This document is a research paper examining Canadian charter schools and their potential role in evolving concepts of citizenship education. It provides background on charter schools in Canada, noting they were first established in Alberta in 1994 and are autonomous public schools intended to improve student learning through innovative teaching methods. The paper reviews literature on the benefits charter schools may provide, such as more inclusive learning communities and opportunities for democratic development. It also discusses perceived challenges, such as concerns about lack of oversight. The purpose of the paper is to contribute to discussions around education reform and citizenship education in Canada.

1. EDU6422: Final Research Paper
Taking a Look at Canadian Charter Schools as a Space for
Evolving Concepts of Citizenship Education
For: Prof. Farhat Shahzad
By: Andrea Lagalisse (2992863)
2/14/2012

2. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…1
Taking a Look at Canadian Charter Schools as a Space for Evolving Concepts
of Citizenship Education
Lagalisse, A.
Introduction
My initial interest in charter schools arose out of an investigation into alternative education
opportunities in Canada as part of a wider desire for educational reform. Charter schools in
Canada are defined as “…autonomous public schools that would provide innovative or enhanced
means of delivering education in order to improve student learning” (Alberta Learning (AL),
2002. p. 1). To date, Alberta is the only Canadian province or territory to try out the charter
method. This study will consist of critical discourse involving historical contextual analysis to
situate the Charter School experience in Alberta. I will attempt to discover what place the
charter school system holds in the Alberta educational system, how charter schools in Alberta
have developed and not developed, and what experts and communities are saying about the
Abstract
This paper examines the emergence of the charter school system in Canada and its perceived
associated benefits and drawbacks. Employing critical discourse through a literature review, the
author investigates the experiences and climate of the charter school project in Alberta and how
charter schools may be able to contribute to an emerging discourse in education reform that
champions critical thinking, inclusivity, community, and increased opportunities for authentic
citizenship education and democratic development in Canadian public schooling.

3. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…2
charter school experiment in Alberta. I will do so in the context of contributing to the
reimagining and evolution of citizenship education in Canada. In doing so, I hope to increase
interest in the changing norms of schooling and in inquiring into issues of authority, power,
socialization, and culture in the context of developing the citizens of the future.
My research questions are
1) What are charter schools and how do they operate?
2) What are some of the benefits and challenges of charter school system in Canada?
3) Can charter schools provide a space, or bridge, for evolving concepts of citizenship
education and democratic thinking?
Methodology
I employ critical discourse through an intensive literature review. Speaking with fellow students
and researchers, I had noticed that there seemed to be a lack of interest or understanding of
charter schools in Canadian education discourse. By reviewing the charter school experiment in
Alberta since its inception in 1994 and the discourse and important changes in the 20 years that
followed, I hoped to activate what Van Dijk calls the role of discourse in the “(re)production and
challenge of dominance…defined here as the exercise of social power by elites, institutions or
groups, that results in social inequality” (1993, p. 249).
Reviewing a sample of the relatively underrepresented aspect of alternative education
opportunities will be helpful because it will increase understanding and discussion about charter
schools in Canada, as well as offer insights on how to ensure that these schools are increasingly
able to provide authentic and accessible alternatives to traditional public and private school
education across the country. This will contribute to the discourse in education reform as well

4. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…3
and foster understanding of the nature of charter schools and the opportunities they present to
bridge traditional schooling with alternate forms in order to better serve students.
Why look at charter schools?
An important theme in education research centres on examining the social fabric of learning
communities, and in gaining better understanding the purposes of education in a democratic
society. As Guo notes, Canadian curriculum standards vary from province to province and are
“strongly shaped by nationalist orientation” (2013, p. 8). Tupper and Cappello point out that a
major “goal” of schools has and continues to be “the formation of particular kinds of subjects,”
particularly citizens who are “responsible to the state and inherently governable (2010, p.
339/348). They suggest that to counter hegemonic influences it is necessary to offer students
“(un)usual narratives of citizenship which subvert false universalism and draw attention to the
differential formation of subjects” (Tupper & Cappello, 2010, p. 358). The adaptation and
expansion of charter school systems may be one way to promote the kind of differentiation that
they are suggesting.
Cook and Westheimer (2006) highlight how traditional public school curriculum discourse in
Canada privileges “…older, dominant cultural assumptions that implicitly locate problems in
certain ‘uncivilized’ individuals rather than in the struggles for democratic social relations”
(p.351). Charter schools can be seen as a way to step out of this normalizing impulse of the post-
industrial nation-state mentality towards a ‘multidimensional citizenship” as envisioned by
Osborne (2000) that recognizes and incorporates the personal, social, temporal and spatial
dimensions of being a citizen in the world (p. 24). In investigating the Charter Schools I wished
to inquire as to how and whether they could offer an authentic alternative to current public
school programs in Canada in the context of developing the citizens of the future.

5. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…4
Situating charter schools in Canada
The reality in education is that throughout the Western world, student achievement has
plummeted (Ritchie, 2010, p.5). In 1997, near the beginning of the charter school experiment in
Alberta, Canada ranked “among the world’s education leaders” in spending on education (Clark,
W., 2001, 100 Years of education, p. 7). Guo notes that increased interconnectedness and
technology, and diversity in classrooms means that the landscape of Canadian classrooms is
changing (2013, p. 8). Researches notes that there is a growing “democratic deficit” that is
especially seen among the youth and young adult population (Cook and Westheimer, 2006, p.
349).
The international trend of increasing conservatism and also of increasing pluralism has
been cited as a factor contributing to the trend in charter and other alternative education funding
(Wagner, 1999. p. 54). Westheimer (2010) laments a “troubling trend: much of current education
reform is limiting the ways teachers can develop the kinds of attitudes, skills, knowledge, and
habits necessary for a democratic society to flourish” (p. 6). Charter schools present an
opportunity to bridge the difference between traditional public schooling and future possibilities
in alternative education. It is notable that as of 2010, there were 13 charter schools (of a possible
15) in operation over 22 campuses, student enrollment has increased consistently, and waiting
lists to enroll that are in the thousands are considered normal (Ritchie, 2010, p.12-13). This
indicates that there is a place as well as the social will for charter schools to grow in the realm of
Canadian education. I often wondered why charter schools have been restricted to Alberta only.
It seems to me, like Toma and Zimmer (2012) state, that
at the end of the day, we must recognize that families are choosing charter schools…the
choice is voluntary….but beyond achievement effects, our observation that the movement

6. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…5
is voluntary suggests that the research community should be creatively searching for
ways in which to measure the benefits perceived by families. (Two decades of charter
schools, p. 212).
This leads me to wonder: why haven't other provinces or territories tried to implement their own
charter school experiments? Also, why there was a cap on how many charter schools could be in
operation in the province at any one time? More research is needed to answer these questions
properly.
Perceived benefits of charter schools in Alberta
Westheimer and Cook (2006) note that in Canada, the “belief in the fundamental importance of
schooling for democracy” was a key factor in the development of public education (p. 351).
However, it is arguable that public schools in Canada have not been able to provide for the
diverse nature of Canadian populations in a way that can build strong communities. Gardner
(1990) imagines a new conception of communities that incorporate heterogeneity, are responsive
to change, are pluralistic and adaptive, are inclusive and in touch with the world, and that
“consciously foster the norms and values that will ensure their continued integrity” (p. 40).
Charter schools offer an opportunity to build these types of communities and shift public
education discourse and practice towards more holistic and inclusive concepts of citizenship and
democratic development and thinking.
Charter schools in Canada are defined as “…autonomous public schools that would
provide innovative or enhanced means of delivering education in order to improve student
learning” (Alberta Learning (AL), 2002. p. 1). Charter schools receive the same funding as other
public schools, and are non-religious and non-profit, and require teachers to be certified (AL,

7. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…6
2002, p. 3- 4). Charter school champions argue that “…student and parent demand for the
choices charter schools provide will increase and public schools will fight for the flexibility
charter schools enjoy” (Bosetti, L. 2010, p.101). Examples of charter schools that are in
operation in Alberta today include programs such as: the Calgary Arts Academy ( offers an art-
immersion curriculum); Mother Earth’s Children’s Charter School (has a focus on indigenous
teachings); the Suzuki Charter School (places focus on academic, musical and personal
excellence); the Valhalla Community School (is focussed on rural leadership); and the Connect
Charter School (privileges an inquiry-based, technology-rich environment) (Association of
Alberta Charter Schools website, ‘Our Members’). They offer a wide variety of programs that
cater to a diverse population, from more generalized specialization programs like arts or music,
to capitalizing on technology, and even trying to incorporate traditional indigenous teaching and
learning methods into a public school setting to try and better serve a local community with a
large indigenous population rather than force them to adapt to existing structures that have
proved incapable and unwilling to include them in any real way.
Perceived drawbacks and difficulties of charter schools in Alberta
Not long after the unveiling of the charter program and its vision, Global Learning Academy,
one of the largest schools, had to shut down. In an article in Maclean’s magazine, the author
notes the political, social and economic difficulties that led to this demise:
…no one thought that these schools would be turned into political orphans, abandoned by
a provincial government that was retrenching, hung out to dry by local school boards who
resented the charters as grant-snatchers and private-school wanna-bes. "The provincial
government had the original vision," says Lynn Bosetti, director of the Centre for Gifted
Education at the University of Calgary. "But then the minister changed and other key

8. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…7
people left, and it is not clear now where the ministry is going. The problems you see
now are all issues of governance." (Sheppard, R., 1998, p. 52.)
It appeared that there were significant barriers preventing the charter school experiment in
Alberta from achieving its goal to offer authentic alternatives to its students. Further research is
needed into why this has happened and how to move forward in amending the charter system,
but that is beyond the scope of this paper, and to be saved for another time.
The charter school experiment in Alberta: 20 years in
Since the inception of the charter program in 1994, there have been several in-depth studies and
projects intended to monitor and improve charter schools. In 2009, the Alberta Government
released a concept paper that outlines how “Alberta Education envisions charter schools as
catalysts for critical thinking about education. Many people offer the Minister advice on how to
improve education; the next generation of charter schools would act as pilots or incubators and
could let the Minister test the best of these ideas” (Government of Alberta, Charter Schools
Concept Paper, 2009, p. 2). In this newer vision for charter schools, teachers and administrators
could play a larger role in the professional development of others as well as in the development
of educational theory and practice. They could serve as mentors to teachers and administrators in
other schools (Charter Schools Concept Paper, 2009, p. 2-3). This is exciting because it is
looking forward, anticipating change is coming, albeit slowly, but recognizing the need to learn
from past mistakes and set up for future successes.
This amendment shows attempts toward reflexivity in practice in line with current
discourse that engages in reflective practice which encourages active, inquiry-based learning,
fostering critical literacy, taking multiple perspectives, and providing “authentic opportunities for

9. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…8
students to become responsible and competent citizens in meaningful ways” (Guo, L.,2013, p. 9).
By recognizing the evolving nature of the charter school experiment, with the aim of improving
rather than removing the alternatives charter schools offer, expiry on the charter school
regulations stay on the path toward creating more diverse education alternatives to Canadian
students. This aligns with current sentiment in education research that there is need to shift away
from traditional hegemonic and exclusionary framework of citizenship debate towards one that
champions “participative, critical and democratic involvement in public life” (Osborne, 2000, p.
25).
In Ritchie’s “Innovation in action: an examination of charter schools in Alberta” she
outlines challenges that include but are not limited to; the restrictive nature and instability
created by the charter renewal process whereby schools must reapply for status every five years,
difficulties in acquiring premises due to restrictions on public land and building grants, and
opposition from those who believe charter schools serve niche markets and are exclusive (The
West in Canada Research Series, 2010. p. 18-19). The charter school program has shown that it
recognizes the need to change and adapt in order to achieve the true purpose of providing
authentic alternatives to its students and families.
The 2012 review of the Charter Schools Regulations recognized some the difficulties
posed by the five-year renewal system and renegotiated it to allow for a long-term renewal after
an initial five-year term, noting that “with the ability to access renewal terms of 15 years, charter
schools with a demonstrated record of success will be able to focus less on administration and
more on student learning and school improvement” (Alberta Governments, (2012) Questions and
answers: Changes to the charter school regulations, p. 1). The 2012 amendment is indicative of
the will of charter school proponents to keep trying in spite of the setbacks encountered from

10. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…9
various sources, and should be recognized as an example of the slow progressive change that is
typical of entrenched systems.
Conclusion: The future of charter schools in Canadian public education
It is important to recognize that the landscape and meanings of education are changing, and that
they must continue evolving alongside Canadian populations and cultures if Canadian society is
to thrive, represent and further grow its reputation as a champion of diversity, inclusivity and
democracy. Educators, administrators, parents and young people are reaching for change in the
norms of education towards systems that are reflective of the authentic diversity that supports the
development of involved citizens (Osborne, 2000; Bosetti, 2010; Toma & Zimmer, 2012;
Ritchie, 2010; Westheimer, 2006,). There is a desire for and support for concepts of learning that
are active, critically engaging of youth, relevant and supportive of the creation of global
citizenship (Gardner, 1990; Westheimer, 2006; Cook & Westheimer, 2012; Guo, 2013).
Lack of interest and participation in democratic processes and student dissatisfaction,
plummeting student achievement and apathy are the result of the traditional citizenship education
in Canadian schools, and the prevailing feeling is that current education reform is limiting the
ways in which educators can provide opportunities to develop the skills and attitudes needed for
democratic societies to thrive (Clark, 2001; Ritchie, 2010; Westheimer, 2010). Charter schools
can offer the alternatives not present in current public schools if the local and regional
communities support progressive change and educational reform. However, difficulties are often
encountered in the form of social, political and national resistance to change (Shepperd, 1998;
Ritchie, 2010; Tupper & Cappello, 2010).

11. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…10
Charter schools can offer an alternative to traditionally envisioned public schools in Canada
by creating safe spaces for opening up daily teaching practices in ways that enable youth
engagement, support critical thinking and inquiry (Bosetti, 2001; Government of Alberta, 2009,
2012). The charter school experiment in Alberta is an important component in challenging
traditional discourses of citizenship and education in Canada, one step in a major shift in
discourse and practice towards promoting diversity and providing opportunities for the
development and expression of authentic citizenship in Canadian education.

12. Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…11
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