This document summarizes research on child labor in the gemstone polishing industry in Jaipur, India. It finds that boys are more likely to work than girls, often for longer hours and acquiring higher skills. While work and school compete for boys' time, work does not deter girls from schooling as much. Parents expect boys to eventually take over the family gemstone business, while girls are expected to help support their future families through gemstone work but not make long careers of it. The informal skills acquisition system in gemstone polishing provides some benefits but is imperfect, while the formal school system is poorly accessed and low quality. Improving education quality, accessibility, and linking it to future employability could help address drivers

1. Child Labour in the Gemstones
Polishing Industry of Jaipur
Determinants of Work and Schooling Decisions
Yashodhan Ghorpade
Session C2: Schooling, Education and Work Presentation: 1

2. Background: Gemstones Polishing in Jaipur
• Long history of gemstones and jewellery industry in Jaipur
• Rajput kingdom of Jaipur promoted craft industry, used location
between Delhi, Agra, Punjab, Deccan
• Political stability allowed industry to grow, specialise
• Presence of Marwari businessmen and skilled Muslim craftsmen
• Large industry catering to both domestic and local markets
• Semi-precious coloured gemstones: ruby, emerald, garnet, sapphire

3. Child Labour in Gemstones Polishing in Jaipur
• Historically noted presence of children as apprentices; made up 22%
of the workforce in 1991 survey by VVGNLI
• Lower mechanisation meant “nimble finger” argument may have held
• Child labour in gemstones polishing banned under CLPRA, 1986
• Informal nature of industry, home-based work(shops) make ban less
effective
• Greater focus on regulating conditions of work, providing bridge
schooling and income support
• Important source of current (supplementary) income, investment in
future employability for children

4. Structure and Organisation of GPI
• Informal sector activity, often done in home-based workshops
• Children work alongside adults, craft passed on across generations.
Some occupational mobility in recent years
• Various stages of value addition – higher stages more likely to be
performed in workshops rather than at home
• Brokers (dalaal) mediate exchange of gemstones at various stages,
esp. between finished stone and jeweller
• Craftsmen can train to become highly skilled although a large number
of workers remain semi/low skilled workers- rise depends on talent,
ability, family initiation and backing, gender

5. Stages of Gemstones Processing
Category Constituent Activities
1 Drilling, Sticking gem on dopping stick, stringing --- Least Skilled
2 Pre-shaping
3 Cutting, Faceting on a saan
4 Polishing: in a drum, or on a saan
5
Measurement and Calibration, Sorting, Faceting and Polishing on an Israeli Machine
--- Most Skilled

6. Methodology
• Mixed Methods research – unique combination
• 3 fieldwork sites in Jaipur city: Ramganj, Aamagarh, Badanpura (map) in
July 2006
• Contact through local NGOs – Bodh Shiksha Samiti (EC) and Unique
Education Society (NCLP partner)
• Snowball sampling and reliance on local informants for qualitative research
• Quantitative household data analysis (descriptive and econometric) across
98 households (525 children)
• Qualitative research: 25 in-depth interviews with parents, FGDs with 11
community youth, 10 boys, 10 girls, 9 gemstones craftsmen, KIIs with
NGOs, teachers, craftsmen

8. Describing the population
Children’s Work / Schooling Outcomes
by Adult per capita Income Quintiles
Adult per
capita Income
Quintiles
Work Only School Only
Work and
Study Both
Neither Work
nor Study
Total
Q1 32 (28.8) 17 (15.3) 37 (33.3) 25 (22.5) 111 (100)
Q2 21 (20.8) 19 (18.8) 44 (43.6) 17 (16.8) 101 (100)
Q3 23 (25.6) 18 (20.0) 34 (37.8) 15 (16.7) 90 (100)
Q4 23 (21.1) 19 (17.4) 49 (45) 18 (16.5) 109 (100)
Q5 11 (17.2) 17 (26.6) 32 (50) 4 (6.3) 64 (100)
Total 110 (23.2) 90 (18.9) 196 (41.3) 79 (16.6) 475 (100)

9. What makes children go to school?
Dependant: Child Currently
Working
ALL BOYS GIRLS
Age 0.293***
0.343***
0.251***
Age-Squared -0.014***
-0.017***
-0.012***
In School -0.075 -0.146*
0.016
Male -0.057
Oldest Sibling 0.06 0.023 0.084
Youngest Sibling 0.007 0.027 -0.027
Father Dead -0.144*
-0.206**
-0.041
Mother Dead 0 0 0
Mother Illiterate -0.119**
-0.062 -0.222***
Father Illiterate -0.04 -0.016 -0.057
Mother working -0.153***
-0.131**
-0.218***
Father Working -0.165***
-0.174***
-0.108
Per Capita Adult Income 0.000*
0.000***
0.000
Household Size 0.018*** 0.014** 0.017***
LPG stove Connection 0.102**
0.155***
-0.024
Gems Polishing Machine -0.048 -0.088 -0.008
Family business - gemstones -0.106 -0.238**
0.047
N 465 237 228
• Inverse U-shaped relationship with age
• Working reduces likelihood of school
attendance for boys, not girls
• Gender does not affect likelihood of
school attendance
• Mother’s literacy matters, especially for
girls’ attendance; father’s death reduces
likelihood of boys’ school attendance
• Boys from gemstones business families
less likely to be in school – opportunity
costs
• Stable/ assured minimum incomes
proxied by LPG increase likelihood of
attending school

10. What makes children work in gems polishing?
Dependant: Child Currently
Working
ALL BOYS GIRLS
Age 0.160***
0.191***
0.120***
Age-Squared -0.005***
-0.006***
-0.003
In School -0.068 -0.129***
0.006
Male 0.077**
- -
Oldest Sibling 0.109*
0.071 0.136
Youngest Sibling -0.074*
-0.148***
-0.024
Father Dead -0.055 -0.067 -0.045
Mother Dead 0 0 0
Mother Illiterate 0.041 -0.005 0.128*
Father Illiterate -0.016 -0.052 0.02
Mother working 0.160***
0.142***
0.200***
Father Working 0.035 0.007 0.047
Per Capita Adult Income 0.000 0.000 0.000
Household Size -0.005 -0.017**
0.000
LPG stove Connection -0.062 -0.067 -0.022
Gems Polishing Machine 0.009 -0.004 0.022
Family business - gemstones 0.032 -0.014 0.052
N 465 237 228
• Boys 7% more likely to work than
girls
• Over the range, income not
significant
• Being in school reduces likelihood
of working for boys, not for girls
• Mothers working increase
likelihood of children’s (esp. girls’)
work
• Birth order matters; oldest siblings
more likely to work, youngest male
less

11. What determines duration of work?
• Work hours increase with age,
inverse U-shaped
• Boys on average work longer hours
• Shorter duration of work for
children in school, esp. boys
• Higher-skill activities have longer
working hours
• Mothers working increases sons’
work hours: complementarity
• Income, LPG, gemstones machine,
family business do not affect
duration
Dependant: Child Work Hours ALL BOYS GIRLS
Age 1.482***
1.692***
1.343***
Age-Squared -0.045***
-0.052***
-0.041**
In School -1.819***
-2.178***
-1.492***
Male 0.720**
Oldest Sibling 0.098 0.347 -0.258
Youngest Sibling -0.362 -0.686 -0.149
Category 2 activity 4.957***
4.857***
5.177***
Category 3 activity 4.562***
3.931***
5.171***
Category 4 activity 4.604***
4.286***
3.829***
Category 5 activity 6.715***
6.025***
-
Father Dead 0.108 -0.477 0.913
Mother Dead -0.58 -1.960**
0.036
Mother Illiterate 0.207 -0.102 0.488
Father Illiterate 0.068 0.116 0.11
Mother working 0.811*
1.115***
0.435
Father Working 0.513 0.47 0.701
Per Capita Adult Income 0.000 0.001 0.000
Household Size -0.062 -0.084 -0.052
LPG stove Connection -0.204 -0.059 -0.33
Gems Polishing Machine -0.197 0.193 -0.522
Family business - gemstones -0.476 -0.586 -0.387
N 466 238 228

12. Gender differences in children’s work
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Duration of working children's work (Avg daily hours) by
age
Working Boys Working Girls
22
65
28
40
3
22
100
18
3
00
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1 2 3 4 5
Share of Boys/ Girls by Activity Category: Working Children
Boys Girls
10
25
6
14
0
12
40
22
26
30
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 2 3 4 5
Work site for working boys
Home Workshop

13. Parental Expectations and the Wider Social
Environment
• Majboori – helplessness cited as immediate reason for children working;
combined with poverty
• Early entry in gemstones processing cited to be important for becoming
craftsman; learning business/soft skills
• Problems with schooling: access, quality, academic support, bullying/
punishment, fear of failure, costly private schooling
• Training, apprenticeship and future employment prospects
• Little confidence in children being able to complete high enough level of
schooling to secure high-paying jobs; gemstones is a safe fallback
• Lower access to girls’ schooling at secondary level, unsafe to travel
distances

14. Parental/ Children’s own expectations/ aspirations
Boys
• Study, complete higher education
• Stable jobs in formal sector
• Gemstones less preferred but
practical choice, available as
source of future employment,
possibility to rise over time
• Financial independence and
supporting present/future families,
sisters’ dowries, settling household
debt
Girls
• Attain education and teach
siblings, educate children in the
future
• Look after present/ future
families
• Contribute to family income,
including through gemstones
polishing – but not continue in
the future

15. Experiences of Work and Schooling
Gems Polishing Work
• Transformational effects on
personality, confidence,
communication skills, discipline,
respect for elders - BOYS
• Learning new skills (boys – NOT
girls)
• Contributing to household income
• Camaraderie with siblings, family,
elders
• Injuries, reprimanding and physical
abuse
• Lesser time to play with friends
Schooling
• Confidence in social interactions,
improved social standing
• Friends, social life
• Benefits in daily life – newspapers,
calculations, accessing services, letters
• Girls become aware, independent –
able to claim rights/ access police
• Reinforced gemstones careers –
geometry, maths, physics, chemistry,
English language
• Bridge schools had no space for
playing

16. Summary of Key Findings
• Unique setting of child labour which offers prospect of acquiring skills and
employment but not for all – not a general case
• Boys more likely to work, for longer and acquire higher skills – but girls’
participation is significant
• Work and school compete for boys’ time, but not for girls: higher
opportunity cost for boys schooling – foregone training in a craft
• Gender plays a significant role in parental/ societal expectations and
children’s aspirations and outcomes
• Mismatch between poorly accessed and low quality formal schooling and
an imperfect informal process of skills acquisition
• Reason that keeps girls in low skills occupations is also why their education
is not threatened by work – mobility and skills deficit

17. Policy Implications
• Skills acquisition as well as current poverty important drivers of child
labour
• Schooling system must improve access, quality – benefits of
education understood and expressed by parents, children alike
• Education system must account for the demand to improve children’s
future employability – gemstones polishing partly fills this space, and
can be integrated into schooling at appropriate age
• Girls’ mobility and access to education important gaps that should be
addressed

18. Thank You