The document summarizes two main approaches to clinical neuropsychology used in America and the Soviet Union. The American approach uses quantitative neuropsychological test batteries, such as the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery, to assess brain impairment. This battery comprehensively measures cognitive abilities through standardized tests and aims to accurately predict brain lesions. In contrast, the Soviet approach uses qualitative syndrome analysis to understand how psychological processes are altered by brain damage by examining individual case studies in depth.
Neurological Pupil Index as an Indicator of Irreversible Cerebral Edema: A Ca...NeurOptics, Inc.
Assessing the pupillary light reflex (PLR) is acore component of neurological assessments. Changes in pupil size and reactivity can provide early recognition of neurological decline and facilitate lifesaving interventions.
Returning genetic research results in neurodevelopmental disorders: report an...KBHN KT
This report originated from discussions at the Annual Brain Development Conference in
late 2013 between researchers in the Neuroethics Core and Autism Spectrum Disorders
Project of NeuroDevNet. Discussants felt that return of research results is a pertinent
issue but that researchers are missing a comprehensive picture of the recommendations,
approaches and empirical data related to the return of research results in genetics studies
in children, in neurodevelopmental disorders, and specifically in autism.
This report provides an overview of recent genetic studies of autism spectrum disorder
(ASD), and reviews the ethical guidance (policies and peer-reviewed literature) and
best practices on the return of individual research results in adult and pediatric genetic
research. We focus on this case because of the wealth of genetic research being
carried out in families and cohorts to explain the etiology of ASD and because there is a
burgeoning literature on parental perspectives on the return of results in this case. The
empirical perspectives are collected and summarized and provide context with regard to
researcher and parent perspectives on the return of genetic results in ASD studies.
We conclude by making recommendations about the return of both incidental and
ASD-related findings and highlight issues that merit further discussion, including the
role of the child or adolescent with developmental disability in decision-making, and
the importance of risk communication. We believe that the report will be of use not only
for those working in the area of ASD but more broadly in the field of pediatric genetic
research and neurodevelopmental disorder research. For example, the publication of new
evidence showing that genetic alterations play an important role in the etiology of cerebral
palsy in some children means that genetic research may becoming increasingly common
in other areas of the study of neurodevelopmental disorders.
This document discusses statistical methodology for medical research. It compares experimental and observational study designs. Experimental studies use randomization to control for confounding factors, while observational studies rely on statistical adjustments. Sample size restrictions are fewer for observational studies. The document also discusses internal and external validity, confounding adjustment, and statistical aspects like multiplicity and precision between the two designs.
Terrando et al-2015-anesthesia_&_analgesiasamirsharshar
This article summarizes discussions from a workshop on perioperative neurotoxicity in the elderly. The workshop included presentations on:
1) Preclinical evidence that surgery and anesthesia can cause neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment in rodent models, especially in vulnerable populations like the elderly.
2) Emerging human biomarkers like CSF tau levels that show potential to objectively measure postoperative neuronal injury and predict cognitive outcomes.
3) Preliminary clinical studies finding associations between postoperative cytokines, blood-brain barrier disruption, and delirium; however, interventions like glucocorticoids have not proven effective yet.
4) The need for standardized nomenclature and consideration of preexisting patient vulnerabilities in clinical studies to help resolve
This document discusses studies using neuroimaging techniques like PET, SPECT, and fMRI to study cerebral metabolism, blood flow, and neuroreceptor functioning in schizophrenia. Early studies found abnormalities in frontal lobe activity and the anterior-posterior gradient in patients. Subsequent studies found greater differences between patients and controls when assessing brain activity during cognitive tasks rather than at rest. Tasks probing memory, language, and executive function have revealed impairments in associated brain regions in patients. The relationship between symptoms and metabolism in temporal and basal ganglia regions is still unclear. Neuroleptic-naive and first-episode patients have provided insights with fewer confounding factors.
This study found that 22% of healthy adult Chinese participants exhibited a pattern of low-latency reflexive eye movements, known as "express saccades", in a task designed to inhibit such responses. This proportion is much higher than the expected 1-5% found in other populations. The study then tested these "express saccade makers" in an antisaccade task requiring voluntary eye movements instead of reflexive ones. They found that express saccade makers performed worse on this task, making more errors and errors with shorter latencies, suggesting reduced ability to inhibit reflexive responses. This has implications for studies attributing differences in eye movements between Chinese and other groups to culture, as it identifies an unexpected oculomotor
Long-term cognitive impairment after critical illness (CIACI) is frequently reported in up to 66% of patients three months after intensive care hospitalization. The condition has overlapping neurological changes with stroke, traumatic brain injury, and neurodegenerative disorders. Risk factors for CIACI include depression, biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease, delirium duration during hospitalization, and exposure to certain drugs. Current strategies to prevent or treat CIACI focus on reducing delirium and agitation, as well as physical and cognitive rehabilitation. Neurotrophic factors may play a role in neurogenesis, blood-brain barrier integrity, and neuronal repair, suggesting they could be a potential target for novel CIACI treatments.
This study compared intravenous levetiracetam (LEV) to intravenous phenytoin (PHT) for seizure prophylaxis in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) or subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) admitted to the neuroscience intensive care unit (NSICU). Fifty-two patients were randomized to receive either LEV (n=34) or PHT (n=18). Continuous EEG monitoring was performed for 72 hours. Long-term outcomes including Disability Rating Scale scores and Glasgow Outcome Scale scores were better in the LEV group compared to the PHT group at 3 and 6 months, respectively, after controlling for baseline severity. There were no significant differences in seizure rates
Neurological Pupil Index as an Indicator of Irreversible Cerebral Edema: A Ca...NeurOptics, Inc.
Assessing the pupillary light reflex (PLR) is acore component of neurological assessments. Changes in pupil size and reactivity can provide early recognition of neurological decline and facilitate lifesaving interventions.
Returning genetic research results in neurodevelopmental disorders: report an...KBHN KT
This report originated from discussions at the Annual Brain Development Conference in
late 2013 between researchers in the Neuroethics Core and Autism Spectrum Disorders
Project of NeuroDevNet. Discussants felt that return of research results is a pertinent
issue but that researchers are missing a comprehensive picture of the recommendations,
approaches and empirical data related to the return of research results in genetics studies
in children, in neurodevelopmental disorders, and specifically in autism.
This report provides an overview of recent genetic studies of autism spectrum disorder
(ASD), and reviews the ethical guidance (policies and peer-reviewed literature) and
best practices on the return of individual research results in adult and pediatric genetic
research. We focus on this case because of the wealth of genetic research being
carried out in families and cohorts to explain the etiology of ASD and because there is a
burgeoning literature on parental perspectives on the return of results in this case. The
empirical perspectives are collected and summarized and provide context with regard to
researcher and parent perspectives on the return of genetic results in ASD studies.
We conclude by making recommendations about the return of both incidental and
ASD-related findings and highlight issues that merit further discussion, including the
role of the child or adolescent with developmental disability in decision-making, and
the importance of risk communication. We believe that the report will be of use not only
for those working in the area of ASD but more broadly in the field of pediatric genetic
research and neurodevelopmental disorder research. For example, the publication of new
evidence showing that genetic alterations play an important role in the etiology of cerebral
palsy in some children means that genetic research may becoming increasingly common
in other areas of the study of neurodevelopmental disorders.
This document discusses statistical methodology for medical research. It compares experimental and observational study designs. Experimental studies use randomization to control for confounding factors, while observational studies rely on statistical adjustments. Sample size restrictions are fewer for observational studies. The document also discusses internal and external validity, confounding adjustment, and statistical aspects like multiplicity and precision between the two designs.
Terrando et al-2015-anesthesia_&_analgesiasamirsharshar
This article summarizes discussions from a workshop on perioperative neurotoxicity in the elderly. The workshop included presentations on:
1) Preclinical evidence that surgery and anesthesia can cause neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment in rodent models, especially in vulnerable populations like the elderly.
2) Emerging human biomarkers like CSF tau levels that show potential to objectively measure postoperative neuronal injury and predict cognitive outcomes.
3) Preliminary clinical studies finding associations between postoperative cytokines, blood-brain barrier disruption, and delirium; however, interventions like glucocorticoids have not proven effective yet.
4) The need for standardized nomenclature and consideration of preexisting patient vulnerabilities in clinical studies to help resolve
This document discusses studies using neuroimaging techniques like PET, SPECT, and fMRI to study cerebral metabolism, blood flow, and neuroreceptor functioning in schizophrenia. Early studies found abnormalities in frontal lobe activity and the anterior-posterior gradient in patients. Subsequent studies found greater differences between patients and controls when assessing brain activity during cognitive tasks rather than at rest. Tasks probing memory, language, and executive function have revealed impairments in associated brain regions in patients. The relationship between symptoms and metabolism in temporal and basal ganglia regions is still unclear. Neuroleptic-naive and first-episode patients have provided insights with fewer confounding factors.
This study found that 22% of healthy adult Chinese participants exhibited a pattern of low-latency reflexive eye movements, known as "express saccades", in a task designed to inhibit such responses. This proportion is much higher than the expected 1-5% found in other populations. The study then tested these "express saccade makers" in an antisaccade task requiring voluntary eye movements instead of reflexive ones. They found that express saccade makers performed worse on this task, making more errors and errors with shorter latencies, suggesting reduced ability to inhibit reflexive responses. This has implications for studies attributing differences in eye movements between Chinese and other groups to culture, as it identifies an unexpected oculomotor
Long-term cognitive impairment after critical illness (CIACI) is frequently reported in up to 66% of patients three months after intensive care hospitalization. The condition has overlapping neurological changes with stroke, traumatic brain injury, and neurodegenerative disorders. Risk factors for CIACI include depression, biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease, delirium duration during hospitalization, and exposure to certain drugs. Current strategies to prevent or treat CIACI focus on reducing delirium and agitation, as well as physical and cognitive rehabilitation. Neurotrophic factors may play a role in neurogenesis, blood-brain barrier integrity, and neuronal repair, suggesting they could be a potential target for novel CIACI treatments.
This study compared intravenous levetiracetam (LEV) to intravenous phenytoin (PHT) for seizure prophylaxis in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) or subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) admitted to the neuroscience intensive care unit (NSICU). Fifty-two patients were randomized to receive either LEV (n=34) or PHT (n=18). Continuous EEG monitoring was performed for 72 hours. Long-term outcomes including Disability Rating Scale scores and Glasgow Outcome Scale scores were better in the LEV group compared to the PHT group at 3 and 6 months, respectively, after controlling for baseline severity. There were no significant differences in seizure rates
The document summarizes research on lateralization of brain functions in patients with depressive illness. It discusses how studies of left and right hemisphere differences in cognitive and emotional processing can provide insights into psychiatric conditions like depression. The review examines evidence from various methods including brain damage studies, behavioral tasks, electrophysiology, and functional neuroimaging. It evaluates the existing literature on lateralization in depression and provides suggestions to improve research methods and resolve neuropsychiatric issues.
The document discusses a study that assessed anxiety levels in 18 healthy volunteers undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Volunteers completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) before and after undergoing an fMRI examination involving six paradigms. A patient preparation phase including psychological support was provided prior to reduce anxiety. Results showed high trait and state anxiety levels pre-fMRI that significantly decreased post-fMRI. Correlations were found between pre-fMRI anxiety and brain activation in motor and language tasks. The results support incorporating patient preparation including psychological support to help reduce anxiety for fMRI examinations.
Neurocysticercosis the notorious vanishing ring enhancing lesion ijar feb 2015Sachin Adukia
This document summarizes a study of 25 patients presenting with ring enhancing lesions (RELs) on MRI brain scans. The study aimed to evaluate clinical features and diagnoses of RELs and treatment outcomes. Of the 25 patients, 8 (32%) were diagnosed with neurocysticercosis based on clinical features, investigations and MRI findings. All 8 neurocysticercosis patients presented with seizures and most with headache. Lesions were typically solitary and less than 10mm. Treatment with albendazole, anti-convulsants and steroids resulted in complete resolution in 6 patients (75%) and regression/calcification in the remaining 2, demonstrating neurocysticercosis has an excellent prognosis with appropriate treatment.
The document summarizes the process of presurgical evaluation for epilepsy patients. It discusses how modern imaging techniques like video EEG monitoring, high-resolution MRI, fMRI, PET and SPECT are used to localize the epileptogenic zone noninvasively in most patients. When noninvasive methods are insufficient, invasive EEG monitoring using subdural or depth electrodes may be used. The goal is to precisely identify the brain area responsible for seizure generation to allow its surgical resection, while avoiding damage to critical functions. A classical example where surgery is often curative is mesial temporal lobe epilepsy.
This document describes Monica Muthaiya's experimental investigation comparing the tibial and peroneal divisions of the sciatic nerve. The purpose was to examine potential histological differences that could explain why injury to the peroneal division is more common during total joint arthroplasty. Tibial and peroneal nerves from 10 cadavers were sectioned and a portion was manually stretched before staining and analysis using ImageJ software. The hypothesis was that histological differences would be found between the nerves, with the peroneal nerve having a smaller cross-sectional area, since it is less protected and more prone to injury. The results and conclusions aimed to provide insight for physicians on the variations between the nerve divisions and why one may be more susceptible
1997 practice parameters for the indications for polysomnography and relate...alpha314
These clinical guidelines from the American Sleep Disorders Association provide recommendations for when polysomnography and related sleep studies are indicated in the diagnosis of various sleep disorders. The guidelines were developed by a task force that reviewed literature on the topic and consulted specialists. Key indications for polysomnography include diagnosing sleep-related breathing disorders, assessing positive airway pressure titration, and evaluating violent or injurious parasomnias. The guidelines also provide recommendations for when polysomnography may be indicated or is not routinely needed. The goal is to help ensure appropriate and cost-effective use of sleep testing procedures.
PharmacoPsychiatry publishes the first invited review describing a productive vision of Systems Medicine that will change R&D organization and interactions between clinicians & researchers.
The invited review explains how the world\'s first explanation of the mechanisms of the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease led to the discovery of a truly innovative psychiatric treatment
IRJET- Portable Supporting Device for Narcoleptic PatientsIRJET Journal
This document describes a portable supporting device for patients with narcolepsy. The device uses an EEG sensor to constantly monitor brain waves and detect the onset of narcoleptic sleep. When sleep onset is detected, the device prevents sleep by providing external disturbances through vibration motors, alerting the patient. A study showed the EEG technique could accurately detect sleep onset 87.5% of the time compared to polysomnography. The portable device allows independent monitoring of narcoleptic patients to prevent dangers from unexpected sleep episodes.
This study examined patterns of cortical activity using four different EEG testing protocols: an extended 8-minute baseline with alternating eyes open and closed, viewing a 10-minute dyadic social interaction video, and completing a personality survey. The protocols elicited different levels of activity in the alpha band and theta/beta ratio. Specifically, all protocols differed significantly in alpha activity, and the three eyes-open conditions still differed when just compared to each other. This suggests protocol design impacts EEG results and more representative real-world designs should be explored.
This is a paper I wrote for school on brain impairments in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, with a focus on neuroanatomical differences and connectivity patterns. I reviewed findings from various studies, considered their limitations, and proposed directions for future research.
This document discusses a proposed theory using Turing machines to develop a new therapeutic strategy for treating some spinal cord and brain conditions using a depurative-toxicological-pharmacological approach. It reviews literature on neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and ALS to understand common pathological mechanisms involving accumulation of toxic metabolic byproducts that the central nervous system lacks efficient means of removing. The theory aims to translate these insights into a practical hypothesis for reducing or delaying disease progression. The document also summarizes findings from studies showing cerebrospinal fluid from progressive multiple sclerosis patients causes mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons, identifying a potential biological mechanism and therapeutic target for progressive forms of the disease.
1) Children with ADHD who also have sensory processing disorder performed worse on tests of visual perception than children with ADHD but without sensory processing disorder.
2) Visual perception scores were moderately correlated with overall sensory processing abilities. Specifically, visual perception was related to abilities involving movement sensitivity and low energy levels.
3) The findings suggest that sensory processing issues, particularly with vestibular and proprioceptive input, may negatively impact the visual perception of children who have both ADHD and sensory processing disorder.
The document provides revised guidelines for the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Key changes from the 1997 criteria include: 1) separating the clinical diagnosis of AD from the neuropathological assessment of AD changes, 2) emphasizing the assessment of co-existing brain pathologies that may contribute to cognitive impairment, and 3) providing updated guidance on the neuropathological changes of AD and other common diseases seen in aging and dementia.
This study examines changes in dendritic branching and spines in the frontal, temporal, and parietal cortex from individuals diagnosed as non-cognitively impaired (NCI), with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), or with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Brain tissue was analyzed using the Golgi impregnation method to quantify dendritic branching and spines. Results showed each cortical region had distinct patterns of dendritic changes from NCI to MCI to AD. The temporal cortex saw a 20% loss of branching in MCI and a further 5% loss in AD. The parietal cortex had a mild 4% loss in MCI and a 10% loss in AD. In contrast, the frontal cortex showed a
Brain monitoring using intraparenchymal cathterspgpapanikolaou
This document summarizes the experience of using intraparenchymal brain catheters for multimodal neuromonitoring in 54 patients with traumatic brain injury or subarachnoid hemorrhage. The catheters were inserted using a single burr hole in the skull to monitor intracranial pressure, brain tissue oxygen, and microdialysis. The procedure was performed safely at the bedside in the ICU with a low complication rate and no clinically significant infections. Monitoring data from intracranial pressure, brain tissue oxygen, and microdialysis biochemistry helped guide treatment to maintain a cerebral perfusion pressure over 60 mmHg and intracranial pressure below 20 mmHg. Multimodal neuromon
1. O documento discute as fases do desenvolvimento motor ao longo da vida.
2. São descritas taxionomias com níveis e subcategorias que definem habilidades motoras desde movimentos reflexos até movimentos especializados e expressivos.
3. As capacidades físicas e neuromotoras como agilidade, força e flexibilidade também são explicadas.
Desenvolvimento motor e aprendizagem motora jun 2007Clara de Oliveira
O documento discute o desenvolvimento motor e a aprendizagem de habilidades motoras. Aborda diversos fatores que influenciam o desenvolvimento humano e como o movimento está relacionado à cognição. Também apresenta diferentes perspectivas sobre o desenvolvimento motor e fatores que influenciam a aquisição de habilidades motoras como a maturação, experiência, tarefa e ambiente.
Como utilizar la tecnología como elemento fundamental enclaulopineda
Este documento describe cómo utilizar la tecnología como un elemento fundamental en la enseñanza a distancia. Explica que las nuevas tecnologías permiten valorar los medios de comunicación disponibles y construir nuevos conocimientos. Los objetivos son valorar los medios de comunicación presentes, conocer los diferentes medios existentes y buscar métodos que faciliten el acceso a las herramientas de comunicación. También describe diez nuevas competencias para enseñar utilizando la tecnología, como usar programas de edición, comunicarse a distancia y conocer aplicaciones
Choice based art instruction for middle years and beyondDennis Wilson
This presentation discusses choice-based art instruction for middle and high school students. It will cover how the presenter evolved their class from a traditional model to incorporating choice-based centers. The presentation will also address how to implement Google apps in visual arts classes, meet state and national standards, conduct assessments, and use student data and reflections to advocate for the arts to administrators and parents. The goal is to foster student inspiration and excitement through choice-based learning.
Este documento describe varios proyectos educativos realizados entre 2002-2011 en Bogotá, Colombia que usaron la ciudad y sus museos como escenario de aprendizaje. Los estudiantes visitaron lugares como el Museo del Oro y el Museo Nacional para aprender sobre la historia y cultura de los pueblos que habitaron el territorio, como los Muisca, y para comprender los cambios en la ciudad a través del tiempo. Los proyectos buscaban construir la identidad de los estudiantes y prepararlos para ser "Colombianos de calidad".
POLÍTICAS DE CALIDAD, SYSO, MEDIO AMBIENTE.Mafe Mafer
La política de calidad de DISTRICOMERCIAL DEL ORIENTE LTDA. se centra en cumplir con los requisitos legales, satisfacer al cliente a través de la calidad en la distribución y comercialización de productos básicos, y contribuir al desarrollo económico de la nación ofreciendo resultados sostenibles que garanticen la continuidad de la empresa y la mejora continua de sus procesos.
The document summarizes research on lateralization of brain functions in patients with depressive illness. It discusses how studies of left and right hemisphere differences in cognitive and emotional processing can provide insights into psychiatric conditions like depression. The review examines evidence from various methods including brain damage studies, behavioral tasks, electrophysiology, and functional neuroimaging. It evaluates the existing literature on lateralization in depression and provides suggestions to improve research methods and resolve neuropsychiatric issues.
The document discusses a study that assessed anxiety levels in 18 healthy volunteers undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Volunteers completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) before and after undergoing an fMRI examination involving six paradigms. A patient preparation phase including psychological support was provided prior to reduce anxiety. Results showed high trait and state anxiety levels pre-fMRI that significantly decreased post-fMRI. Correlations were found between pre-fMRI anxiety and brain activation in motor and language tasks. The results support incorporating patient preparation including psychological support to help reduce anxiety for fMRI examinations.
Neurocysticercosis the notorious vanishing ring enhancing lesion ijar feb 2015Sachin Adukia
This document summarizes a study of 25 patients presenting with ring enhancing lesions (RELs) on MRI brain scans. The study aimed to evaluate clinical features and diagnoses of RELs and treatment outcomes. Of the 25 patients, 8 (32%) were diagnosed with neurocysticercosis based on clinical features, investigations and MRI findings. All 8 neurocysticercosis patients presented with seizures and most with headache. Lesions were typically solitary and less than 10mm. Treatment with albendazole, anti-convulsants and steroids resulted in complete resolution in 6 patients (75%) and regression/calcification in the remaining 2, demonstrating neurocysticercosis has an excellent prognosis with appropriate treatment.
The document summarizes the process of presurgical evaluation for epilepsy patients. It discusses how modern imaging techniques like video EEG monitoring, high-resolution MRI, fMRI, PET and SPECT are used to localize the epileptogenic zone noninvasively in most patients. When noninvasive methods are insufficient, invasive EEG monitoring using subdural or depth electrodes may be used. The goal is to precisely identify the brain area responsible for seizure generation to allow its surgical resection, while avoiding damage to critical functions. A classical example where surgery is often curative is mesial temporal lobe epilepsy.
This document describes Monica Muthaiya's experimental investigation comparing the tibial and peroneal divisions of the sciatic nerve. The purpose was to examine potential histological differences that could explain why injury to the peroneal division is more common during total joint arthroplasty. Tibial and peroneal nerves from 10 cadavers were sectioned and a portion was manually stretched before staining and analysis using ImageJ software. The hypothesis was that histological differences would be found between the nerves, with the peroneal nerve having a smaller cross-sectional area, since it is less protected and more prone to injury. The results and conclusions aimed to provide insight for physicians on the variations between the nerve divisions and why one may be more susceptible
1997 practice parameters for the indications for polysomnography and relate...alpha314
These clinical guidelines from the American Sleep Disorders Association provide recommendations for when polysomnography and related sleep studies are indicated in the diagnosis of various sleep disorders. The guidelines were developed by a task force that reviewed literature on the topic and consulted specialists. Key indications for polysomnography include diagnosing sleep-related breathing disorders, assessing positive airway pressure titration, and evaluating violent or injurious parasomnias. The guidelines also provide recommendations for when polysomnography may be indicated or is not routinely needed. The goal is to help ensure appropriate and cost-effective use of sleep testing procedures.
PharmacoPsychiatry publishes the first invited review describing a productive vision of Systems Medicine that will change R&D organization and interactions between clinicians & researchers.
The invited review explains how the world\'s first explanation of the mechanisms of the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease led to the discovery of a truly innovative psychiatric treatment
IRJET- Portable Supporting Device for Narcoleptic PatientsIRJET Journal
This document describes a portable supporting device for patients with narcolepsy. The device uses an EEG sensor to constantly monitor brain waves and detect the onset of narcoleptic sleep. When sleep onset is detected, the device prevents sleep by providing external disturbances through vibration motors, alerting the patient. A study showed the EEG technique could accurately detect sleep onset 87.5% of the time compared to polysomnography. The portable device allows independent monitoring of narcoleptic patients to prevent dangers from unexpected sleep episodes.
This study examined patterns of cortical activity using four different EEG testing protocols: an extended 8-minute baseline with alternating eyes open and closed, viewing a 10-minute dyadic social interaction video, and completing a personality survey. The protocols elicited different levels of activity in the alpha band and theta/beta ratio. Specifically, all protocols differed significantly in alpha activity, and the three eyes-open conditions still differed when just compared to each other. This suggests protocol design impacts EEG results and more representative real-world designs should be explored.
This is a paper I wrote for school on brain impairments in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, with a focus on neuroanatomical differences and connectivity patterns. I reviewed findings from various studies, considered their limitations, and proposed directions for future research.
This document discusses a proposed theory using Turing machines to develop a new therapeutic strategy for treating some spinal cord and brain conditions using a depurative-toxicological-pharmacological approach. It reviews literature on neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and ALS to understand common pathological mechanisms involving accumulation of toxic metabolic byproducts that the central nervous system lacks efficient means of removing. The theory aims to translate these insights into a practical hypothesis for reducing or delaying disease progression. The document also summarizes findings from studies showing cerebrospinal fluid from progressive multiple sclerosis patients causes mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons, identifying a potential biological mechanism and therapeutic target for progressive forms of the disease.
1) Children with ADHD who also have sensory processing disorder performed worse on tests of visual perception than children with ADHD but without sensory processing disorder.
2) Visual perception scores were moderately correlated with overall sensory processing abilities. Specifically, visual perception was related to abilities involving movement sensitivity and low energy levels.
3) The findings suggest that sensory processing issues, particularly with vestibular and proprioceptive input, may negatively impact the visual perception of children who have both ADHD and sensory processing disorder.
The document provides revised guidelines for the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Key changes from the 1997 criteria include: 1) separating the clinical diagnosis of AD from the neuropathological assessment of AD changes, 2) emphasizing the assessment of co-existing brain pathologies that may contribute to cognitive impairment, and 3) providing updated guidance on the neuropathological changes of AD and other common diseases seen in aging and dementia.
This study examines changes in dendritic branching and spines in the frontal, temporal, and parietal cortex from individuals diagnosed as non-cognitively impaired (NCI), with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), or with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Brain tissue was analyzed using the Golgi impregnation method to quantify dendritic branching and spines. Results showed each cortical region had distinct patterns of dendritic changes from NCI to MCI to AD. The temporal cortex saw a 20% loss of branching in MCI and a further 5% loss in AD. The parietal cortex had a mild 4% loss in MCI and a 10% loss in AD. In contrast, the frontal cortex showed a
Brain monitoring using intraparenchymal cathterspgpapanikolaou
This document summarizes the experience of using intraparenchymal brain catheters for multimodal neuromonitoring in 54 patients with traumatic brain injury or subarachnoid hemorrhage. The catheters were inserted using a single burr hole in the skull to monitor intracranial pressure, brain tissue oxygen, and microdialysis. The procedure was performed safely at the bedside in the ICU with a low complication rate and no clinically significant infections. Monitoring data from intracranial pressure, brain tissue oxygen, and microdialysis biochemistry helped guide treatment to maintain a cerebral perfusion pressure over 60 mmHg and intracranial pressure below 20 mmHg. Multimodal neuromon
1. O documento discute as fases do desenvolvimento motor ao longo da vida.
2. São descritas taxionomias com níveis e subcategorias que definem habilidades motoras desde movimentos reflexos até movimentos especializados e expressivos.
3. As capacidades físicas e neuromotoras como agilidade, força e flexibilidade também são explicadas.
Desenvolvimento motor e aprendizagem motora jun 2007Clara de Oliveira
O documento discute o desenvolvimento motor e a aprendizagem de habilidades motoras. Aborda diversos fatores que influenciam o desenvolvimento humano e como o movimento está relacionado à cognição. Também apresenta diferentes perspectivas sobre o desenvolvimento motor e fatores que influenciam a aquisição de habilidades motoras como a maturação, experiência, tarefa e ambiente.
Como utilizar la tecnología como elemento fundamental enclaulopineda
Este documento describe cómo utilizar la tecnología como un elemento fundamental en la enseñanza a distancia. Explica que las nuevas tecnologías permiten valorar los medios de comunicación disponibles y construir nuevos conocimientos. Los objetivos son valorar los medios de comunicación presentes, conocer los diferentes medios existentes y buscar métodos que faciliten el acceso a las herramientas de comunicación. También describe diez nuevas competencias para enseñar utilizando la tecnología, como usar programas de edición, comunicarse a distancia y conocer aplicaciones
Choice based art instruction for middle years and beyondDennis Wilson
This presentation discusses choice-based art instruction for middle and high school students. It will cover how the presenter evolved their class from a traditional model to incorporating choice-based centers. The presentation will also address how to implement Google apps in visual arts classes, meet state and national standards, conduct assessments, and use student data and reflections to advocate for the arts to administrators and parents. The goal is to foster student inspiration and excitement through choice-based learning.
Este documento describe varios proyectos educativos realizados entre 2002-2011 en Bogotá, Colombia que usaron la ciudad y sus museos como escenario de aprendizaje. Los estudiantes visitaron lugares como el Museo del Oro y el Museo Nacional para aprender sobre la historia y cultura de los pueblos que habitaron el territorio, como los Muisca, y para comprender los cambios en la ciudad a través del tiempo. Los proyectos buscaban construir la identidad de los estudiantes y prepararlos para ser "Colombianos de calidad".
POLÍTICAS DE CALIDAD, SYSO, MEDIO AMBIENTE.Mafe Mafer
La política de calidad de DISTRICOMERCIAL DEL ORIENTE LTDA. se centra en cumplir con los requisitos legales, satisfacer al cliente a través de la calidad en la distribución y comercialización de productos básicos, y contribuir al desarrollo económico de la nación ofreciendo resultados sostenibles que garanticen la continuidad de la empresa y la mejora continua de sus procesos.
El documento habla sobre la creación de los Hospitales de la Solidaridad en Perú. Propone crear un sistema de salud de calidad y accesible para los sectores más necesitados mediante alianzas estratégicas entre el sector público y privado. Analiza la demanda y oferta de servicios médicos en las provincias de Puno y San Ramón, identificando oportunidades para el nuevo hospital. Propone estrategias y un modelo de funcionamiento basado en la tercerización de servicios médicos y la distribución de ingresos entre el hospital y los prof
Este documento presenta el nuevo portal www.crecerunidos.com, lanzado por la compañía Colombiana Kimberly COLPAPEL para promover la venta directa de sus productos. El portal ofrece "Vallas Publicitarias Virtuales" gratuitas para empresas asociadas, permitiéndoles promocionarse a través de herramientas multimedia e interactuar con clientes potenciales. Al realizar pedidos a través del canal CREZKC, las empresas pueden pagar por la publicidad con su compra mensual de útiles de aseo y obtener facturas legales de dedu
El documento describe la calle y el barrio donde vive el autor en Sevilla. Vive en un antiguo colegio con un patio interior cuidado y un estilo típico de los colegios antiguos de Sevilla con arcos. Alrededor se encuentran la iglesia de Santa Catalina, una casa fundada en 1670 para tapear, una panadería cerca y paradas de autobús justo enfrente. En la plazita cercana hay un kiosco, un supermercado y un hotel nuevo decorado al estilo sevillano.
Este documento presenta el caso de un paciente de 88 años que ingresó en el hospital con dolor abdominal, fiebre y otros síntomas que indicaban una infección urinaria. Se repitió la ecografía abdominal en cuatro ocasiones debido a que no se había fijado correctamente el globo de sonda en la vejiga, impidiendo ver los resultados adecuadamente. El caso ilustra la importancia de los detalles en el proceso clínico y la necesidad de mejorar la comunicación entre departamentos para evitar errores que puedan retrasar el tratamiento o
El documento explora conceptos como la imaginación, los sueños y la percepción de la realidad. Habla de cómo transformamos nuestro entorno según nuestros deseos y de cómo nuestros sentidos a veces nos engañan sobre lo que es real. Plantea preguntas sobre si pertenecemos a un mundo imaginario y sobre si alguna generación podrá poner freno a la imaginación humana.
El documento describe las estructuras y objetos fundamentales de una base de datos, incluyendo tablas, consultas, formularios e informes. Explica que las tablas almacenan datos relacionados, las consultas permiten buscar y recuperar datos de varias tablas, los formularios facilitan la entrada y visualización de datos, e informes analizan y presentan los datos de forma imprimible. También define operaciones básicas como crear, modificar, eliminar y vaciar objetos de la base de datos.
This document outlines the procedures for an experiment to demonstrate various laws of thermal radiation and heat transfer, including the Stefan-Boltzmann law, view factor, Lambert's cosine law, and Lambert's law of absorption. It provides objectives, theoretical background, descriptions of the equipment, step-by-step procedures, examples of data collection and potential calculations for analyzing the results. The experiment aims to quantitatively examine the relationships between surface temperature, radiation intensity, distance, and absorption as governed by the relevant physical laws.
El documento describe las estructuras y operaciones básicas de una base de datos. Explica que una base de datos contiene tablas relacionadas entre sí que almacenan información, y que puede incluir consultas, formularios e informes. También detalla los pasos del diseño de una base de datos, como determinar el propósito, las tablas y campos necesarios, y las relaciones entre tablas. Por último, resume las operaciones básicas como crear, modificar y eliminar objetos, y define tablas, consultas, formularios e informes
¿Por qué es importante la Mejora del Diagnóstico?Lorenzo Alonso
Este documento describe los valores fundamentales del Foro Osler: 1) mejorar los métodos y sistemas de medicina; 2) conocer y mejorar el razonamiento clínico y el diagnóstico; y 3) promover una medicina más humana y centrada en el paciente.
El documento describe las prendas de protección química utilizadas en la industria para minimizar el riesgo de exposición de los trabajadores a sustancias químicas. Estas prendas incluyen trajes de 6 tipos que ofrecen diferentes niveles de protección contra productos químicos en forma de gas, líquido o partículas. La selección de la prenda adecuada depende de una evaluación de riesgos del puesto de trabajo para determinar el tipo y grado de exposición probable y así proporcionar la protección necesaria
Este documento trata sobre la seguridad industrial, salud ocupacional, calidad y medio ambiente. Explica los antecedentes históricos de estos temas desde la antigüedad hasta la actualidad, incluyendo a importantes figuras como Hipócrates, Plinio el Viejo y Bernardino Ramazzini. También resume el marco legal colombiano relacionado a la salud ocupacional y define los conceptos de seguridad industrial y salud ocupacional.
1) Several studies examined the use of various psychological tests to detect malingering of mental disorders. Tests that were studied include the MMPI-2, PAI, SIRS, SIMS, ASTM, CIH, AMI, RIT, and MCT.
2) Brain imaging studies using fMRI found distinct brain activation patterns when participants were asked to malinger memory impairment compared to actual memory tasks. Specific brain regions like the inferior parietal and superior temporal cortex were associated with feigned responses.
3) Further research is needed to determine the best combination of tests for detecting malingering and whether adding neuroimaging could improve diagnosis. Larger sample sizes and comparisons of tests are still required.
1) Several studies examined the use of various psychological tests to detect malingering of mental disorders. Tests that were evaluated include the MMPI-2, PAI, SIRS, SIMS, ASTM, CIH, AMI, RIT, and MCT.
2) Neuroimaging studies using fMRI found distinct brain activation patterns when participants were asked to malinger memory impairment compared to actual memory tasks. Prefrontal and parietal regions showed differences between real and feigned responses.
3) Using multiple valid malingering tests together was found to more accurately detect malingering than single tests alone. Further research is still needed to identify the most effective combination of malingering tests.
A neurological assessment evaluates brain-behavior relationships by assessing multiple areas of functioning through neuropsychological tests. It aims to diagnose issues, understand the nature and impact of brain injuries, and measure changes over time. A comprehensive assessment provides information to distinguish disorders, identify strengths and weaknesses, guide treatment planning, and inform those involved in a person's care. Neuropsychologists make inferences about neurological functioning based on test performance, considering pre-morbid functioning levels and using approaches like analyzing levels of performance, patterns of scores, and right-left differences.
Concussion guidelines article. Carney et al. Neurosurgery 2014brwjam004
This document summarizes the methodology and initial findings of a project to develop an evidence-based definition of concussion. The project used a systematic review and quality assessment of published literature from 1980 to 2012 to identify the most prevalent signs, symptoms, and cognitive deficits within 3 months of a potential concussive event. Sixty-two studies of medium or high quality were identified. The findings suggest consistent deficits in reaction time, memory, attention, processing speed and working memory within days of injury. Disorientation or confusion immediately after injury and slower reaction times or impaired verbal learning within 2 days were the most prevalent indicators. The studies mainly examined athletic populations and could not distinguish between evidence of concussion versus just a potential concussive event.
The document provides a summary of Arielle Farrah Herman's background, education, research experience, skills, and objectives. Her long-term goal is to investigate how talking therapies and cognitive behavioral therapy can be translated to insights about neural mechanisms underlying affective and personality deficiencies. She aims to develop non-pharmaceutical interventions based on these insights. Her education includes a psychology major and neuroscience minor from Haverford College. She has extensive experience in neuroscience research covering topics such as THC-related schizophrenia, spinal cord expression during anxiety, and effects of traumatic brain injury.
This document provides summaries of four keynote presentations and four symposia abstracts from the Australasian Cognitive Neurosciences Conference held in December 2012.
The keynote presentations discuss research on how memory supports future thinking, limits of subliminal processing and signatures of conscious access, temporal processing deficits in neurodevelopmental disorders, and the role of neural oscillations in schizophrenia and brain development.
The symposia abstracts report on research examining individual differences in cognitive flexibility and its neural bases, the neural mechanisms underlying cognitive control over reward in opiate users and healthy controls, behavioral control in adults with schizophrenia and children at elevated risk, and the development of cognitive control networks from childhood to adulthood.
The near death experience scale. Construction, reliability, and validityJosé Luis Moreno Garvayo
En este artículo se expone un criterio de demarcación para las experiencias cercanas a la muerte conocido como “escala de Greyson”: se trata de un cuestionario formado por 16 preguntas agrupadas en cuatro bloques (componentes cognitivo, afectivo, paranormal y trascendental) en las que el entrevistado debe marcar la respuesta que más se acerque a la experiencia vivida (con un 0 si no la ha experimentado, un 1 si lo ha hecho de forma poco intensa, o un 2 si ha sido muy intensa). El análisis de los resultados sirve para evaluar si el sujeto vivió una ECM (alcanzado una puntuación mínima de 7 según los postulados de Greyson), permitiendo descartar un síndrome orgánico del cerebro o una respuesta no específica al estrés sufrido por el “miedo a morir”. Para más detalles visitar: http://www.afanporsaber.es/2014/01/experiencias-cercanas-a-la-muerte-i/
Personality and the brain; Can brain damage change personality?Ivona Vukotic
Brain damage can change personality in several ways:
1) Studies have found links between certain personality disorders like antisocial personality disorder and abnormalities in areas of the brain like the prefrontal cortex and amygdala.
2) Brain imaging research on criminals with antisocial personality disorder has revealed structural and functional damage in regions involved in decision making, emotions, and social behavior.
3) Brain damage may contribute to personality changes by impairing functions like impulse control, empathy, and the ability to learn from punishment or fear. However, the relationship between brain abnormalities and personality is complex with many open questions.
The document discusses limitations in neuroimaging compilation and analysis for studying neural correlates of consciousness. It proposes compiling activation likelihood estimations from numerous neuroimaging experiments involving senses of ownership and agency to analyze combined neural activation patterns on 3D brain renderings. This may help reconcile limitations like indirect blood flow detection in fMRI and poor spatial/temporal resolution in PET scans. The hypothesis is that analyzing aggregated data this way could provide a more comprehensive understanding of neural correlates related to senses of ownership and agency.
The document provides a history of personality, psychopathology, and projective tests from 1890 to the present. It discusses early mental tests developed in the late 19th/early 20th century and the emergence of projective tests like the Rorschach inkblot test in the 1920s-1940s. It also summarizes common criticisms of projective tests regarding their lack of standardized administration and difficulties with validation and reliability.
The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery (HRNB) is a series of tests developed in the 1940s to identify and assess brain damage. It was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan to address limitations of intelligence tests for diagnosing brain injuries. The HRNB evaluates multiple cognitive abilities through tests of categories, tactile performance, trail making, finger tapping, rhythm, speech sounds, aphasia screening, and sensory-perceptual examination. While the HRNB is effective for diagnosing brain damage, recent research shows variables like age, education, IQ, gender, and alcohol use can also influence scores and should be considered when interpreting results.
The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery (HRNB) is a series of tests developed in the 1940s to identify and assess brain damage. It was created by Ward Halstead and Ralph Reitan to address limitations of intelligence tests for diagnosing brain injuries. The HRNB evaluates multiple cognitive abilities through tests of categories, tactile performance, trail making, finger tapping, rhythm, speech sounds, aphasia screening, and sensory-perceptual examination. While the HRNB is effective for diagnosing brain damage, recent research shows variables like age, education, IQ, gender, and alcohol use can also influence scores, requiring consideration during interpretation.
This document summarizes a study of diagnostic processes in a neuro-oncology clinic in Israel. The study observed clinic operations for 6 months through participant observation and interviews. It finds that brain tumor diagnoses involve complex interactions between multiple experts, including neuro-oncologists, radiologists, pathologists, and others. Diagnoses are negotiated and refined over time through mechanisms like hierarchies of expertise, sequencing of tests, negotiations between experts, consideration of peripheral symptoms, and pragmatism in treatment decisions. Diagnoses are also fluid and lifelong processes as patients receive ongoing testing and care.
This study examined the influences of brain size, sex, and sex chromosome complement on measures of cortical folding in 375 individuals, including typically developing individuals and those with sex chromosome aneuploidies. The researchers found large effects of sex and sex chromosome dosage on measures of cortical folding but that these effects were largely accounted for by normal allometric scaling relationships between brain size and folding. Specifically, after controlling for allometry, males had disproportionately longer sulci compared to females independent of brain size. Measures of cortical folding were found to be insensitive to variation in sex chromosome dosage.
A Method For The Study Of Medical Thinking And Problem SolvingBecky Gilbert
This document describes a method for studying medical problem solving and reasoning. The method involves having physicians work through simulated medical cases while thinking aloud. Their interactions are videotaped and later reviewed to stimulate their memory and allow them to elaborate on their thinking process. The fundamental units of analysis are questions asked, critical findings identified, and hypotheses generated. Eight categories of questions relate to medical history taking. Critical findings are assigned weights based on their relevance to diagnostic hypotheses. Hypotheses are identified from physician thinking aloud and retrospection. The method aims to objectively and reliably analyze medical diagnosis as a process of hypothesis testing, while also relating findings to broader theories of problem solving. It was tested by applying it to analyze two physician workups of the
Scientific Consensus on Brain Fingerprinting and Differing Views on the Scien...Karlos Svoboda
The following proposed Scientific Consensus on Brain fingerprinting has arisen from discussionsamong forensic scientists, legal experts, psychophysiologists, and experts in law enforcementand national security. These discussions were initiated by Lawrence A. Farwell. This is a workin progress. Discussions of these and other related issues are ongoing. Please refer commentsand suggestions to Lawrence A. Farwell at LFarwell@brainwavescience.com .The most fundamental point of consensus among scientists and other relevant experts regardingbrain fingerprinting, forensic science, and science in general is that different methods producedifferent results. Brain fingerprinting, from the seminal Farwell and Donchin (1986; 1991) andFarwell and Smith (2001) papers to the present, has never produced an error, neither a falsenegative nor a false positive. Some alternative methods of applying the same brain responses inattempts to detect concealed information have resulted in 10% to 15% errors and in some casesas high as nearly 50% errors, no better than chance. Even some purported “replications” ofFarwell and Donchin have in fact used fundamentally different methods. Consequently theyhave failed to achieve accuracy approaching that of brain fingerprinting and, unlike brainfingerprinting, are susceptible to countermeasures. These fundamental differences in scientificmethods are the reason why brain fingerprinting has been successfully applied in the field andruled admissible in court, and these alternative methods are unsuitable for field use or applicationin the criminal justice system or national security.In developing this consensus, we have specified precisely the standard scientific methods thatconstitute brain fingerprinting and attempted to identify the specific standards that are necessaryand sufficient to obtain the results that brain fingerprinting has consistently attained. We havesought to identify differences in methods that are responsible for the widely divergent resultsobtained in different laboratories conducting related research.Fundamental brain fingerprinting scientific principles, methods, and scientific standards arebriefly described the first section of this article. The proposed Scientific Consensus on BrainFingerprinting presumes a thorough understanding of the information contained therein. It alsoassumes familiarity with the articles in the literature cited in the Background section below.In the course of developing a consensus, some points have arisen on which there is considerablediversity of opinion. Some of these Differing Views on Brain Fingerprinting are briefly outlinedfollowing the Scientific Consensus on Brain Fingerprinting.
This document provides an overview of intelligence testing and neuropsychological assessment. It discusses the history and models of intelligence testing, including approaches by Spearman, Thurstone, Vernon, Guilford, Cattell, Piaget and Gardner. It also describes prominent intelligence tests like the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales. Additionally, it covers neuropsychological assessment methods like fixed batteries and flexible approaches. The role of helpers in assessment and issues around the appropriate use and interpretation of testing are also summarized.
The document discusses chemical imbalances in the brain and their relationship to mental disorders. It acknowledges that while chemical imbalances have not been pinpointed as the direct causes of specific disorders, they are real factors that can contribute to neural dysfunction. Treatment and prevention of chemical imbalances early on may help avoid full symptoms of mental conditions. The document also examines various brain imaging techniques and neurotransmitters implicated in disorders like depression.
This document provides an overview of neuropsychology, including its history, perspectives, roles of neuropsychologists, brain structure and function, and causes of brain damage. Some key points include:
- Neuropsychology studies the relationship between brain function and behavior, and involves understanding, assessing, and treating behaviors related to brain functioning.
- Important figures in the history and development of neuropsychology include Franz Gall, Ward Halstead, and Ralph Reitan. Flexible batteries allow tailored neuropsychological assessments.
- Causes of brain damage include trauma, cerebrovascular accidents, tumors, degenerative diseases, nutritional deficiencies, and toxic disorders. Outcomes depend on the location and severity of the injury or condition
Impairments In Prospective And Retrospective Memory Following StrokeJorge Barbosa
This document summarizes a study that examined prospective and retrospective memory impairments in community-dwelling stroke survivors compared to normal controls. Twelve stroke patients and twelve matched controls performed tests of executive function, prospective memory, and retrospective memory. The stroke patients performed worse than controls on laboratory tests of prospective and associative retrospective memory, as well as standard tests of retrospective memory and executive control. However, the groups did not differ on more structured clinical measures of these functions or on self-rated memory measures. The results suggest an impairment in stroke patients' ability to self-initiate effortful cognitive processes.
Here are the key points from the document in 3 sentences or less:
[SUMMARY] The document discusses a seminar on neuroscience and education in early childhood, focusing on progress and obstacles. It lists the authors of articles that will be included, and provides information on the organization of the seminar such as the sponsoring commission and publishing details. The articles will cover topics ranging from brain development to autism detection to the importance of play and urban spaces for children's education, health, and development.
Artigo esquizofrenia a meta analysis of cognitive remediation in schizophreniaJeane Araujo
This study conducted a meta-analysis of 26 randomized controlled trials investigating the effects of cognitive remediation on cognitive performance, symptoms, and psychosocial functioning in people with schizophrenia. The meta-analysis found that cognitive remediation had a medium effect on improving cognitive performance, a small effect on reducing symptoms, and a slightly lower but still medium effect on improving psychosocial functioning. Cognitive remediation programs that provided additional psychiatric rehabilitation showed stronger effects on improving psychosocial functioning compared to programs only involving cognitive remediation.
Josh is a sixth grader who struggles with executive function skills like organization, working memory, flexibility, self-monitoring, and task initiation. The document follows Josh through a typical day where he has trouble remembering his cleats for soccer, setting the table correctly, remembering plays in soccer, controlling his behavior at lunch, and procrastinating on a history paper until late at night. Executive function skills help people connect past experiences to present actions but kids with learning issues can struggle profoundly with these skills due to an inability to prioritize tasks and shift between aspects of a task.
O documento discute a avaliação das funções executivas em pré-escolares e crianças, apresentando testes e tarefas para avaliar diferentes domínios como memória operacional, controle inibitório e flexibilidade cognitiva. É destacada a importância de se ter normas específicas para cada faixa etária.
Evidence based practices for asd a review (2015)Jeane Araujo
This document summarizes a comprehensive review of evidence-based focused intervention practices for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The review identified 27 practices that met criteria for being evidence-based from 456 studies published between 1990 and 2011. Six new practices were identified that were not in the previous review, while one practice was removed. The implications for current practices and future research are discussed.
Criterios de aval de escrita cças n alfabeizadasJeane Araujo
A empresa de tecnologia anunciou um novo smartphone com câmera aprimorada, processador mais rápido e bateria de maior duração. O novo aparelho também possui tela maior e mais nítida em comparação com o modelo anterior. O lançamento do novo smartphone está programado para o próximo mês e deve atrair muitos consumidores em busca de um aparelho mais potente e duradouro.
1) O documento discute os principais contributos da Escala de Inteligência de Wechsler para Crianças - Terceira Edição (WISC-III) para a avaliação neuropsicológica de crianças e adolescentes.
2) A WISC-III fornece indicadores como Quociente Intelectual Total, Quociente Intelectual Verbal, Quociente Intelectual de Realização e discrepâncias entre eles que podem ajudar na avaliação neuropsicológica.
3) A WISC-III também ajuda a identificar pad
Neuropsicologia do retardo mental estudo de casoJeane Araujo
1) O documento discute um estudo de caso sobre a neuropsicologia de uma adolescente com retardo mental.
2) Foram utilizados testes psicométricos, testes informais e observações para avaliar suas habilidades cognitivas e comportamentais.
3) Os resultados apontaram para um funcionamento intelectual abaixo da média para sua idade, apraxia construtiva e disnomia.
BREEDING METHODS FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE.pptxRASHMI M G
Plant breeding for disease resistance is a strategy to reduce crop losses caused by disease. Plants have an innate immune system that allows them to recognize pathogens and provide resistance. However, breeding for long-lasting resistance often involves combining multiple resistance genes
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Nucleophilic Addition of carbonyl compounds.pptxSSR02
Nucleophilic addition is the most important reaction of carbonyls. Not just aldehydes and ketones, but also carboxylic acid derivatives in general.
Carbonyls undergo addition reactions with a large range of nucleophiles.
Comparing the relative basicity of the nucleophile and the product is extremely helpful in determining how reversible the addition reaction is. Reactions with Grignards and hydrides are irreversible. Reactions with weak bases like halides and carboxylates generally don’t happen.
Electronic effects (inductive effects, electron donation) have a large impact on reactivity.
Large groups adjacent to the carbonyl will slow the rate of reaction.
Neutral nucleophiles can also add to carbonyls, although their additions are generally slower and more reversible. Acid catalysis is sometimes employed to increase the rate of addition.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST(TAT) cognitive abilities, creativity, and critic...
Basic approaches usa_urss
1. Basic Approaches Used in American
and Soviet Clinical Neuropsychology
A. R. LURIA
LAWRENCE V. MAJOVSKI
University of Moscow
Moscow, USSR
National Institutes of Health
Bethesda, Maryland
ABSTRACT: Among that rapidly developing group of
sciences of the nervous system that we now call the
neurosciences, a special place is occupied by neuropsy-
chology. Clinical neuropsychology differs from the
other members of the group of neurological disciplines
in that its concern lies with the role of individual brain
systems in the organization of human psychological ac-
tivity and how these systems are altered upon brain-
behavior disturbance. Two current but differing ap-
proaches, one American and one Soviet, are used in
clinical neuropsychology for assessment of brain-be-
havior disturbance. The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsy-
chological Test Battery, quantitative in approach, is
presented and contrasted with the qualitative syn-
drome-analysis scheme of clinical investigation used by
Soviet neuropsychologists. Both approaches are con-
sidered in terms of their merits, clinical assets and
limitations, influence on generating further scientific
research questions, and contributions to the under-
standing of" the functional organization of brain-be-
havior activity. Fundamental differences in the above
approaches as to principles of work, theoretical dif-
ferences, practical importance for psychology and
medicine, and prospects for clinical neuropsychology's
future are summarized.
Neuropsychology in the United States can be di-
vided into two main subdivisions: clinical and ex-
perimental. These subfields are both concerned
with brain-behavior relationships, but they differ
in their objectives and methods.
American clinical neuropsychology emphasizes
comprehensive approaches to applied problems con-
cerning the psychological effects of brain damage
in humans. It is mainly concerned with quantita-
tive techniques applied to problems of diagnosis,
and there has been no systematic attempt to build
a working theory of the brain's functional orga-
nization in relationship to psychological processes.
Reitan (1966) has described the psychological ef-
fects of brain lesions, using a quantitative test bat-
tery. Clinical neuropsychologists assess intellec-
tual, sensory-motor, and personality deficits, re-
lating these to brain lesions and sometimes to brain
damage in the broader sense, including impaired
physiological function. Clinical neuropsychology,
in the American tradition, has its roots centered
in academic psychology, behavioral science, neurol-
ogy, and especially psychometric measurement.
Neuropsychologists representative of this branch
in the United States include, for example, A. Ben-
ton, N. Butters, M. Lezak, R. Reitan, and A. Smith.
These scientists both conduct research on humans
and perform clinical-diagnostic studies of brain im-
pairment, directly applying knowledge gained (e.g.,
rehabilitation planning). Sometimes their work
even extends to doing therapy with the brain-in-
jured patient.
Experimental neuropsychology's primary objec-
tive is to discover fundamental principles of brain-
behavior relations regardless of their practical ap-
plications. The basic assumption is that carefully
controlled experimental situations will reveal rela-
tionships of greater generality than will direct
study of naturally occurring situations. Most of
the research in this field is performed on animals.
Experimental neuropsychologists, in general, do
not orient their research toward the direct solu-
tion of applied problems. Representative of this
camp are such scientists as K. H. Pribram, R.
Sperry, and D. Bowden.
This article is based on research with the first author at
the Bourdenko Institute of Neurosurgery, Moscow, USSR,
under a grant to the second author from the National In-
stitutes of Health, US/USSR Health Science Exchange
Program, Fogarty International Center, Bethesda, Mary-
land, 1976-1977.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Lawrence V.
Majovski, who is now at the Department of Psychology,
University of California, 405 Hilgard, Los Angeles, Cali-
fornia 90024.
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • NOVEMBER 1977 • 959
2. Current American Approaches for
Assessing f rain-Behavior Disturbances
Two purposes have guided the development of
neuropsychological test batteries: (a) accuracy in
predicting organic disturbance (Filskov & Gold-
stein, 1974) and (b) understanding of the nature
of organic dysfunctions. Test batteries in the
United States have primarily developed out of the
combined needs of comprehensiveness in standard
data collection. Standardization leads to the use
of an integrated battery of tests administered in
the same carefully systematized fashion to all pa-
tients assessed in order to achieve reliability across
patients.
In American neuropsychology there exist few
formalized batteries for general clinical use, al-
though several have been constructed to meet spe-
cific clinical or research needs: Halstead's (1947)
battery for testing "biological intelligence" in
frontal lobe patients, the Columbia-Greystone bat-
tery for studying the intellectual consequences of
psychosurgery (Landis, 1952), Benton's (1968)
six-test frontal lobe battery, and A. Smith's (1975)
informal battery devised for the psychological as-
sessment of brain disorders, based on a selection of
tests for clinical assessment that can be applied
flexibly, with additions or subtractions to suit the
needs of each patient. Among the formalized bat-
teries for brain damage, one of the most widely
known set of tests in the United States is the
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery
(Reitan & Davison, 1974).
THE HALSTEAD-REITAN NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST
BATTERY
The battery of tests Reitan uses was originally de-
veloped from Halstead's attempts to quantify bio-
logical intelligence (Halstead, 1947). The test
battery was developed on the basis of empirical ex-
perience with individual subjects to reflect the fol-
lowing methods of inference: (a) level of per-
formance, (b) specific deficits of pathognomonic
signs, (c) differential scores or patterns of ability,
and (d) comparison of the functional efficiency of
the two sides of the body. It began as a battery
of seven tests selected for their power to dis-
criminate between patients with frontal lobe lesions
and those with other types of lesions or normal
subjects (Halstead, 1947; Reitan & Davison,
1974).
Reitan's "blind assessment" approach—that is,
interpreting results from the Halstead-Reitan bat-
tery administered to a patient without prior knowl-
edge of the patient's presenting complaints, medi-
cal history, or neuroradiological tests—emphasizes
the use of a standard battery of tests. These tests
are designed to reflect, as far as possible, the full
range of psychological deficits associated with
brain lesions, and they attempt to yield accurate
prediction of cerebral dysfunctions in patients.
Reitan (1974) puts it as follows:
The validity of neuropsychological assessment . . . depends
on the validity with which inferences can be made re-
garding the brain. Further, such evidence of validity can-
not be referred to regarding statistical probability levels of
group differences, but must be valid for the individual sub-
ject in question. The best way to accrue evidence that
validity standards of this type can be met is to put neuro-
psychological data to the test of individual prediction in
the form of 'blind' assessments, (p. 201)
The Halstead-Reitan battery consists of the fol-
lowing tests: (a) the Category Test, a test of ab-
stracting ability in which the subject's task is to
figure out the principle relating stimulus subtests
and signal his answer by pressing the appropriate
key on a keyboard; (b) the Tactual Performance
Test, which measures the total time required for
the blindfolded subject to complete a memory task
with the right hand, the left hand, and both hands,
the number of correct figures localized from mem-
ory, and the number of figures recalled; (c) the
Seashore Rhythm Test in which the patient is
asked to discriminate between like and unlike pairs
of musical beats; (d) the Speech-Sounds Percep-
tion Test, which is an auditory test that assesses
the subject's ability to discriminate between simi-
lar-sounding consonants; and (e) the Finger Tap-
ping Test. Added to the above six standardized
tests (but not part of the formal test battery) are
the following: the Trail-Making Test, a visual,
conceptual, and visuomotor tracking test highly
vulnerable to the effects of brain injury; the
Aphasia Screening Test (Halstead & Wepman,
1959); a sensory-perceptual examination that tests
for finger agnosia, skin-writing recognition, and
sensory extinction in the tactile, auditory, and
visual modalities; the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelli-
gence Scale I (or the Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale); and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personal-
ity Inventory. Administration time for the com-
plete battery runs from 6 to 8 hours.
A distinctive feature of Reitan's handling of the
examination data of the Halstead-Reitan battery
has been his reliance on test scores for predicting
the nature, site, and presence of the lesion (Wheeler
960 • NOVEMBER 1977 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST
3. & Reitan, 1963). Reitan uses the Halstead tradi-
tion of utilizing "cutting scores," that is, estab-
lished test-score norms for deciding the level of
severity of the impairment, and the Halstead Im-
pairment Index for making gross diagnostic dis-
criminations. Halstead set the cutting score for
the Impairment Index at a proportion of .50, with
proportions of .40 and lower characterizing the
control subjects. Predictions about the site of the
lesion and its nature (diffuse or focal, static or
changing) are based on statistically identified re-
lationships between test scores. The actuarial ap-
proach has generated development of computerized
interpretations of Halstead-Reitan test protocols
and modified versions of it plus other tests (Rus-
sell, Neuringer, & Goldstein, 1970; Adams, Ren-
nick, & Rosenbaum, Note 1). Efforts to use the
Halstead-Reitan battery for localizing lesions have
had mixed results. This test battery does elicit
differential performance patterns between patients
with left- and right-hemisphere lesions. However,
these right-left hemisphere differences do not oc-
cur with sufficient consistency to warrant basing
clinical decisions on the Halstead-Reitan test scores
alone (Wheeler & Reitan, 1963).
A useful .battery should provide the informa-
tion the examiner wants. If the examiner decides
to rely primarily on one battery of tests for un-
selected clinical patients, then it must be a multi-
purpose battery that will aid in diagnosis, give a
baseline, and supply data for future planning and
treatment of patient needs. There is not, at pres-
ent, any such American test battery that satisfies
all of these criteria. Although standardization pro-
cedures are the heart of reliability assessment at
the present stage of neuropsychological under-
standing, not enough is known to dogmatize any
set of procedures with a full-scale standardization
(Lezak, 1976).
USEFULNESS AND LIMITATIONS OF THE HALSTEAD-
REITAN TEST BATTERY
The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Bat-
tery affords one of the more reliable psychological
means of identifying patients with brain-behavior
disturbance, since it has been standardized to give
validity from patient population to patient popula-
tion. In the American tradition of quantitative
psychological measurement, given the validity of
results, one can generalize back to the population
tested for making accurate predictions, in certain
cases, as to the syndrome's nature and site. Predic-
tive efficiency based on validation of results across
brain-behavior disturbances is a powerful tool for
aiding in the diagnosis of brain lesions. Predictive
efficiency is the key in psychometric testing, which
aims to achieve consensual validation of the in-
strument used. The battery's greatest contribu-
tion may lie not in its diagnostic efficiency but
rather in its practicability for assessing brain-be-
havior relationships on a valid basis, making it pos-
sible to test different kinds of behavior when in-
vestigating neuropsychological questions.
The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test
Battery has limitations at the levels of practical
application and theory in that (a) it takes a long
time to administer (6-8 hours), (b) it has to be
distributed over days, (c) it is unsuitable to ad-
minister, temporarily, if the patient has had a
pneumoencephalogram that is likely to affect the
validity of the test results if examination has be-
gun, and (d) it is not suitable for the thorough
examination of patients with sensory or motor
handicaps or for speech analysis. The most time-
consuming tests are the Category Test and the
Tactual Performance Test (which also are more
highly predictive indicators of brain damage)
which comprise four of the seven tests used in
computing the Impairment Index for brain dam-
age. Reitan prefers reading the test results "blind"
—that is, without prior knowledge of the patient's
history or of any medical findings. This is an at-
tempt to eliminate subjective experimenter bias
in favor of an "objective" approach to the data
derived from the tests administered. However,
subjective qualification cannot be deliberately
avoided, since interpretation, to a certain extent,
is based on the interpreter's clinical acumen and
experience with making assessments based on pre-
vious and similar case histories.
Furthermore, the battery lacks grounding in a
theoretical formulation of the brain's functional
organization governing psychological processes af-
fecting behavior. Questions do not arise from
clinical neuropsychological assessments in an at-
tempt to generate research on how the .brain's
functional organization affects behavioral processes
by regulating them. Such considerations are vital
to providing clues as to (a) how the brain works
based on a functional organization, and (b) the
type of rehabilitation approaches needed after the
disturbance has been accurately assessed and
studied neuropsychologically. With the advent of
computerized axial tomography scanning (cur-
rently available in the West due to recent neuro-
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • NOVEMBER 1977• 961
4. radiological advances), brain lesions can now be
directly viewed in certain cases, photographically,
by noninvasive techniques requiring just several
minutes. What this technique poses for the future
of neuropsychologists using the Halstead-Reitan
battery is how to go about the systematic study of
different kinds of behavior involved in brain-be-
havior disturbance without a working theory or a
conceptual scheme of the functional organization
of the brain.
Soviet Approach to Clinical
Neuropsychological Investigation
During the past 40 years, Soviet scholars have par-
ticipated in the creation of a new branch of science
among the neurosciences called neuropsychology.
This discipline is primarily concerned with the
role of individual brain systems in the organiza-
tion of human psychological activities and is de-
pendent upon such sciences as neurology, psychol-
ogy, and linguistics. In the USSR, the senior
author and his co-workers have spent over 40 years
formulating the basic principles of the science of
neuropsychology. They described the symptoms
found in the lesions of the basic zones of the hu-
man brain and the principal neuropsychological
syndromes arising in localized lesions. Their start-
ing assumption is that the aim of neuropsychology
in local diagnosis of brain lesions is to analyze the
disturbances of the higher cortical processes of the
specific trait of a person's psychic activity. Quali-
fication of the deficit is of basic significance for
the neuropsychological investigator, as he must
first begin with a detailed knowledge of the given
form of psychological disturbance, for example,
perception, speech, or problem-solving (Luria,
1966b). By means of this approach, neuropsy-
chology has become an investigative tool in the
diagnosis of local brain lesions and has led to an
empirically formed theory for (a) the rehabilita-
tion of complicated functions that have been dis-
turbed by lesions and (b) the functional organiza-
tion of the brain in different blocks serving dif-
ferent psychological processes. Early investiga-
tions carried out by Soviet neuropsychologists
have demonstrated that neuropsychology is not
only important on the practical and clinical level
but that it also holds importance for the advance-
ment of a scientifically based theory about the
very structure of the neural basis of psychological
processes.
Neuropsychologists in the USSR have focused
on the study of the defective mechanisms of mem-
ory (Luria, 1976b), neurolinguistics (Luria,
1976a), etc., involved at the basis of different
brain syndromes described (Luria, 1966a, 1966b,
1973). Soviet neuropsychological research has
demonstrated conclusively that higher forms of
human psychological activity and human behav-
ioral acts take place with the participation of all
parts and levels of the brain, each of which makes
its own special contribution to the work of the
functional systems as a whole (Luria, 1970a,
1970b). In the present state of the art of clinical
neuropsychology, it has become necessary to cor-
relate the discoveries obtained by modern tech-
niques of neuroradiology with the neuropsychologi-
cal data concerning the nature of the disturbance
observed in order to put the clinical neuropsycho-
logical method on a valid foundation.
ADVANTAGES OF SOVIET METHODS
Past efforts by Soviet neuropsychologists have been
principally based on a conceptualized theory of
the functional organization of individual brain sys-
tems involved in regulating human psychological
activity. Study of brain function and psychologi-
cal processes affecting human behavior when dis-
turbed due to a localized lesion has largely been
based on the "qualitative" method of investigation
—that is, on a clinical description using a flexible
but systematic set of tests. This approach is simi-
lar to that of factor analysis, that is, breaking down
the results for further separate analysis in order to
determine those factors that show up significantly
among the variables tested. The Soviet neuropsy-
chologist's approach strongly opposed direct quan-
titative psychometrics in the past, holding to the
viewpoint that for all those functions and abilities
for which the normative standard is an average,
only an individual, single-subjects evaluation pro-
vides a meaningful basis for assessing brain deficits.
It is still held that a population average is not an
appropriate standard of comparison, since it doesn't
ordinarily apply to the case of an individual pa-
tient. All relevant clinical data are used in for-
mulating a working hypothesis of the patient's
presenting problem, in contradistinction to a
"blind" approach. It is a "dynamic," that is,
flexible, approach, in contrast to the rationale of
the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Bat-
tery. Each patient analysis is a theoretically
based dynamic experiment on the behavioral effects
accrued from a disturbance in the brain. Several
962 • NOVEMBER 1977 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST
5. studies can be made in 30-SO-minute sessions (and
if desired, continued over time as well) to accu-
rately construct a clinical picture of the defects
and monitor any changes within the patient's be-
havior. The results can then be compared with
other cases assessed having similar syndromes or
lesions in order to obtain an intersubject com-
parison for generalization purposes.
In place of cut-off scores for assessing the degree
of the gross brain damage, its site, and its extent,
the qualitative approach affords data from which
clinical inference is used to construct a working
hypothesis from the observed facts. Hypotheses
are subject to revision if new data are obtained
affecting the clinical picture. In contrast to the
Halstead-Reitan approach of using cut-off scores, a
qualitative study is performed using an inductive
approach to the patient's syndrome. This neuro-
psychological method of study is useful in replac-
ing incorrect hypotheses with better ones accord-
ing to the data received during the neuropsycho-
logical experiment. The method generates ques-
tions for further neuropsychological analysis clini-
cally and experimentally (if desired) and aids in
providing clues for rehabilitation treatment and
planning for the patient from Soviet clinical ex-
perience. In terms of advancing a scientific ap-
proach to the science of neuropsychology, a wide
range of information can be gathered in an attempt
to construct an accurate picture of the cerebral
organization of man's brain governing behavior
and conscious action. At the same time, this ap-
proach lends itself to electrophysiological investiga-
tion of the psychological processes of the patient's
deficits, which can complement the data obtained
from both a clinical and neuropsychological in-
vestigation.
LIMITATIONS
Reitan has made the assertion (Reitan & Davison,
1974) that the Soviet approach places primary em-
phasis on the individual case study rather than on
group statistics as a source of generalizable data.
One of these authors expressed the view that in
neuropsychology, where the material is compara-
tively limited in amount, attention should be
focused on the intercorrelation of symptoms, and
quantitative analysis should be specially developed
for use in such cases. The need has been acknowl-
edged for verification of clinical data in collecting
observations of brain-behavior disturbance in
order to establish the reliability of current methods
in use. Although far from thinking that quantita-
tive measurement is the only true criterion for data
collection in science, Soviet neuropsychologists
have asserted that "the time has come for mathe-
matical analysis of the vast amount of material
gathered as a result of observations over the last
forty years, observations that lie at the basis of
neuropsychological syndromes of local brain lesions
and that give these syndromes their essential re-
liability" (Luria & Artemieva, 1970, p. 111).
Qualitative Scheme of Soviet Clinical
Investigation
It has been demonstrated from the above that
neuropsychology in the USSR follows a very differ-
ent approach than American clinical psychology
in general and American clinical neuropsychology
in particular. Soviet neuropsycholpgists start from
a theory of the human brain's functional organiza-
tion (Luria, 1970b) gained from many decades of
clinical and experimental studies (anatomical,
physiological, and psychological). They formulate
hypotheses in order to direct them as to what
might be expected in cases of lesions occurring in
different parts of the functional systems in the
brain. It has been shown that each part of the
brain's functional systems enters into the brain's
working as a whole (Luria, 1973) and provides its
own highly specific contributions. It is further
supposed that the forms of behavior under study
are very complex psychological processes that in-
clude a varied set of factors that can be disturbed
in many different ways. Symptoms evoked by dis-
turbances of different factors have complicated
structures and can have different causes. For this
reason, symptoms must be carefully analyzed and
"qualified." The "qualification of the symptom"
depends on a careful analysis of the patient's de-
fects. This is the basic goal of the Soviet neuro-
psychologist's approach. He is never content with
merely finding a certain defect—for example, a
deficit in perception, memory, action, or realization
of programs. The singling out of a symptom is
not the end but rather the beginning of his work,
which continues in depth. He attempts the elu-
cidation of the disturbed structure, attempting to
find distinct psychological factors underlying the
symptom. This must occur first, in order to make
the symptom's inner structure lucid and to allow
the formulation of a hypothesis as to its relation-
ship with a local brain lesion. Thus, the designa-
tion of the defect's general nature—for example, a
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • NOVEMBER 1977 • 963
6. perceptual, memory, or vocabulary deficit—is not
the end of psychological assessment but rather the
initiation of a thorough line of investigation into
its many aspects.
The logical route for the neuropsychologist to
take in his approach to the above task is as fol-
lows. If the "symptom" under observation is seen
as the result of a breakdown in a certain factor
involved in a psychological system, then related
forms of behavior that can include this factor be-
come disturbed, while other forms of activities in
which this factor is not included remain intact.
Soviet neuropsychologists use a detailed yet dy-
namic (i.e., flexible), investigative approach, ap-
plying different tests appropriately addressed to
the different aspects of behavior. In each in-
stance, subsequent data obtained are compared
with the baseline data in an attempt to find a
"common element" underlying the different kinds
of symptoms that are manifested in varied forms
in the patient's behavior.
The qualification of a symptom, seen in the
above light, is thus a series of replications and a
study of the results obtained that requires a cer-
tain degree of flexibility in the investigator's think-
ing, concomitant with a critical capacity for reject-
ing hypotheses not supported by the data. Only
when a group of symptoms pointing to a common
factor is discovered, and when a syndrome verified
on the basis of reliability confirms the hypothesis,
does the work of the neuropsychologist come to
the point at which a true picture can be estab-
lished.
Qualification of a symptom is never construed
as the mechanistic application of a standardized
test battery with formal quantitative interpretation
of the results. In contradistinction, it is a clini-
cally creative effort requiring from the neuropsy-
chologist both critical thinking and readiness to
reject initial hypotheses if they conflict with new
data obtained or if there is confounding of re-
sults. Soviet neuropsychologists use as their start-
ing point a general scheme in their investigations.
This scheme includes, first of all, a carefully de-
tailed interview with the patient. Questions are
asked about his complaints. Exaggerated com-
plaints are as important as the absence of com-
plaints. The first can be either a patient's com-
pensatory reaction to his defect or a symptom of
overexcitation of the basal and mesial structures
of the brain, whereas the second can very often be
seen as a symptom of frontal lobe deficits in the
critical evaluation by the patient of his own de-
fects. Another possibility raised is the symptom
of anosognosia, typically observed in lesions of
the minor hemisphere.
Complaints of headaches (if not associated with
local pain during percussion of a control zone of
the cranium) are of rather restricted value for the
local diagnosis of brain injury. The same can be
said about general complaints of bad memory—
that is, they are very often observed and, as one
witty psychiatrist used to say, "Everybody com-
plains of a loss in memory, but hardly anybody
complains of a loss of intelligence." Complaints of
memory loss evoke questions of what "kind" of
memory deficits the patient exhibits. General or
modality-specific? Are the deficits due to patho-
logical "blocking" of traces by interference or due
to a "trace decay"? The same applies to com-
plaints of increased difficulty in problem-solving
ability. Is it due to a trace decay? To an inabil-
ity to convert the successive information in simul-
taneous—often spatial or quasi-spatial—schemes?
To a pathologically "increased inertia" of the men-
tal processes?
Perhaps one of the greatest values in obtaining
a complete history is the descriptions given of the
areas preceding the disturbances, for example,
acoustic or visual, tactual or visceral, as well as
complaints of defects in vision, for example, symp-
toms of hemianopia (although patients seldom use
the phrase "restricted vision on one side," prefer-
ring to talk about "bad vision of the left or the right
eye"). Of supreme value are the patient's answers
to questions of hie et nunc: What is the date, the
hour, or the place where he is? Has he already
had a meal? What did he do yesterday? etc.
Every defect in answers to such questions can
yield valuable information about the patient's state
of consciousness and his orientation in space, time,
and place, which very often are closely associated
with pathological processes in the deep structures
of the brain.
In each case, the neuropsychologist ought to give
particular attention not only to the content of the
answers produced but to their form. It should al-
ways be kept uppermost in the mind that the kind
of answers received are important with regard to
the forms of the patient's behavior. Examples of
quick or impulsive answers (with or without cor-
rections), echolalic repetitions of the question, or
an inability to answer when the question requires a
preliminary choice between several alternatives can
be observed.
The scheme of clinical investigation also includes
964 • NOVEMBER 1977 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST
7. analysis of deficits in praxis (motor action), gnosis
(optic, acoustic, and cutaneous as well as postural
perception), memory (modality-specific or general,
nonverbal and verbal mnestic processes), speech
(generation of utterances and their understanding,
including writing and reading), and problem-solv-
ing behavior.
An important underlying principle stressed dur-
ing the investigation is this: The symptoms we ob-
serve are simple and do not present any difficulties
in intact, persons. For this reason, we pay atten-
tion not only to the patient's inability to solve a
given problem (or the presence, absence, or level
of the defects), but foremost to the kind of defect,
and last but not least, to the factors that underlie
the symptom. Maximum stress should be placed
not so much on what suffers but rather on how a
function suffers. This is the essence of what is
meant by the term qualification of the symptoms,
previously mentioned.
After the preliminary interview is completed, we
begin our formal investigation by trying to see
whether the patient has difficulties in praxis. He
is asked to imitate movements or some posture of
the examiner's hand. For example, a modeled
posture of the index and little fingers of the right
hand stretched out is presented, and the patient
must imitate this posture with his own right hand.
An inability to do this raises a number of different
questions with quite different implications neuro-
psychologically. The patient can show difficulties
in producing the necessary positions of the fingers
and perhaps succeeds only after several trials,
sometimes using his other hand to help position his
fingers. The source of such defects might lie in a
disturbance of the afferent organization of the
movement, that is, in a breakdown of the appropri-
ate communication of impulses associated with a
defect in the sensory impulses of joints and mus-
cles. This might then suggest that a lesion in the
postcentral parts of the hemisphere (contralateral
or the major one) is the site where the defect
originates.
The inability to reproduce the correct posture
presented can have other sources as well. It can
stem from the inability to overcome an immediate
mirroring effect, which produces a "crossed" reac-
tion, that is, an immediate imitation of the ex-
aminer's movement by stretching forward the little
finger of the right hand when the examiner's right-
hand index finger is shown. This error might sug-
gest that the defect is one of spatial analysis or of
coded action that is replaced by a simplistic, imita-
tive reaction. In the former example, the parieto-
occipital region is involved, and in the second
"echopractic" example, a frontal defect could likely
be the area of involvement.
Other difficulties arise in attempting to resolve
this simple problem. Having reproduced one
posture, the patient, for example, may then be un-
able to shift from the movement given. In our
work, we term this pathological inertness. Diffi-
culties such as this can be the result of pathological
perseveration of the movement. In such cases, the
symptom is one of a quite different nature than
previously considered. We can hypothesize that
perhaps some pathological processes of the anterior
parts of the hemispheres are involved.
If we have inferred from the above initial ob-
servation that defects of complex hand movement
are due to difficulties in kinesthetic afferent ac-
tivity in the first of a series of experiments, we then
move on to a series of other tests that include
movements for which complex kinesthetic activity
is not required. Instead, the spatial organization
of movements is required. One such example of
motor action is a test in which a simple movement
of the patient's hand has to be oriented in space;
the patient must put his palm in a horizontal,
frontal, or sagittal position. Another example
using a more complex test (Head's Test) requires
the patient (sitting vis-a-vis the examiner) to re-
produce some complicated movements, for example,
lifting the right hand when the examiner lifts his
right or lifting the left hand when the examiner
lifts his left.
If the patient fails these tests, and if a break-
down in optico-spatial processes is suspected on
medical grounds as the source of the defect, then
the next step is to examine how far the patient can
go in problem solving that requires the use of
inner coding schemes or quasi-spatial schemes at
the symbolic level. Difficulties in evaluating the
positions of the hands of a watch, in determining
the relations of directions on a geographical map,
or even in computing and decoding some complex
logico-grammatical constructions (e.g., "a circle
under the triangle," "brother's father," and/or
"father's brother") can yield additional informa-
tion concerning the derangements of simultaneous
spatial (or quasi-spatial) neural schemes usually
associated with injuries of the infero-parietal
parts of the major hemisphere. If the patient is
able to overcome the tendency of "mirroring"
movements (reproduction of the position of the
examiner's hands) or if there are no sustained de-
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • NOVEMBER 1977 • 965
8. fects in the tests just mentioned, one can surmise
that defects in spatial analysis (associated with the
parieto-occipital parts of the brain's cortex) are
absent and that the tendency to give an immediate
imitation has another basis and is perhaps associ-
ated with lesions of the frontal lobes of the brain.
However, this does not yet exhaust our investi-
gation, since we cannot yet accept the hypothesis
that the factor of kinesthetic afferent activity is
the only source of the patient's underlying defec-
tive movement. Nor can we conclude, positively,
that these defects are associated with a lesion of
the postcentral area of the cortex. Another pos-
sibility needing to be eliminated is the origin of
this motor defect arising from its organization in
time—for example, from pathological inertia of the
neural processes due to a lesion in the frontal or
premotor zones of the brain.
Moving further into our neuropsychological con-
sideration of the symptoms being observed, in
order to confirm or disconfirm our original hy-
pothesis, we must turn to another set of experi-
ments designed to study the "plasticity" of the pa-
tient's behavioral processes. Here we must con-
sider eliminating the kinesthetic or the visuo-
spatial complexity of the movements involved and
must present the patient with sequential organiza-
tion of his actions, for example, with tasks where
only the "plasticity" or "inertness" of his actions
is demonstrable. For example, the patient may
be asked to reproduce the examiner's tapping
rhythm and to shift from tapping by twos to tap-
ping by threes or from such simple tapping to
more complex tapping (e.g., two taps loud, three
taps soft, and then reversed). He is then asked to
return once more to the simple patterns of tapping
(by twos or threes). If his neural processes show
signs of pathological inertia, this simple test be-
comes difficult and the patient is unable to shift
readily from tapping by twos to tapping by threes.
Defects in this test of serial organization of
movements can lead to the hypothesis that "dy-
namic" factors or defects in "plasticity" can be
the source of the disturbances observed in the first
test.
To continue study of the persistence of the ob-
served inertia, still another test can be used. In
this test, the patient is asked to draw a circle first,
then a cross, and then a triangle (or, in more
thorough tests, a circle, cross, triangle, square,
etc.). In each trial there is a shifting from one
pattern to another. If flexibility of actions is dis-
turbed, one of the following difficulties arises. The
patient either continues the movement started and
repetitively produces a circular movement (which
is often the case observed in massive or deep
frontal tumors) or he perhaps fulfills the first in-
struction but shows difficulties in transition to the
next trial. Once a circle is drawn, he might con-
tinue drawing a circle, perseveratively, even when
asked to draw a cross. Or, in drawing two figures,
a circle and a cross, the patient may start to draw
a cross but then revert to preserving features of
a circle, drawing and including mixed features of
a cross and a circle.
More complex forms of pathological inertia can
be seen in the actualization of complex instruc-
tions when, after the first instruction is completed,
the patient shows a perseverative tendency in the
realization of the second instruction.
If we wish to confirm or disconfirm our hypoth-
esis as to the lack of plasticity of other parts of
the patient's nervous system (as to their personal
integrity in conjunction with the symptoms under
study), we can follow one of two further direc-
tions: either continue in the vein of studying
motor behavior or look at other variables that
might play a role in the clinical picture.
The first of these suggested directions involves
moving on to a study of more complex forms of
motor behavior under conditions requiring a break-
down of "imitative" tendencies and stereotypes by
the patient. For example, the patient may be
asked not to imitate the examiner's postures but to
obey some verbal instruction completely contra-
dictory to his immediate impression (e.g., show a
finger when a fist is shown, or vice versa, make a
quick, sudden, intense movement when a soft stim-
ulus is presented).
The second direction can be taken once a stereo-
type of motor reaction is established. The in-
struction to react with the movement of the right
hand to one sound and with the movement of the
left hand to two sounds leads to a stereotyped
right-left-right-left movement. If this instruction
is repeated, the examiner can then break this
stereotype and unexpectedly present another series,
for example, right-left-right-left-left. The appear-
ance of imitative movements in the first example of
stereotyped reactions, where the patient neglects
the instruction and continues the learned set (the
right-left-right-left series), leads to the suggestion
that a breakdown of the controlling function ,of
speech is present and that a disturbance of the
frontal lobes is very probable.
In all of the previously considered examples,
966 • NOVEMBER 1977 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST
9. similar symptoms of pathological inertia can be
seen in more complicated verbal or symbolic forms
of behavior.
There are two tests particularly appropriate to
demonstrating the potential plasticity observable
in the patient's psychological processes during dis-
turbances. The first test deals with verbal mem-
ory and the second with mental arithmetic com-
putation.
In the first test, imparting words to verbal mem-
ory, three words are presented to the patient. He
is then asked to repeat the series. A second group
of three words is subsequently presented. After
this second group is repeated by the patient, he is
asked to retrieve the first series of words and then
the second. A -breakdown in the psychological
system of plasticity and a tendency toward per-
severation can be observed if such disturbances
lead to either of these results. The patient with a
tendency toward "inertness" of mental processes
can show marked difficulties in the retrieval of the
first series of words after the second series has
been presented and repeated by him. In many in-
stances, it has been observed that words from the
second group show up due to pathological inertia
and that the patient includes them in the repetition
of the first group of words. In cases of massive
frontal lobe lesions, even a repetition of the second
series may likely be impossible and may be re-
placed by an inert repetition of the first series. In
mild cases of injuries to the frontal lobes, this ob-
served inertia is clearly seen in retrieval of the
previous series of independent words. Compared
to massive frontal lesions (bifrontal tumors or
trauma of both frontal lobes), this is not the case;
retrieval of the first group of organized phrases or
texts after the second series is presented becomes
an impossible task. The patient continues to re-
produce the second phrase or includes some inert
part of the first. Contamination due to inertness
of the higher cortical processes can be clearly ob-
served. The same phenomenon can be seen if we
ask the patient to count backward, arithmetically,
or to name months of the year in reverse order. If
no signs of pathological inertia are present, both
tasks are easily completed.
Summary
The basic approaches to neuropsychology in the
United States and the USSR differ both in primary
orientation—the former being quantitative and the
latter, qualitative—and in theoretical foundation—
a working theory of brain function in relation to
behavior provided by the latter versus no theory
at all in the former. Both the American and
Soviet methods have proven useful in the diagnosis
of brain-behavior disturbances. The Soviet method
oi investigation has provided insights in the on-
going study of brain-behavior relationships both
pie- and postoperatively; it has provided fruitful
direction in approaches toward restoration of de-
fective functions and in rehabilitation planning;
and it has yielded a systematic conceptualization of
the brain as a group of functionally organized
"blocks" governing the regulation of psychological
processes. It has generated questions and has led
to electrophysiological research investigations into
the physiological bases of disturbed psychological
functions due to brain disturbances. While cur-
rent Soviet methods need to be verified through
cross-validation in order to accurately assess their
reliability, it seems that the necessary and logical
first steps in any new science are (a) to collect data
accurately, (b) to formulate hypotheses from ob-
servations and to confirm correct ones, and (c) to
make numerous adequate tests through repeated
experiments before subjecting the results of the
methods to statistical scrutiny.
Soviet investigation does not end when a symp-
tom's presence is demonstrated and confirmed.
Rather, a description of the symptom is first given,
which leads to the next essential step of qualifying
it in an effort to detect its sources and to single
out the underlying psychological factors affecting
the psychological processes (and to establish a
picture of the syndrome that can confirm the initial
hypothesis). The emphasis of this detailed, qual-
itative, clinical analysis is how the brain's func-
tioning is disturbed. This approach is similar to
that of "analysis-by-synthesis," which can lead to
reliability of results when using a single-subjects
experimental or clinical design. Used in this man-
n<;r, over subject populations with the same clas-
sifications of pathology, it can yield reliability as-
sessed through the syndromes obtained and valid-
ity based on intersubject data.
A purely quantitative approach to the measure-
ment of brain disturbance of behavior that uses a
test battery with a cut-off score as a performance
ciiterion is insufficient to yield rich data for a
comprehensive neuropsychological interpretation.
The blind method of interpretation of standardized
tests without prior knowledge of the patient's his-
tory and clinical test data can hardly serve in
providing a complete and sound analysis for the
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST • NOVEMBER 1977 • 967
10. diagnosis of brain lesions and for treatment recom-
mendations. This especially holds true for the
young psychologist lacking a wide enough back-
ground and experience with neuropsychological in-
terpretation.
Some areas that have recently been given at-
tention by Soviet neuropsychologists are as fol-
lows: (a) neurolinguistics, (b) human develop-
mental processes (in a child's brain), (c) right-
hemisphere functional activity, and (d) the neuro-
psychology of memory mechanisms. Work in our
Moscow laboratory has been underway for the
last 15 years in the above areas. If neuropsychol-
ogy is to flourish as a science in the future, further
baseline data consisting of recorded clinical and ex-
perimental observations, as well as anatomical and
electrophysiological data, are needed. Important
questions needing answers are as follows: How
does the brain effect control over its ownbehavior?
How does it make a decision to behave the way it
does during certain psychological activities? How
is the brain able to compensate when partially (or
fully) arrested in functions by a brain tumor?
How does an infant brain develop into a fully in-
tact adult one? The senior author has spent over
40 years pioneering new frontiers, adding insights
into some of these areas, and posing questions, all
of which have led to a model of the working brain
based on functionally organized blocks. It is now
the task of future generations of neuropsychologists
to replicate this work, to expand upon how the
psychological and physiological processes are in-
volved in the working brain for a better scientific
understanding of brain-behavior activity, and
hopefully, to prevent or treat brain-behavior dis-
turbances wheneverpossible.
REFERENCE NOTE
1. Adams, K., Rennick, P., & Rosenbaum, G. Automated
interpretation of the neuropsychological battery: An
ability-based approach. Paper presented at the meeting
of the International Neuropsychological Society, Tampa,
Florida, February 1975.
REFERENCES
Benton, A. L. Differential behavioral effects in frontal
lobe diseases. Neuropsychologia, 1968, 6, S3-60.
Filskov, S. B., & Goldstein, S. G. Diagnostic validity of
the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1974, 42,
382-388.
Halstead, W. C. Brain and intelligence: A quantitative
study of the frontal lobes. Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press, 1947.
Halstead, W. C., & Wepman, J. M. The Halstead-Wep-
man Aphasia Screening Test. Journal of Speech and
Hearing Disorders, 1959, 14, 9-14.
Landis, C. Remarks on psychological findings attendant
on psychosurgery. In The biology of mental health and
disease: Milbank Memorial Fund 27th annual proceed-
ings. New York: Hoebner, 19S2.
Lezak, M. Neuropsychological assessment. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1976.
Luria, A. R. Higher cortical junctions in man. New
York: Basic Books, 1966. (a)
Luria, A. R. The human brain and psychological pro-
cesses. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. (b)
Luria, A. R. The origin and cerebral organization of man's
conscious action. In The 19th International Congress of
Psychology. Dorchester, England: Henry Ling, Ltd.,
Dorset Press, 1970. (a)
Luria, A. R. The functional organization of the brain.
Scientific American, March 1970, pp. 66-78. (b)
Luria, A. R. The working brain. New York: Basic
Books, 1973.
Luria, A. R. Basic problems of neurolinguistics. The
Hague, Netherlands: Mouton, 1976. (a)
Luria, A. R. Neuropsychology of memory. Washington,
D.C.: V. H. Winston, 1976. (b)
Luria, A. R., & Artemieva, E. Y. [Two ways towards re-
liability of psychological investigations.] Voprosy Psi-
hologii, 1970, 3, 10S-112.
Reitan, R. M. Problems and prospects in studying the
psychological correlates of brain lesions. Cortex, 1966, 2,
127-1S4.
Reitan, R. M. Assessment of brain-behavior relationships.
In P. McReynolds (Ed.), Advances in psychological as-
sessment (Vol. 3). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974.
Reitan, R. M., & Davison, L. A. Clinical neuropsychology:
Current status and applications. New York: Winston-
Wiley, 1974.
Russell, E. W., Neuringer, C., & Goldstein, G. Assessment
of brain damage: A neuropsychological key approach.
New York: Wiley-Intersdence, 1970.
Smith, A. Neuropsychological testing in neurological dis-
orders. In W. J. Friedlander (Ed.), Advances in neurol-
ogy (Vol. 7). New York: Raven Press, 197S.
Wheeler, L., & Reitan, R. M. Discriminant functions ap-
plied to the problem of predicting cerebral damage from
behavioral testing: A cross-validation study. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 1963, 16, 681-701.
968 • NOVEMBER 1977 • AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST