating Influence of Family Racial
Socialization
Ellen M. Granberg,
Department of Sociology & Anthropology 132 Brackett Hall Clemson University Clemson SC 29634
864-656-3812 [email protected]
Leslie Gordon Simons, and
Department of Child and Family Development 204 403 Sanford Drive University of Georgia Athens
GA 30602 [email protected]
Ronald L. Simons
Department of Sociology 116 Baldwin Hall University of Georgia Athens GA 30602 706-542-3232
[email protected]
Abstract
Social psychologists have amassed a large body of work demonstrating that overweight African
American adolescent girls have generally positive self-images, particularly when compared with
overweight females from other racial and ethnic groups. Some scholars have proposed that elements
of African American social experience may contribute to the maintenance of these positive self-
views. In this paper, we evaluate these arguments using data drawn from a panel study of socio-
economically diverse African American adolescent girls living in Iowa and Georgia. We analyze the
relationship between body size and social self-image over three waves of data, starting when the girls
were 10 years of age and concluding when they were approximately 14. We find that heavier
respondents hold less positive social self-images but also find that being raised in a family that
practices racial socialization moderates this relationship.
Keywords
obesity; adolescence; racial socialization
The relationship between body weight and self-image among African American adolescent
girls has been the topic of considerable study (Ge, Elder, Regnerus, & Cox, 2001; Lovejoy,
2001; Smolak & Levine, 2001). Overall, the results of this work show that, while African
American girls are more likely to be overweight than females of other racial groups, they also
feel good about their bodies and exhibit a relatively weak association between body size and
outcomes such as self-esteem, self-evaluation, and psychological health (Berkowitz &
Stunkard, 2002; Neumark-Sztainer, Story, Hannan, & Croll, 2002). These patterns have led
scholars to suggest that elements of African American life may serve a protective function,
limiting the negative influence of body size on self-image (Roberts, Cash, Feingold, & Johnson,
2006). In this paper, we explore these arguments by assessing the association between body
size and social self-image within a sample of adolescent African American girls. We then
Direct all correspondence to Dr. Ellen Granberg, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, 132 Brackett Hall, Clemson University,
Clemson SC 29634 ([email protected])..
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Youth Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 December 1.
Published in final edited form as:
Youth Soc. 2009 December 1; 41(2): 256–277. doi:10.1177/0044118X09338505.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
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uthor M
anuscript
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C A S E S T U D YBlack Identity in Bimcial BlackWhitePe.docxclairbycraft
C A S E S T U D Y
Black Identity in Bimcial Black/White
People: A Comparison of Jacqueline Who
Refuses to Be Exclusively Black and
Adolphus Who Wishes He Were
ANGELA R. GILLEM
LAURA RENEE COHN
CAMBRIA THRONE
Arcadia University
Two biracial college freshmen, both of whom identify as Black, were chosen from a
larger sample of participants in a qualitative study of biracial identity development to
exemplify the differences in the paths that 2 biracial individuals could take to achieve
racial identity resolution. Through the case study method, the authors describe the
course and progression of racial identity development (RID) in these 2 individuals and
discuss some key themes in their lives that have contributed to the development of their
RID. The purposes are fourfold: to describe nonclinical subjective experiences of being
biracial in the United States, to explore the differences in the paths that 2 biracial indi-
viduals can take to achieve what looks superficially like similar Black racial identity
resolution, to demonstrate how identifying as Black can have different meanings and
consequences for 2 biracial people, and to contribute to the differentiation of Black RID
from biracial Black/White RID. The authors raise questions about the generalizability
of monoracial Black and ethnic identity theories to biracial individuals.
* biracial identity * biracial Black/White * interracial • racial identity • ethnic identity
• Angela R. Gillem, Laura Renee Cohn, and Cambria Throne, Department of Psychology, Arcadia
University.
This research was supported by the Christian R. and Mary F. Lindback Foundation, the El-
lington Beavers Fund for Intellectual Inquiry, and the Arcadia University Faculty Development
Fund.
Erica Freeman and Michael Mauney, Angela R. Gillem's cousin, who died in a car accident
before he had a chance to see this research computed, shared their insights as biracial people to
help develop the interview schedule. Melissa Bailey and Nancy Grossman Feldman coauthored the
interview schedule. Jeff Shultz and Maria Root contributed their time and wisdom to reviewing the
manuscript.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Angela R, Gillem, Arcadia Uni-
versity, 450 South Easton Road, Glenside, Pennsylvania 19038-3295. Electronic mail may be
sent to [email protected]
Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology Copyright 2001 by the Educational Publishing Foundation
Vol. 7, No. 2, 182-196 1099-9809/01/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//1099-9809.7.2.182
182
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Conducting Culturally Sensitive Qualitative Research DEVIKADIBYA.docxdonnajames55
Conducting Culturally Sensitive Qualitative Research
DEVIKADIBYACHOUDHURI THE MULTICULTURAL GUIDELINES
One of the key elements of the American Psychological Association’s (APA, 2003) “Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists” is the notion of a cultural lens. The Multicultural Guidelines define culture as an embodiment of worldview, a complex of systems of values, beliefs, and resultant practices that shape the way individuals make meaning of the world. Using a visual metaphor, a cultural lens is then simply the field of vision that incorporates the landscape of culture. The Multicultural Guidelines invite psychologists to use a cultural lens, acknowledging the ways in which culture shapes their own lens, the multiple meanings that individuals may make about themselves and their contexts, and ways to be responsive and sensitive to such understandings of the world. Specifically, in terms of conducting research, Guideline 4 asks investigators to appreciate the importance of conducting culture-centered research and be sensitive to cultural issues regarding research focus, design, and methods. A cultural lens, by definition, is rooted in the subjective, the internal worldview view of a particular person from his or her particular location intheworld.Thissubjectivityofinternallyconstructedmeaning,asopposedtoapresumedexternallyobjectiverealitytrueforallpersonsin alltimesandcontexts,isthesociallyconstructedpositionofqualitative research.
OVERVIEW OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The practice of qualitative inquiry covers a variety of research methods and approaches that operate from an interpretive paradigm, developing portrayals of a complex and dynamic reality (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992). Symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969), feminist inquiry (Olesen, 1994), grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990) action research, case studies, and ethnographies are examples of the plethora of approaches constituting qualitative inquiry (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992). Qualitative research strives to understand the epistemological nature of phenomena through the subjective experiences of the persons who are concerned with such phenomena. Essentially, it is the process of finding out what people think and feel impressionistically and narratively rather than quantifiably. As such, this methodology lends itself particularly well to understanding the experiences and worldviews of diverse persons. For instance, Gibson (2002) looked at the experience of African American grandmothers who were caregivers to grandchildren whose parents were not able to provide them with adequate care. This phenomenon of kinship care, culturally congruent in the African American community, needed a qualitative approach to explore a complex, sensitive, and contextually rich situation and capture the lived experience of this clinically significant group. Qualitative approaches are becoming increasingly popular as a methodology for con.
AUTHORGerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. DicksonTITLE.docxrock73
AUTHOR: Gerald V. Mohatt Joseph Trimble Ryan A. Dickson
TITLE: Psychosocial Foundations of Academic Performance in Culture-Based Education Programs for American Indian and Alaska Native Youth: Reflections on a Multidisciplinary Perspective
SOURCE: Journal of American Indian Education 45 no3 Special Issue 38-59 2006
COPYRIGHT: The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://coe.asu.edu/cie/
Since the Oglalas settled at Pine Ridge, it has been the contention of many policy makers that education is the panacea for the socio-economic ills besetting the society and the means for bringing Indians into the mainstream of American life. Education has been available to the Oglalas for 89 years and the problems remain almost as unresolved as they were that day in 1879 when Red Cloud helped to lay the cornerstone for the first school. For this (and other reasons), the educational system has often become the scapegoat among those impatient for greater progress. Blame has been placed on the schools for many of the social evils, personality disorders and general cultural malaise. But is it fair to expect the schools to counteract all of the negative aspects of the total socio-economic milieu? Is it realistic to expect the educational system alone to achieve a better life for the Oglalas when the environment offers few alternative economic goals and little opportunity to control one's destiny, when many children come from poverty-stricken and unstable family situations? True, the schools have failed in some respects, but the blame is not entirely theirs (Maynard & Twiss, 1970, p. 94).
Can we say the same thing today that was said by Maynard and Twiss and others 34 years ago? What accounts for American Indian/Alaska Native children dropping out at higher rates and having significantly lower academic performances than Euro-Americans? Is lower academic achievement due primarily to schooling or to community and familial factors? Are we following a path towards academic improvement for indigenous children? In this article, we argue that variables outside of the school environment and in-school variables must be carefully and concurrently considered in order to understand and improve the school performance and achievement of American Indian/Alaska Native children. Furthermore, for a culture-based education approach (CBE) to succeed it must chart a course toward a set of ideals and principles that are consistent with the dynamic nature of the lifeways and thoughtways of tribal or village cultures.
Culture-Based Educational Approach
The guiding assumption of CBE is that a discontinuity between home and school environments serves to confuse and alienate indigenous children, fostering a sense of inadequacy and lack of self-efficacy. Factors implicated in this discontinuity include value dif ...
Running Head Racial DiscriminationHouston 6Racial Discrim.docxcharisellington63520
Running Head: Racial Discrimination
Houston 6
Racial Discrimination
Final Project Milestone Two: Article Critique
Johnathen Houston
PSY-216-Q1822
Dr. Liza Smith
10/25/15
Objective Analysis
The article that is well about racism has been well represented in the article’s content. The title that is about the gender and socio-economic differences in the experiences of African Americans is well elaborated in the article. This is because, within the article, the experiment that was done was major to try and find out about how men and women are mistreated on the different socioeconomic environment (Adler, 2000).
Within the introduction, the purpose that is basing on the health effects of racism is well elaborated. Considering the be an exploration on the method to which the investigation will be done through different socioeconomic position such as education, financial and employment status, the prediction of the title is captured well in the introduction of the article.
The discussion is relevant. It is relevant in essence that, it is that we can understand to which discriminations done in the offices that most of the officers operate. The discussion is further relevant given the fact statistical methods have been sued to do the experiment (Barg, 2005).Using the exact figure makes not only a thorough but an actual result to be relied upon.
Using a sample size of 144 people to me is underemphasizing of the discrimination in the states. Given the number of people living in the US are many, a better number of participants would have been used. The issue of the socio-emotional prospect is less emphasized. It should have been made so clear that, in the United States and the United Kingdom, it is in this set ups that moist of the discrimination occur. Limiting the age made the age made the experiment a little bit less factual as the result should have focused more on a range of age like, for instance, the socioeconomic discrimination on young people is not much pronounced as that for the aged people who are workplaces. New York City only should not have been the only place to make the data valid.
The authors’ statements are very clear. It is clear in the sense that, most of the assumptions made are what happens exactly in the field. It is ambiguous for the data to claim that the modest size could have been used which could not limit the sample size. It is of the essence to not that, in an analysis, depending on the population, is a small size can be very useful in making an assumption.
The authors want to validate different assumption his research. First of all, there is an assumption that Africans are a threat to security and as a form of discrimination; they must be frisked very well as in the care of Joan. The author assumes that in most of the cases of racism, men are the target of racism, and they are the ones who are affected more. The third assumption by the author is that the socioeconomic status of the society is not consistent and is sub.
Nathina Marion Kwon, Soo Ah, et al. Racial Segregation and th.docxvannagoforth
Nathina Marion
Kwon, Soo Ah, et al. “Racial Segregation and the Limits of International Undergraduate Student Diversity.” Race, Ethnicity & Education, vol. 22, no. 1, Jan. 2019, pp. 59–72. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/13613324.2017.1417830.
In this study of Kwon he talks about the challenges that influx Asians international undergraduate students in universities in the United States. Creating greater education and better social environments. He gets to talking about how Asians American student leaders and their organizations became difficult institutional task on diversity.
This article pertains to be a good source for my paper because it talks about a particular race that have trouble with being able to fit in with the university. Talks about segregation and racial discrimnation in the community. It could be a useful source for my paper. It’s useful because my topic is about racial discrimination and this source fits perfect.
Walker-DeVose, Dina C., et al. “Southern Assumptions: Normalizing Racialized Structures at a University in the Deep South.” Race, Ethnicity & Education, vol. 22, no. 3, May 2019, pp. 355–373. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/13613324.2017.1417256.
In this study of Walker-DeVose talks about race that’s critical such as how African Americans and White students at a PWI are diverse. He also talks about how Blacks interact with each other. He says when blaack and white socialize its common to say their post-racial environment. In his study he suggest that students of any race recognize the persistence of the racial discrimination.
This source could be a good source for my paper because it has aspects that talks more about race and how they interact on campus and each other. I think this article by far the best one I found because it get in depth with race discrimination in organziations , campuses, and each other. The goal of this source is to inform people on what goes on with each race and people who try to engage with people.
Holmes, Sarah E., and Sean Cahill. “School Experiences of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Youth.” Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues In Education, vol. 1, no. 3, Jan. 2004, pp. 53–66. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1300/J367v01n03_06.
In this study of Sarah Holmes she talks about how GLBT youth comes out more when their younger ages. She also gets into how the schools doesn’t do anything about how the kids of that community get harassed and bullied for being what they want to be. They face problems with racism and the risk of rejection by their community. If parents are apart of the GLBT their children become targets because of them and it affects their ability and focus at school.
This source I feel like wouldn’t be reliable for my paper but it could be a little useful. It could shape my paper in a way that could change my paper. It’s more about the LGBT side than just racism but it some parts of the source it talks about racism. It can be useful because the source is about how LGBT people have to go through things d ...
Research project exploring the relationship between Black racial identity development and Black anti-racist beliefs and behavior. Mixed methods research that evaluates the relationship between the level of transformative awareness (Afrocentricity by Dr. Molefi Asante) and level of Black identity development (Cross Racial Identity Scale, CRIS - 2 by Dr. Cristopher Cross et al.).
Similar to Comparison of Three Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Models: A Confirmatory Analysis with Female Population (20)
The effect of Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth and Profitability on Tax ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research aims to test, analyze and obtain empirical evidence about the influence of
institutional ownership, sales growth and profitability on tax avoidance. The object of this research is
manufacturing companies in the consumer goods industry sector listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI)
in 2018-2022. This research used quantitative research methods and causal research design. The sampling
technique in this research used non-probability sampling with purposive sampling as the basis for determining
the sample so that a sample of 55 samples was obtained. The data used is secondary data obtained from the
official website of the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI) during the 2018-2022 period. The data analysis method
used was multiple linear regression analysis with several tests such as descriptive statistical tests, classical
assumption tests, and hypothesis testing using SPSS version 26 statistical software. The results showed that the
institutional ownership variable has no effect on tax avoidance, while the sales growth and profitability has a
negative and significant effect on tax avoidance.
KEYWORDS: Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth, Profitability, Tax Avoidance
MGA ESTRATEHIYA SA PAGTUTURO KAUGNAY SA PASALITANG PARTISIPASYON NG MGA MAG-A...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRAK: Ang mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ay mahalagang kasangkapan sa paghahatid ng mabisang
pagtuturo sa loob ng silid. Tinukoy sa pag-aaral na ito ang antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa pagsasadula,
pangkatang talakayan at paggawa ng mga koneksyon sa tunay na karanasan sa buhay bilang mga estratehiya sa
pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino at pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral sa Baitang 7 ng Misamis
University Junior High School, Ozamiz City. Ang ginamit na disenyo sa pananaliksik na ito ay deskriptivcorrelational. Ang mga datos sa pag-aaral ay nagmula sa kabuuang populasyon na 120 na mag-aaral at tatlong
mga guro na tagamasid sa pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral. Ang Talatanungan sa Kagamitan sa
Pagtuturo ng Panitikan at Checklist batay sa Obserbasyon sa Pasalita na Partisipasyon ay ang instrumentong
ginamit sa pagkalap ng datos. Mean, standard deviation, Analysis of Variance at Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation Coefficient ang mga ginamit na estatistiko na sangkap. Inihayag sa naging resulta na ang tatlong piling
estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino ay may pinakamataas na antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral.
Ang antas ng pakilahok ng mga mag-aaral sa paggamit ng tatlong estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan ay
pinakamataas na nagpapahiwatig na aktibong nakilahok ang mga mag-aaral sa mga gawain. Inihayag din na
walang makabuluhang kaibahan sa antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng
panitikan sa Filipino. Ito ay nangahulugan na gustong-gusto ng mga mag-aaral ang pagkakaroon ng mga
estratehiya sa pagtuturo. Walang makabuluhang kaugnayan ang kagustuhan sa mga estratehiya at antas ng
pakikilahok ng mga mag-aaral. Hindi nakaapekto sa kanilang pakikilahok ang anumang estratehiyang ginamit ng
guro.
KEYWORDS : estratehiya, karanasan, pagsasadula, pagtuturo, pangkatang talakayan
The Role of the Instruction of Reading Comprehension Strategies in Enhancing ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :Throughout my studies and teaching English in different language centers and higher studies
institutions, I have come to conclude that students consider Reading comprehension as a nightmare that
frightens them and hinders their language acquisition in the Moroccan EFL Context. This may cause them to
develop an internal psychological obstacle that grows as their lack of the necessary instruments or tools to
overcome are not equipped with. They become lost and unaware about or unfamiliar with the necessary reading
comprehension strategies that could help them to face the problem of misunderstanding or non-understanding
of English texts. Respectively, this article which is only one part of my whole study aims at showing the effect
of teaching reading strategies in enhancing the S1 students‟ familiarity with reading strategies and raising their
frequency use. A sample of 283 University students in EFL context have been chosen randomly and have
attended the usual academic reading classes, yet only 76 are subject to this survey. 38 of them constitute the
experimental group who have attended the treatment regularly in one of the language centers and the other 38
participants are chosen randomly from the whole population to constitute the Control group. They all have
Psychosocial Factors and Deviant Behaviors of Children in Conflict with the L...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:This study aims to determine the relationship between psychosocialfactors and deviant
behaviors among children in conflict with the law (CICL) inDavao Region. The researchers want to discover the
prevalent factors thatdrive these children to their behaviors. Further, the study sought to determinethe
manifestation of psychosocial factors in terms of life satisfaction, emotionalsupport, self-esteem, and personality
traits. The study's data came from N-83children in conflict with the law (CICL) at the Regional Rehabilitation
Center forYouth (RRCY) in Bago Oshiro, Davao City; all respondents are male. This studyused a total
enumeration sampling technique due to the relatively smallpopulation size. The researchers adapted the
Psychosocial surveyquestionnaires by Zabriskie & Ward (2013) and by John and Srivastava (1999)as well as the
Deviant Behavior Variety Scale (DBVS) by Sanches et al. (2016).Through the use of a validated questionnaire,
the mean and standard deviationare determined. The researchers modified this questionnaire and translated itinto
the respondents' mother tongue (Cebuano) for them to comprehend itbetter. The study discovered no significant
relationship between psychosocialfactors and deviant behaviors of children in conflict with the law (CICL) in
theDavao Region
KEYWORDS :Children in Conflict with the Law (CICL), deviant behaviors, psychosocial factors
Entropy: A Join between Science and Mind-SocietyAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Entropy is join, intersection and interaction between natural science and human mind-society.
We proposed that if internal interactions exist in isolated systems, entropy decrease will be possible for this
system. Management in system is a typical internal interaction within the isolated system. The purpose of
management is to use regulating the internal interactions within the system, and to decrease the increasing
entropy spontaneously. We propose the principle of social civilization and the developing direction is: freedom
of thought, rule of action. Both combinations should be a peaceful revision and improvement of social rules and
laws. Different countries and nations, different religions and beliefs should coexist peacefully and compete
peacefully. The evolution of human society must be coevolution. Its foundation is the evolution of the human
heart and the human nature.
KEYWORDS: entropy, science, society, management, mind, evolution.
A Model of Disaster Resilience Among Colleges and Universities: A Mixed Metho...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :This research paper aimed to create a comprehensive framework for measuring disaster
resilience in colleges and universities. The study used a mixed method through Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA), which involved analyzing data from a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed based on
in-depth interviews with 12 selected participants from the University of Mindanao, as well as relevant literature
and studies. It was reviewed and validated by 10 experts using a method called Content Validity Ratio (CVR).
This questionnaire was then administered to 400 students from 10 different colleges in University of Mindanao.
After conducting the Exploratory Factor Analysis and performing rotations and iterations, the researchers
identified five main constructs that characterize disaster resilience among colleges (1) disaster preparedness, (2)
disaster awareness, (3) community readiness, and (4) disaster management, (5) disaster resilience. The
researchers aimed to create an organization called “Council of College Disaster Volunteers (CCDV)” which
consist of student volunteers. These factors can be used to develop effective management strategies and
strengthen efforts in preventing and managing disasters and accidents.
KEYWORDS:content validity ratio, criminology, disaster resilience, disaster management, exploratory factor
analysis, and Philippines.
Environmental Struggles and Justice Among Lumad Farmers of Davao CityAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study described the various environmental struggles experienced among the participants
and their status in accessing justice. The study followed a qualitative multiple-case study approach; the
participants are the Lumad farmers of Marilog, Davao City selected through a Critical sampling method and
aims to present the environmental violations experienced by the Lumad farmers in Davao City and how it
affected their families and sustenance further, their status in accessing justice is also explored. The study
concluded that the most common struggles the participant experience are Illegal logging and improper waste
disposal, which affect their farms, family, health, and income. Their preferred means to accessing justice is
through barangay settlement; the rigors of accessing courts, such as distance, expenses, fear of ruling, and the
hassle of being called to be present in court, are the most prevalent barriers that hinder the lead farmers from
accessing justice or seeking legal action. Nevertheless, the participants believed that the government would help
them in accessing justice.
KEYWORDS :access to justice, criminology,environmental justice, environmental struggles, lumadfarmers
CYBERBULLYING EXPERIENCES OF UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO CRIMINOLOGY STUDENTSAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:This paper explores the cyberbullying experiences among Criminology students at the
University of Mindanao. A simple random sampling method was used to distribute the study's online
questionnaire to the respondents and to survey the target population. This study has four hundred (400)
respondents, and the respondents are Criminology students at the University of Mindanao. The findings of this
study revealed that the level of cyberbullying experiences is sometimes manifested. On the other hand, the
cyberbullying experiences of the students indicate a moderate level, which indicates that the cyberbullying
experiences of the respondents are sometimes manifested. Also, the computations showed that among the
indicators presented, the highest mean is obtained in the psychological effect, which implies that there is a
significant effect of cyberbullying experiences of the respondents in terms of the Gender level of the
respondents. Therefore, respondents with a low level of cyberbullying experiences tend to have a moderate level
of cyberbullying experience. However, there is no significant effect in terms of age and year level of the
respondents according to the results regarding the psychological, emotional, and physical impact of
cyberbullying.
KEYWORDS :cyberbullying, emotional, experiences, psychological,physical effect, and simple random
sampling method.
A philosophical ontogenetic standpoint on superego role in human mind formationAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: One of the most significant contributions of psychoanalysis to understand the human being is the
elaboration of a model about the mind from a topical and dynamic perspective. Freud explains the mind by the
constitution of the preconscious, conscious, and subconscious. Later, by three dynamic components: the id, the
ego and the superego. Such an organization of the psychic apparatus supposes not only individual elements, but
social influences along the process of hominization. In this paper, we recover the findings of the renowned
anthropologist Lewis Morgan, trying to link some of them to the psychoanalytic theory. Especially highlighting
the importance of superego in Haidt’s social intuitionism.
Keywords: evolutionism, intuitionism, psychoanalysis, Freud, Haidt, Morgan
Improving Workplace Safety Performance in Malaysian SMEs: The Role of Safety ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: In the Malaysian context, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) experience a significant
burden of workplace accidents. A consensus among scholars attributes a substantial portion of these incidents to
human factors, particularly unsafe behaviors. This study, conducted in Malaysia's northern region, specifically
targeted Safety and Health/Human Resource professionals within the manufacturing sector of SMEs. We
gathered a robust dataset comprising 107 responses through a meticulously designed self-administered
questionnaire. Employing advanced partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) techniques
with SmartPLS 3.2.9, we rigorously analyzed the data to scrutinize the intricate relationship between safety
behavior and safety performance. The research findings unequivocally underscore the palpable and
consequential impact of safety behavior variables, namely safety compliance and safety participation, on
improving safety performance indicators such as accidents, injuries, and property damages. These results
strongly validate research hypotheses. Consequently, this study highlights the pivotal significance of cultivating
safety behavior among employees, particularly in resource-constrained SME settings, as an essential step toward
enhancing workplace safety performance.
KEYWORDS :Safety compliance, safety participation, safety performance, SME
Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of ForgivenessAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The study explores Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of Forgiveness.
The two variables are regarded to have influence on the decision one makes to forgive another. The study aimed
at examining the relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness, empathy and forgiveness
and to identify which one of the two,Psychological Empowerment or Empathy, is the more powerful predictor of
forgiveness. The study took a survey design with a sample of 350 drawn from a population of university students
using a self-administered questionnaire with four sections: Personal information, Psychological empowerment
scale, Toronto Empathy questionnaire, and the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS). Data analysis employed
Pearson’s product moment correlation and regression analysis to test hypotheses. The results show significant
relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness as well as empathy and forgiveness.
Empathy was found to be the more powerful predictor of forgiveness.
KEY WORDS: Psychological empowerment, empathy, forgiveness
Exploring The Dimensions and Dynamics of Felt Obligation: A Bibliometric Anal...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTARCT: This study presents, to our knowledge, the first bibliometric analysis focusing on the concept of
"felt obligation," examining 120 articles published between 1986 and 2024. The aim of the study is to deepen our
understanding of the existing knowledge in the field of "felt obligation" and to provide guidance for further
research. The analysis is centered around the authors, countries, institutions, and keywords of the articles. The
findings highlight prominent researchers in this field, leading universities, and influential journals. Particularly,
it is identified that China plays a leading role in "felt obligation" research. The analysis of keywords emphasizes
the thematic focuses of these studies and provides a roadmap for future research. Finally, various
recommendations are presented to deepen the knowledge in this area and promote applied research. This study
serves as a foundation to expand and advance the understanding of "felt obligation" in the field.
KEYWORDS: Felt Obligation, Bibliometric Analysis, Research Trends
Les autorités traditionnelles et l’administration coloniale au Tchad : 1900-1960AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : In Africa, traditionalauthorities are the guardians of tradition. Recently, however, they have
been caughtbetween tradition and modernity in the exercise of political power in Chad. However, we are
witnessing the revival of chieftaincy and the hybridization of the politicalpowersexercisedwithinit. In this
cohabitation of powers, traditionalauthorityisescapingitsrole as guardian of tradition.
Traditionalauthorityisthereforepresented in itscurrent state, as a proxy for the modern state in traditional
administrative districts. The aim of thisstudyis to analyze the mutations and adaptability of
traditionalauthorityfrom the pre-colonialperiodthrough the colonial period to the post-colonial period. This
workanalyzes the mutations of authorities. The data collected and processedrevealthattraditionalauthorities have
survivedalmosteverywhere, the former chiefdomsdissolvedduringcolonization have been restored by
republicanheads of state, while more and more frequently civil servants, businessmen, academics and
othermembers of the literateelite, whopreviouslyhad no attraction for the position of traditionalchief, are
beingenthroned.
Key words:Authorities, Administration, colonization, Chad, Kanem.
A Conceptual Analysis of Correlates of Domestic Violence and Adolescent Risky...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The study explores domestic violence and how it influences adolescent risky behavior.
Domestic violence is a devastating social problem resulting in significant and enduring effects on children,
threatening both their health and emotional well-being. The study aimed at examining the relationships between
domestic Violence and Psychological Empowerment, Domestic Violence and Self-esteem, psychological
Empowerment and Self-Regulation, Self Esteem and Psychological empowerment, Self-Esteem and Selfregulation, Self-Regulation and Adolescent Risky Behavior and identify the stronger predictor of self-regulation
between psychological empowerment and Self-esteem. Adolescent respondents who experienced domestic
violence were purposely selected and guided by teachers and administrators who had provided support to these
children.The questionnaire had six sections namely; personal information, the Child Exposure to Domestic
Violence Scale, the Psychological empowerment scale, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Inventory, and the Brief
Self-Control Scale. Data analysis employed Pearson's product-moment correlation (r) to test hypotheses 1,
2,3,4,5, and 6. Regression analysis was used for hypothesis 7.The results show a significant relationship
between domestic Violence and Psychological Empowerment, Domestic Violence and Self-esteem,
psychological Empowerment and Self-Regulation, Self Esteem and Psychological empowerment, Self-Esteem
and Self-regulation, Self-Regulation, and Adolescent Risky Behavior. The study documents that Psychological
empowerment is a stronger predictor of self-regulation than Self-esteem.
KEYWORDS:Domestic violence, psychological empowerment, self-regulation, and Adolescent risky behavior
Driving Sustainable Competitive Advantage Through an Innovative Aggregator Bu...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The aim of the research is to analyze the influence of the aggregation business model on
Sustainable Competitive Advantage (SCA). Through a survey of 216 MSMEs in the creative economy sector
selected randomly using an ex post facto causal research approach, an overview of the aggregator business
model and its impact on financial resources and SCA was obtained. The aggregator business model plays a role
in facilitating increased access to financial resources to meet both available and required working capital for
realizing SCA in Malang's Lokanima area. The strength of ABM lies in understanding the resources needed for
SCA and the effectiveness of mobilizing services while considering the most cost-effective options, including
providing various alternatives in their provision. Financial resources are an important factor supporting the
achievement of SCA. Access to financial resources is key to facilitating business growth and sustainability.
Theoretical implications: The concept of the aggregator business model emphasizes the efficient and effective
collection, aggregation, and distribution of resources in connecting service providers with consumers in an
economical and efficient manner. Practical implications: ABM can enhance the performance of financial
resource provision by optimizing relationships with MSMEs and financial institutions, leading to business
growth and sustainability for MSMEs.
KEYWORDS -Aggregator Business, Creative Economy, Financial Resources, Sustainable Competitive
Advantage
Accuracy of ChatGPT for Basic Values of Trigonometric FunctionsAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : This study analyzes the accuracy of ChatGPT, an artificial intelligence model based on GPT3.5, in determining the values of basic trigonometric functions. To this end, we examine ChatGPT's responses to
sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent values for a wide range of angles. We compare the results provided by
ChatGPT with the accuracy values determined by basic trigonometry. We also explore differences in accuracy
depending on changes in question complexity and given context. The results show a high level of accuracy of
ChatGPT in determining the values of trigonometric functions, especially for common angles. However, it is
noted that accuracy may be affected in certain cases of extreme angles or complex questions. This analysis
provides an important representation of ChatGPT's capabilities in the field of mathematics, using a new method
for testing the accuracy of artificial intelligence models in determining trigonometric values.
Keywords -Accuracy, AI Model, ChatGPT, Trigonometric Functions, Trigonometry
Postmodern Marketing and Its Impact on Traditional Marketing Approaches: Is K...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The essay discusses the concept of postmodern marketing and its impact on marketing theory
and practice. It explores the characteristics of postmodernism, including openness, tolerance, hyper-reality,
fragmentation, and the lack of clear boundaries, and how they challenge traditional marketing approaches. The
paper also looks at the contributions of postmodern marketing to consumer and marketing research and how it
has redefined the way we think about marketing as a science. Ultimately, it raises the question of whether and
how marketing should adapt itself to the new conditions brought about by postmodernism.
KEYWORDS :Postmodernism, Postmodern Marketing, Kotler, Marketing Theory, Postmodern Consumer
Reorientation of Health Service Governance Toward the Fulfillment of Social J...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Health insurance is a human right. At the practical level, this health insurance program in
Indonesia is organized by BPJS Kesehatan (Social Security Administering Body for Health). The
implementation of BPJS Kesehatan is still not optimal and effective. Three problems are discussed in this
writing: the dynamics of health insurance governance in Indonesia, the implementation of the fulfillment of the
right to health by BPJS Kesehatan, and the reorientation of BPJS Kesehatan services toward social justice.
These problems are then answered by scientific research methods using a sociological juridical approach.
Complaintsoften occur regarding the regulations, the services provided by the health facility providers, and the
distance between the community and the health facilities. Such complaints affect the public interest in becoming
BPJS Kesehatan participants. The aforementioned conditions must be considered and evaluated for the
government's success in the aspired national health insurance plan.
KEYWORDS -BPJS Kesehatan, Health Insurance, Social Justice
“To be integrated is to feel secure, to feel connected.” The views and experi...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Although a significant amount of literature exists on Morocco's migration policies and their
successes and failures since their implementation in 2014, there is limited research on the integration of subSaharan African children into schools. This paperis part of a Ph.D. research project that aims to fill this gap. It
reports the main findings of a study conducted with migrant children enrolled in two public schools in Rabat,
Morocco, exploring how integration is defined by the children themselves and identifying the obstacles that they
have encountered thus far. The following paper uses an inductive approach and primarily focuses on the
relationships of children with their teachers and peers as a key aspect of integration for students with a migration
background. The study has led to several crucial findings. It emphasizes the significance of speaking Colloquial
Moroccan Arabic (Darija) and being part of a community for effective integration. Moreover, it reveals that the
use of Modern Standard Arabic as the language of instruction in schools is a source of frustration for students,
indicating the need for language policy reform. The study underlines the importanceof considering the
children‟s agency when being integrated into mainstream public schools.
.
KEYWORDS: migration, education, integration, sub-Saharan African children, public school
Sport et vieillissement : une analyse de la pratique des activités physiques ...AJHSSR Journal
Abstract : The aim of thispaperis to report on the effects of physicalactivity and sport on the health of older
people. Based on a mixed-methodsapproach, several techniques, namelydocumentaryanalysis and semistructured interviews, wereused in thisresearch in order to obtain a range of data thatwasavailable, accessible
and relevant to the subjectunderstudy. This enabled us to arrive at the resultsaccording to which the
stakeholders' perceptions of theirhealth are based on the practice of physicalactivities and sport as a social
construct in a socio-cultural context. Older people see sport as a way of curingillnesses, but above all as a way
of givingtheir bodies vitality. Othersseeit as a way of reinvigoratingthemselvesafter retirement.
Key words: Ageing, Physical activities, Sports activities, Elderly people.
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Comparison of Three Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure Models: A Confirmatory Analysis with Female Population
1. American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2022
A J H S S R J o u r n a l P a g e | 254
American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR)
e-ISSN :2378-703X
Volume-06, Issue-07, pp-254-263
www.ajhssr.com
Research Paper Open Access
Comparison of Three Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure
Models: A Confirmatory Analysis with Female Population
1
Kristy L. LaMar, Ph.D., 2
Helen N. Rolle, Ph.D.,
3
Tevni E. Grajales, Ph.D.
1
(Assistant Professor, Counseling & Psychology/ Alabama A&M University, USA)
2
(Path To Wellness Counseling & Psychological Services, Bahamas)
3
(Professor, Research & Statistical Methodology/ Andrews University, USA)
ABSTRACT: This article investigates whether the MEIM can measure and identify the ethnic identity of
multiple groups at a time. It also explores whether the MEIM contains a two factor or three factor subscale.
Further, this article examines which version of the MEIM is best suited for measuring ethnic identity.
Discussion regarding a comparison of models by Roberts, Sobansky, and Yap is presented. Additionally, the
study indicates that the Yap et al. bi-factor model is the best fit to the data. The least two fitted models, the
Roberts et al Model and Sobansky et al Model have marginal results, which suggest the consideration of some
model adjustments to make the models more defensible. Finally, the article shows that among the three MEIM
models used (Roberts, Sobansky, and Yap), that the Yap et al. bi-factor model is best suited for measuring
ethnic identity as it is the only model that achieves the criteria for non-significant χ2 and satisfactory Fit Indexes
for both groups--African American and Black American.
KEYWORDS: Identity, Ethnicity, Black Women, African American
I. INTRODUCTION
To date, several theorists have developed models in attempts to measure ethnic identity. Ethnic identity
refers to one’s particular ethnic group and sense of belonging, thinking, perceptions, feelings, and behaviors
toward their ethnic group membership. Yap et al. [1] defined ethnic identity as thoughts and feelings about one’s
ethnic group membership and its importance to the self. Positive ethnic identity has been linked to aspects of
positive adjustment, self-esteem, subjective well-being, and reduced depressive symptoms [1, 2]. Ethnic identity
is considered a critical component of the self-concept and crucial to the psychological well-being of members of
an ethnic group; however, questions remain about what ethnic identity is and how it should be measured [3, 4].
One of the most popular models of ethnic identity development is the theory of Nigrescence put forth
by William E. Cross [5]. Nigrescence is a word of Latin origin that describes a process of becoming black or
developing a racial identity. First detailed in 1971, the model related the transition of Black identity through a
five-stage acquisition, Black Identification, or the process of becoming Black. The five stages include Pre-
encounter, Encounter, Immersion/Emersion, Internalization, and Internalization-Commitment. Though Cross’
model was geared toward Black people, it led to many theories thereafter [6]. Phinney [7] proposed a three-stage
model of ethnic identity development, developed to study teenage and adolescent populations, which included
Unexamined Ethnic Identity, Ethnic Identity Search/Moratorium, and Ethnic Identity Achievement. In the first
stage, individuals have a lack of interest in exploring their ethnic background. The second stage a harsh or
indirect event precipitates development of a person’s ethnic identity. In the third and final stage, the individual
comes to terms with who they are and gains a clear sense of their ethnic identity.
The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) is a 12-item survey questionnaire that focuses on
assessing ethnic identity commitment initially developed by Phinney with 14 items [8]. Previously existing
measures of racial or ethnic identity have focused specifically on the ethnic behaviors and practices of a
particular group. The MEIM is unique in that it was developed to assess the general components of ethnic
identity across different groups comparatively. Elements common to a wide range of ethnic groups including (a)
ethnic self-identification, (b) degree of involvement in social activities with members of the individual’s ethnic
group and participation in cultural traditions, (c) sense of belonging to an ethnic group and attitudes toward the
group, and (d) ethnic identity achievement form the basis of the MEIM [8] Administered to 417 high school
students and 136 college students from ethnically diverse schools, reliability for the questionnaire measure was
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assessed by Cronbach’s alpha which was .81 for high school students and .90 for the college students. However,
Phinney later revised the MEIM from its one-factor configuration of the 12 items to include two factors. The
first factor (ethnic identity search) is developmental and cognitive component. The second factor (affirmation,
belonging, and commitment) is an affective component. Items 1, 2, 4, 8, and 10 comprise ethnic identity search,
while affirmation, items 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, and 12 make affirmation, belonging, and commitment.
The MEIM has become one of the most widely used measures of ethnic identity. This self-reported
measure was designed for use with members of various ethnic groups and purported to capture aspects of ethnic
identity equally applicable across ethnic groups. The challenge has been whether the MEIM is able to measure
and identify the ethnic identity of multiple groups at a time and whether it contains a two factor or three factor
subscale.
Roberts, et al. [3] sought to clarify the construct of ethnic identity through examination of the structure
and validity of the MEIM. The researchers found the MEIM to have complex two-factor structure. The first,
commitment and sense of belonging constitute the first factor (items 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, and 12) and the second
component (items 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10) “involves the process through which individuals explore, learn about, and
become involved in their ethnic group”. (p.316). The structure in which one measured item loaded on two
different factors complicates the way in which the subscale is scored because the items would need to be
included in both scale scores. In addition, Roberts [3] also found, as did Brown [9] and Muso [10], that
European Americans scored significantly lower on ethnic identity than did minority groups. This has been
explained by the fact that European Americans, as a part of the majority or dominant group, may not feel the
need to identify themselves ethnically. In another look at the MEIM-R using 1,463 participants in a health care
setting, Brown, et al. [9] found the notion of ethnic identity to be most salient among people of color.
While the MEIM has become a widely used instrument for measuring ethnic identity, it is not without
criticism. In evaluating the factorial structure of the MEIM, Yap, et al. [1] sampled students from 30 different
colleges and universities across the United States to examine the possibility of measurement invariance in the
MEIM across ethnic groups. Similarly, Brown et al., [9] Debated whether the measurement properties of the
MEIM should be confirmed before using it in diverse samples cross specific racial and ethnic groups. It appears
that the factors of the MEIM are not distinctive in particular groups.
In a study of 1,970 student participants, Sobansky et al. [11], examined whether the construct of ethnic
identity, as measured by the MEIM-R, was similar among white or non-white ethnic groups and to examine the
relationship of ethnic identity to other demographic and psychological variables such as age, gender, grade,
academic achievement, and self-esteem. The researchers found that the MEIM-R should be used with caution as
the results for one ethnic group may not be comparable to results for another ethnic group as the MEIM-R is not
invariant across groups. Based on the results of this study, a new version of the scale emerges named Sobansky
Model (MEIM-S) with two factors the first constituted by items 4, 8, and 10 known as Exploration and items 4,
5, 6, 9, 11, and 12 constituting the second factor Affirmation-belonging-commitment (A-B-C).
Yap, et al. [1] conducted a study of the MEIM with 30 different colleges and universities across the
United States consisting of 9,625 participants of five different ethnic groups (White, Black, Hispanic, East
Asian, and South Asian). In this study, pertaining to whether the MEIM measures the same construct in the
same way across different ethnic groups, testing for measurement invariance, it was found that the instrument
contained configural and metric invariance in favor of a bi-or two-factor model to test for this invariance due to
superior model fit. Configural invariance refers to whether the number of factors and the particular items that
load on to each factor are similar across groups. Metric invariance, also weak invariance, refers to whether the
factor loadings for the items on their respective factor are equal across groups. The Yap, et al bifactor model
specified that “each item loads on a general ethnic identity factor and one of two orthogonal substantive factors
following Roberts et al. [3] exploration (items 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, and 12) /commitment (items 1, 2, 4, 8, and 10)
model” (p. 440).In replicating the original factor structure of the MEIM, Mastrotheodoros et al. [12], tested it for
invariance between Bulgarian, Dutch, and Greek ethnicity samples with 901 participants. Results indicated
measurement invariance but key differences in factor means and inter-correlations among ethnic groups
suggests the MEIM “works” but that dimensions of ethnic identity differ across ethnic groups [12].
All studies seem to indicate that there are culturally relevant differences pertaining to the MEIM
factors. This may be due to the function or perception of ethnic identity between groups or exposure to identity
issues which may support Roberts [3] theory pertaining to ethnicity identity development process. For example,
results of the MEIM among white individuals seem to regularly produce low scores, which may be because
white individuals do not think of themselves as “ethnic.” This fact alone changes how they view the questions.
In addition, as mentioned in Roberts [3], those from the majority culture or dominant group, in particular whites,
may not feel the need to identify themselves ethnically as they are the norm within society.
The purpose of this study is to explore the question regarding the dimensional structure of the MEIM
and to document use of Structural Equation Modeling to compare Robert’s two factors model (MEIM-R),
Sobansky’s MEIM-S two factors (ABC-Exploration), and the Yap et al. bifactor model. Confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) is used to determine the construct validity of the MEIM and to examine the cultural invariance
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of these models in order to know whether a two- or three factor dimension use of the instrument best serves its
purpose.
II. METHODOLOGY
Participants
The sample was composed of 322 females raised in the United States and who identified themselves as
African American or Black. More than half of the sample, 52%, identified ethnically as African American (N =
168), 37.5% identified as Black (N = 37.5), 6.2% identified as Biracial (N = 20), and 4.3% identified as being
Multiracial (N = 14). This sample was recruited after IRB approval using a convenience sample in QuestionPro,
an online survey tool. QuestionPro asserts to providing high quality sample responses from their database
network that consists of over 6 million active members, pre-screened and qualified for providing quality online
data collection. According to QuestionPro, all members who complete the survey are eligible for a reward.
Members earn points which they can redeem for gift cards from various retailers. Additionally, QuestionPro
updates their database to add new respondents in an attempt to decrease over participation and monitors its site
in an attempt to reduce duplication or fraud.
Instrument
The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) is a one-page questionnaire composed of 12 items
which is the most widely used measure of ethnic identity designed to measure the following general components
of ethnic identity: (a) ethnic self-identification, (b) degree of involvement in social activities with members of
the individual’s ethnic group and participation in cultural traditions, (c) sense of belonging to an ethnic group
and attitudes toward the group, and (d) EI achievement [8]. In calculating the Cronbach’s alpha for the scale,
Phinney found an overall reliability for the MEIM of over .80.
Data Analysis
The data collected were initially screened using SPSS v.24 to identify missing cases and outliers.
Descriptive statistics was used to describe the demographic characteristics of the participants, the variables,
correlation coefficients among the variables, and coefficients of reliability scales and subscales. IBM SPSS
Amos 21.0.0 was used for the confirmatory factor analysis to compare the structural validity and cultural
invariance of the models. The database was used for a confirmatory factor analysis of the structure of each of
the three proposed models and to assess their configural and metric invariance across Black American and
African American. Basic criteria for model testing were to have a non-significant Chi square, or Fit Index > .90
and RMSEA <. 07, and SRMR <.05. Configural invariance implies the scores of MEIM are best represented by
the same number of factors across different groups, Metric invariance requires that items factor loadings being
equal across groups.
III. RESULTS
As was already indicated, the first step consisted in diagramming and testing the three models in a
confirmatory factor approach. The first model tested was Robert’s [3] as it is described in Figure 1. The χ2
=
182.50, with 52 degrees of freedom was significant (<.001). The SRMR was marginal (.07) similar to the
RMSEA (.09). Both fit indices the CFI (.93) and GFI (.91) were found acceptable.
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Figure 1. Roberts’ Model
Figure 2. Sobansky’s Model
Figure 3. Yap’s Bifactor Model
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The second model tested was Sobansky’s [11] that comprised of two factors: ABC (Affirmation-
Belonging-Commitment) and Exploration. It’s assumed that this model is nested in Robert’s 1999 model with
only nine of the original set of items. See Figure 2. The χ2
= 114.57, with 26 degrees of freedom was significant
(<.001). The SRMR is marginal (.07) but the RMSEA (.10) is above the recommended criteria (LO90 =.08 and
HI90 =.12). Both fit indices the CFI (.93) and GFI (.92) are acceptable.
The third model tested was Yap’s et al. [1] Bifactor Model (See Figure 3). This is a hierarchical model
referred to by other names as well, including nested-factors or direct hierarchical model [13]. Yap’s bifactor
model has a non-significant χ2
= 114.57, with 26 degrees of freedom (p=.08) Both the SRMR (.03) and the
RMSEA (.03) indicate that the model fit the data well, with additional support of outstanding CFI (.99) and GFI
(.97).
These findings suggest that Yap’s bifactor model has the best fit, followed by Roberts. The Sobansky
model is the least parsimonious of the three models with 26 degrees of freedom and faces some challenges
explaining the error variance (See Table 1).
Table 1
Fit Indices for CFA Across Initial Models (N=322)
Model χ2
df CFI GFI RMSEA SRMR AIC BIC
Roberts et al.* 182.534
(p=.000)
53 .926 .910 .088 .0697 234.537 326.897
Sobansky et al. 114.572
(p=.000)
26 .928 .922 .103 .0675 152.572 224.289
Yap et al.** 55.531
(p=.071)
43 .992 .973 .032 .0276 127.531 263.414
Note: *Roberts model has a non-significant item for exploration, **Yap model has a non-significant χ2
making
evident a fitted model however five negative loadings, and two non-significant items one for exploration and
other for commitment.
However, each one of the models has some issues for concern. The Yap et al. model has the best fit
with a non-significant χ2
= (55.531, df = 42) and SRMR = .03 and the smaller AIC (126.53), but this model has
one item (9) that is not significant indicators of its Commitment factor. Additionally, there is no clear
explanation of the theoretical and practical meaning of the negative loading that item 11 has in Commitment
(See Table 2).
Both Roberts et al. and Sobansky’s model failed to achieve the RMSEA <.05 and the SRMR <.05
criteria making evident that these models do not explain an important portion of the residuals of the empirical
and the theoretical covariance matrices.
Table 2
Confirmatory Factor Analysis MEIM item Loadings by models compared to published loadings (in parenthesis)
in previous studies.
Items Roberts (1999) Sobansky (2010) Yap (2014)
Affirmation Exploration ABC Exploration EC General
1. Spend time to learn .67
(.53)
.63
(.56)
.54
(.42)
.40 (.53)
2. Active in ethnic
organization
.57
(.79)
.56
(.14)
.27 (.45)
3. Clear sense of ethnic
background
.62
(.56) (.26)
.27
(.17)
.58 (.71)
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4. Think about group
membership
.64
(.54)
.60
(.63)
.59
(.41)
.34 (.53)
5. Happy to be member .71
(.88)
.68
(.49)
.28
(.67)
.66 (.50)
6. Sense of belonging to
group
.75
(.43)
.70
(.67)
.32
(.47)
.71 (.70)
7. Understand group
membership
.80
(.67)
.35
(.38)
.75 (.72)
8. Talk to other about group .74
(.54)
.71
.59)
.63
(.44)
.43 (.66)
9. Pride in ethnic group .79
(.79)
.81
(.67)
.11
(.39)
.77 (.71)
10. Participate in cultural
practices
.71
(.66)
.76
(.63)
.32
(.03)*
.67 (.77)
11. Strong attachment to group .75
(.51)
.79
(.77)
-.41
(.22)
.91 (.84)
12. Feel good about culture .76
(.84)
.77
(.57)
-.15
(.43)
.73 (.66)
Note: * sig>.05, **sig>.10
ABC = Affirmation, Belonging, and Commitment
EC = Exploration and Commitment
Comparison of item loadings as Roberts et al reported them in 1999 indicates that the Spearman correlation
between the reported loadings and the observed loadings is not significant for affirmation (.13) and exploration
(.09). Items have significant correlation between loadings for Sobansky’s model subscale Affirmation,
Belonging, and Commitment (.67), and for Yap et al. model general (.74) and exploratory (.70) scales only.
Tables 2 & 3.
The observed items loadings in Sobansky are higher (between .68 and .81) in comparison to the
reported loadings (between .49 and .77) for ABC, and the same for exploration reported .56 to .63 and observed
.60 to .76. In Roberts model the observed loadings have some noticeable differences. Item 3 was reported by
Roberts as indicator for both Exploration (.26) and Affirmation (.56) however in this study Item 3 is significant
indicator for Affirmation (.62) additionally differences between the loading published for items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 11
and the observed loadings are higher than .17 and in case of item 6 the difference is .32. The Bi-factor Yap et al.
model reported positive loadings for all the items in contrast with a negative loading observed for commitment
subscale on item 11 (-.41) (See Table 2). Reliability of the scales measured by Pearson’s alpha is strong in all
the scales for the three models ranging from .78 to .89.
Table 3
Correlation between reported and observed loadings per scale and observed scale’s reliability
Model Scales Loading Correlation (Spearman R) Reliability (alpha)
Roberts et al.
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Affirmation .13 .89
Exploration .09 .79
Sobansky
ABC .67* .86
Exploratory .11 .78
Yap et al.
General .74* .88
Exploratory .70* .80
Commitment .07 .89
Note: * sig>.05
In order to test the cultural invariance of each model, CFA analysis was performed with two groups in the
sample. The first group is comprised of 168 female African Americans, the second group is constituted by 154
Black Americans (Black, Biracial, and Multiracial). Each model without modification was tested in each group
separately. Results are summarized in Table 4.
Table 4
Fit Indices for CFA Across Models by African American (n=168) and Black American (n= 154)
Model χ2
df CFI GFI RMSEA SRMR AIC BIC
Roberts et al.
AA 126.757 53 .917 .884 .091 .0798 176.757 254.856
BA 124.772 53 .919 .882 .094 .0740 174.772 250.
Sobansky
AA 71.946 26 .922 .913 .103 .0763 109.946 169.302
BA 84.737 26 .911 .888 .122 .0766 122.737 197.439
Yap et al*
AA 59.046 43 .981 .944 .048 .0430 129.117 239.056
BA 51.165 43 .990 .948 .037 .0354 121.919 228.212
Note: AA = African American, BA = Black American, *Yap model has a negative error variance (Heywood
case in e6) for Item 11.
Results show that all the Yap et al Bi-factor model is the only one that achieves the criteria for non-significant χ2
and satisfactory Fit Indexes for both groups African American and Black American with the clarification that
this model has a zero variance for the error term in item 11 due to Heywood case.
Roberts et al. model and Sobansky et al. model have mixed results. The χ2
is significant <.05 in every
case with SRMR between .07 and .08, their CFI are >.90 but the GFI are between .88 and .91 and the RMSEA
are poorly around ,09. These results suggest that these models behave the same way as it was for the general
population when analyzed separately for both cultural group with the same strength and weakness. The
proposed factor structures stay the same in every case, but the factor loadings are slightly different as reported in
Tables 5, 6 and 7.
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Table 5
Item factor loadings of Roberts’ Model by overall
study population and ethnicity
Affirmation Exploration
Item Overall AA BA Overall AA BA
1 .67 .74 .58
2 .57 .58 .56
3 .62 .68 .57
4 .64 .61 .71
5 .71 .72 .69
6 .75 .77 .73
7 .80 .81 .79
8 .74 .71 .79
9 .79 .74 .84
10 .71 .70 .70
11 .75 .69 .81
12 .76 .71 .80
Table 6
Item factor loadings of Sobansky’s Model by
overall study population and ethnicity
ABC Exploration
Item Overall AA BA Overall AA BA
1 .63 .71 .57
2
3
4 .60 .57 .68
5 .68 .70 .67
6 .70 .71 .70
7
8 .71 .69 .78
9 .81 .78 .85
10 .76 .74 .73
11 .79 .74 .85
12 .77 .75 .78
Table 7
Item loadings for factors of Yap’s Model by overall study population and ethnicity
Exploration Commitment General
Item Overall AA BA Overall AA BA Overall AA BA
1 .54 .58 .44 .40 .47 .35
2 .56 .60 .48 .27 .25 .28
3 .27 .22 .35 .58 .65 .51
4 .59 .57 .67 .34 .32 .36
5 .28 .25 .27 .66 .67 .68
6 .32 .34 .28 .71 .73 .70
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7 .35 .35 .35 .75 .76 .74
8 .63 .58 .71 .43 .42 .44
9 .11 .12 .07 .77 .72 .83
10 .32 .30 .30 .67 .67 .68
11 -.41 -.48 -.33 .91 .87 .94
12 .15 .06 .24 .73 .69 .76
Differences between African American and Black American in factors loadings for the Yap’s higher than .10
were observed in seven items. For the General factor three (1, 3, and 9), for Commitment three (3, 11, and 12)
and for Exploration another three (1, 2, and 8). In this particular case items 1 and 3 have differences in both the
General factor and the Specific factor.
IV. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION
The purpose of this article is to investigate whether the MEIM is able to measure and identify the
ethnic identity of multiple groups at a time; and whether it contains a two factor or three factor subscale. It is
also to make clearer which version of the MEIM is best suited for measuring ethnic identity. This study is
supported by the data gathered in which the above stated research shows that among the three MEIM models
used (Roberts, Sobansky, and Yap), that the Yap et al. bi-factor model is best suited for measuring ethnic
identity as it is the only model that achieves the criteria for non-significant χ2
and satisfactory Fit Indexes for
both groups--African American and Black American.
The aforementioned study indicates that the Yap et al Bi-factor model is the best fit to the data, (χ2
non-
significant, SRMR <.07); however, there are some issues pending in order to improve the viability of the model
such as making clearer what are the conceptual definitions for each of the two subscales Commitment and
Exploration. The least two fitted models, the Roberts et al Model and Sobansky et al Model have marginal
results (Significant χ2
and marginal SRMR, RMSEA), which suggest the consideration of some model
adjustments to make the models more defensible. It is noted that one advantage of these models is that both are
organized in a more simple and parsimonious way making the definition and interpretation of the subscales
easier.
The cross-cultural metric and configural invariance findings suggest each of the three models preserve
their proposed factor structure for both African American and Black American women; however, metric
invariance is not supported by these results. The Sobansky Model seems to behave in a better way in
comparison to the other models. Item 1 is a problem for the three models, item 3 represents a problem for
Roberts and Yap, and item 4 is problematic for the Roberts and Sobansky Models.
The results of this study are limited to African American and Black American women ages 18 years old
and above. Further studies are needed with various populations, ages, and genders; as well as male populations
and non-American populations to investigate the relationship of ethnic identity among different groups and to
further examine which Model is best suited for measuring ethnic identity to provide additional clarity to the
causes for some non-significant indicators, negative loadings, Heywood cases, and marginal Fit Indexes. For
these reasons, it is currently recommended that any of the listed Models (Roberts, Sobansky, and Yap) be used
with caution. It is our hope that more studies with differing populations will lead to greater understanding of
each Model, and which is best suited for the purposes of measuring aspects of ethnic identity.
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