Recommended
Recommended
More Related Content
Similar to Butler PowerPoint Final
Similar to Butler PowerPoint Final (6)
Butler PowerPoint Final
- 1. BACKGROUND MUSIC: A MEMORY BOOSTER? Amanda Brown Dr. Cynthia Zdanczyk (Faculty Mentor) Purdue University North Central
- 2. PRESENTATION AGENDA Explicit vs. Implicit Memory How can we improve long-term memory? Context-Dependent Memory Specific sensory cues aiding in retrieval Auditory information as retrieval cues Future research directions
- 3. EXPLICIT VS. IMPLICIT MEMORY Atkinson & Shiffrin Modal Model Goldstein, E. B. (2011). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research, and everyday experience (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
- 4. HOW CAN WE IMPROVE RETRIEVAL IN LONG-TERM MEMORY? Retrieval Cues Dual-Coding takes advantage of a visual code and a verbal code Paivio (1969,1971) Encoding Specificity Zeelenberg (2004) Word pair associate test: word from original, studied word pair more effective as cue at retrieval
- 5. CONTEXT-DEPENDENT MEMORY • McGeoch (1932): altering stimulating conditions • Matching environmental context across encoding and retrieval improved recall of words (underwater, on-land) Godden & Baddeley (1975) • State-dependent effects Alcohol (Goodwin, Powell, Bremer, Hoine & Stern, 1969) Aerobic Exercise (Miles & Hardman, 1998) Mood (Eich & Metcalfe, 1989; Kenealy, 1997)
- 6. CAN SPECIFIC SENSORY INFORMATION HELP RETRIEVAL? • Visual consistencies in background of stimulus cards promoted better nonsense-syllable recall Dulsky (1935) • Olfactory consistencies presented as an odor promoted better recall of faces Cann & Ross (1989) • Presenting a consistent odor with a passage during encoding to retrieval Pointer & Bond (1998)
- 7. HOW CAN AUDITORY INFORMATION SERVE AS A RETRIEVAL CUE? Background music consistent from encoding to retrieval improved memory recall Immediate recall (Balch, Howman, Mohler, 1992) Delayed recall (Balch, Howman, Mohler, 1992; Smith, 1985) Tempo of music crucial for music-dependent memory Balch & Lewis, 1996
- 8. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Research Questions What evidence is needed to validate context-dependent effects on explicit memory? Inconsistencies Is encoding specificity even necessary? (Santa & Lamwers, 1974) Changes in cue-strength decreased context-dependent effects in recall (Higham, 2002) Lack of contextual effects in recognition, cued-recall, free recall (Fernandez & Glenberg, 1985; Pellegrino & Salzberg,1975)
- 9. FUTURE DIRECTIONS How can specific sensory information improve context- dependent memory? How can background music improve retention of materials from class/lecture to test?
- 10. REFERENCES Balch, W. R., Bowman, K., & Mohler, L. A. (1992). Music-dependent memory in immediate and delayed word recall. Memory & Cognition, 20(1), 21-28. doi:10.3758/BF03208250 Balch, W. R., & Lewis, B. S. (1996). Music-dependent memory: The roles of tempo change and mood mediation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22(6), 1354-1363. Cann, A., & Ross, D. A. (1989). Olfactory stimuli as context cues in human memory. The American Journal of Psychology, 102(1), 91-102. doi:10.2307/1423118 Dulsky, S. G. (1935). The effect of a change of background on recall and relearning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 725-740. doi:10.1037/h0058066 Eich, E., & Metcalfe, J. (1989). Mood dependent memory for internal versus external events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 443-455. Fernandez, A. & Glenberg, A.M. (1985). Changing environmental context does not reliably affect memory. Memory & Cognition, 13 (4), 333-345. Godden, D. R., & Baddeley, A. D. (1975). Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater. British Journal of Psychology, 66(3), 325-331. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01468.x Goodwin, D. W., Powell, B., Bremer, D., Hoine, H., & Stern, J. (1969). Alcohol and recall: State-dependent effects in man. Science, 163(3873), 1358-1360. doi:10.1126/science.163.3873.1358 Higham, P.A. (2002). Strong cues are not necessarily weak: Thomson and Tulving (1970) and the encoding specificity principle revisited. Memory & Cognition, 30 (1), 67-80. Kenealy, P. M. (1997). Mood-state-dependent retrieval: The effects of induced mood on memory reconsidered. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 50A(2), 290-317. McGeoch, J. A. (1932). Forgetting and the law of disuse. Psychological Review, 39, 352-370. Miles, C., & Hardman, E. (1998). State-dependent memory produced by aerobic exercise. Ergonomics, 41(1), 20-28. doi:10.1080/001401398187297 Paivio, A. (1969). Mental Imagery in Associative Learning and Memory. Psychological Review, 76(3), 241-263. Pellegrino, J.W. & Salzberg, P.M. (1975). Encoding Specificity in Cued Recall and Context Recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104(3), 261-270 Santa, J.L. & Lamwers, L.L. (1974). Encoding specificity: Fact or artifact? Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 13, 412-423. Smith, S.M. (1985). Background music and context-dependent memory. American Journal of Psychology, 6, 591-603. Zeelenberg, R. (2005). Encoding specificity manipulations do affect retrieval from memory. Acta Psychologica, 119, 107-121.
- 11. QUESTIONS?
Editor's Notes
- Today I will be presenting a literature review for future research.
- In my presentation I will be explaining to you The differences between explicit and implicit memory. How we can improve explicit long-term memory. How context dependent memory can be used as a retrieval cue. How specific sensory cues can help aid in retrieval How auditory information can serve as a retrieval cue. Exploring future research directions.
- Atkinson and Shiffrin created the Modal Model to explain the path of encoding to retrieval of memories. Information is taken in. Attention is needed to move the sensory memory into the short-term storage. As the information undergoes constant rehearsal it is moved to long-term memory. After the information is in long-term storage it becomes either an explicit memory or an implicit memory. What is an explicit memory? Explicit memory is anything that has to have conscious effortful processing. Knowing that 3x3=9 Knowing the names of the planets. What is an implicit memory? Implicit memories are memories that do not require conscious effortful processing. These are procedural memories. Riding a bike Tying a shoe Making a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. I want to look at how to improve explicit long-term memory.
- There are three mains ways to improve retrieval in explicit long-term memory. There are three retrieval cues that can be used Free Recall (Not very helpful in retrieval) Cued Recall (Helpful for retrieval) Recognition (Very helpful for retrieval) Another process that can be used is dual-coding. Paivio took advantage of this method in a study from 1969 and 1971. Dual-coding is done by using a visual and a verbal code to aid in retrieval. Visual codes are pictures, visual maps Verbal codes are words associated with the visual code. Dual-coding is best used when one of the codes is forgotten, then there is still a second code to retrieve the information. The last process that can be used is encoding specificity. This is a process used by Zeelenberg in a 2004 study. This is when anything studied together can later serve as a cue. A test that can be administered is a word-pair associate test. This is when a word from the original source is studied with a new word to make the pair more effective as cue at retrieval.
- The context in which you study can later serve as a retrieval cue. This method is called context-dependent memory. A classic study performed by McGeoch in 1932 looked at how altering stimulating conditions affected the performance during the encoding and retrieval process. When the subjects were presented with matching contextual conditions during encoding and retrieval the accuracy of retrieval increased. On the contrary if the subjects were presented with mis-matched contextual conditions the accuracy of retrieval decreased. This behavior pattern can be observed in a study done by Godden and Baddeley in 1975 looking at the learning of scuba divers. When the environmental contexts matched across encoding and retrieval the accuracy at retrieval increased. Studying underwater and testing underwater retrieval accuracy increased Studying on-land and testing on-land increased retrieval accuracy. But when the environmental contexts were mis-matched the retrieval decreases. Studying underwater and testing on-land decreased the accuracy of retrieval. This behavior continues in a study using alcohol as a contextual cue. Subjects were asked to study under the effects of alcohol and to test under the effects of alcohol. As you have seen with the behavior pattern of having matching contextual cues this increased the retrieval accuracy. It is obviously going to be a lot easier to study if you aren’t under the effects of alcohol, but given that it is the same context it did increased the retrieval. They also studied while being sober and tested while being sober this gave the best results, with the highest accuracy in retrieval. Having the mis-matched contextual cues decreased accuracy in retrieval. In the next study aerobic exercise was used as the context. Subjects were placed on stationery bikes and asked to ride while listening to words played through headphones. They were then tested while riding the bike. Retrieval accuracy increased. Another group of subjects were asked to just sit on the bike while the words were presented through the headphones. Then they were tested while resting on the bike. Retrieval accuracy increased. Having these contexts mis-matched decreased retrieval. Not only in changing the environment, or physical states can improve retrieval but also what mood state you are presently in. If the person was studying in a happy mood and tested in a happy mood the retrieval was increased. If the person was sad when studying and happy when testing the retrieval was decreased. All of these changes of context have shown that it does have an effect during encoding and retrieval. But can we use specific sensory information as a retrieval cue?
- In two studies the researchers manipulated specific sensory information to observe if this could aid in the retrieval of information. A classic study was conducted by Dulsky in 1935 to show that having a consistent background color during encoding could aid in retrieval. He presented his subjects with two stacks of cards that had non-sense syllables written on them. One stack was homogenous which means only having one color throughout the whole set. The other stack was heterogeneous which had multiple colors throughout the stack. The stack that showed the best retrieval was the homogenous stack because of having the non-sense syllables on the same color background when used during encoding and retrieval. Another study was done by Cann and Ross in 1989 using olfactory cues. They presented the male subjects with a consistent odor when presenting a photo of a women’s face. When the odor was the same during encoding and retrieval the recall of the faces was increased. Visual and olfactory information has illustrated context-dependent effects. But what about auditory information?
- There is little information to back up using background music as a retrieval cue. Three studies I have found looked at the effects of using music as a cue. Studies done by Smith in 1985 and Balch, Howman, Mohler in 1992 showed that having consistent genres of music during encoding and retrieval improved memory recall in immediate and delayed recall tests. The consistent genres of music were classical, and jazz. Another later study done by Balch and Lewis in 1996 determined that the music tempo played by a piano or brass instrument played an important role for music-dependent memory. Slow tempo studying, slow tempo testing increased retrieval. Slow tempo studying, fast tempo testing decreased retrieval. The timbre or instrumentation (piano vs. brass) did not have an effect on context-dependent memory. Since there is such little research on auditory cues being used as context for recall we need to explore this further.
- There are some remaining research questions that need to be addressed. What evidence is needed to validate context-dependent effects on explicit memory? Inconsistencies Is encoding specificity even necessary? (Santa & Lamwers, 1974) Do we even need to use encoding specificity to aid in retrieval? You do not have to use encoding specificity if you are given in a recognition format. Find the word that rhymes with cook. Tree, house, book, boat. Changes in cue-strength decreased context-dependent effects in recall (Higham, 2002) The strength of the cues did not have an effect of the recall. Lack of contextual effects in recognition, cued-recall, free recall (Fernandez & Glenberg, 1985; Pellegrino & Salzberg,1975) Changing the contextual effects (environmental, sensory information) didn’t have an effect on the retrieval performance. Recognition & free recall differences in mood changes
- How can specific sensory information improve context-dependent memory? By using consistent visual, olfactory, information during encoding and retrieval, and seeing support that this can increase explicit long-term memory we need to find and research more support on auditory information as a retrieval cue. Would using something such as white noise work as a context cue? Or would it be more of a nuisance to the subject. How can background music improve retention of materials from class/lecture to test? By using background music as a retrieval cue this will help create a more individualized learning environment. On-line classes could benefit from using background music. This could potentially help to make learning more effective. Improve mood when listening to favorite music while studying to increase the retention of materials. Future directions = implications of mood on context-dependent assistance (role of mood in mediating these effects?) Comparisons to white noise as context—will this drive context-dependent effects, as well? Should be involved as another comparison group to silence (no music in background) and music group (background music)
- Thank you for listening are there any questions?