1010DocumentsConsidering the Evidence Ideologies of.docx

1010
Documents
Considering the Evidence:
Ideologies of the Axis Powers
Even more than the Great War of 1914–1918, the Second World
War was aconflict of ideas and ideologies as well as a struggle
of nations and armies.
Much of the world was immensely grateful that the defeat of
Italy, Germany,
and Japan discredited the ideas that underlay those regimes.Yet
students of
history need to examine these ideas, however repellant they may
be, to under-
stand the circumstances in which they arose and to assess their
consequences.
Described variously as fascist, authoritarian, right-wing, or
radically nationalist,
the ideologies of the Axis powers differed in tone and
emphasis.But they shared
a repudiation of mainstream Western liberalism, born of the
Enlightenment,
as well as an intense hatred of Marxist communism.The three
documents that
follow provide an opportunity to define their common features
and to distin-
guish among them.
Document 21.1

Mussolini on Fascism
In 1932, after ten years in power, the Italian fascist leader
Benito Mussolini
wrote a short article for an Italian encyclopedia outlining the
political and
social ideas that informed the regime that he headed. It was an
effort to pro-
vide some philosophical coherence for the various measures and
policies that
had characterized the first decade of his rule. (See pp. 988–90
for background
on Italian fascism.)
■ To what ideas and historical circumstances is Mussolini
reacting in this
document?
■ What is his criticism of pacifism, socialism, democracy, and
liberalism?
■ How does Mussolini understand the state? What is its
relationship to
individual citizens?
■ Why might these ideas have been attractive to many in Italy
in the
1920s and 1930s?
1011considering the evidence / documents: ideologies of the
axis powers
Benito Mussolini

The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism
1933
Above all, Fascism.. . believes neither in the pos-sibility nor the
utility of perpetual peace. It thus
repudiates the doctrine of Pacifism—born of a re-
nunciation of the struggle and an act of cowardice
in the face of sacrifice.War alone brings up to its
highest tension all human energy and puts the stamp
of nobility upon the peoples who have the courage
to meet it. . . .This anti-Pacifist spirit is carried by
Fascism even into the life of the individual; . . . it is
the education to combat, the acceptation of the risks
which combat implies, and a new way of life for
Italy.Thus the Fascist . . . conceives of life as duty and
struggle and conquest, life which should be high and
full, lived for oneself, but above all for others—
those who are at hand and those who are far distant,
contemporaries, and those who will come after. . . .
Fascism repudiates any universal embrace, and
in order to live worthily in the community of civ-
ilized peoples watches its contemporaries with vig-
ilant eyes. . . .
Such a conception of Life makes Fascism the
complete opposite of . . . Marxian Socialism, the ma-
terialist conception of history; according to which
the history of human civilization can be explained
simply through the conflict of interests among the
various social groups and by the change and develop-
ment in the means and instruments of production... .
Fascism, now and always, believes in holiness and in
heroism; that is to say, in actions influenced by no
economic motive,direct or indirect.. . . It follows that
the existence of an unchangeable and unchanging

class war is also denied.. . .And above all Fascism de-
nies that class-war can be the preponderant force
in the transformation of society. . . . Fascism repudi-
ates the conception of “economic” happiness, to
be realized by Socialism... . Fascism denies the valid-
ity of the equation, well-being�happiness, which
would reduce men to the level of animals, caring
for one thing only—to be fat and well-fed and
would thus degrade humanity to a purely physical
existence.
After Socialism,Fascism combats the whole com-
plex system of democratic ideology, and repudiates
it. . . . Fascism denies that the majority, by the simple
fact that it is a majority, can direct human society; it
denies that numbers alone can govern by means of
a periodical consultation, and it affirms the immut-
able, beneficial, and fruitful inequality of mankind,
which can never be permanently leveled through
the mere operation of a mechanical process such as
universal suffrage. The democratic regime may be
defined as from time to time giving the people the
illusion of sovereignty, while the real effective sov-
ereignty lies in the hands of other concealed and
irresponsible forces. . . .
The foundation of Fascism is the conception of
the State, its character, its duty, and its aim. Fascism
conceives of the State as an absolute, in comparison
with which all individuals or groups are relative, only
to be conceived of in their relation to the State. . . .
[T]he Fascist State is itself conscious, and has itself
a will and a personality. . . . For us Fascists, the State is
not merely a guardian, preoccupied solely with the
duty of assuring the personal safety of the citizens;

nor is it an organization with purely material aims,
such as to guarantee a certain level of well-being and
peaceful conditions of life. . . .The State, as conceived
of and as created by Fascism, is a spiritual and moral
fact in itself. . . .The State is the guarantor of secu-
rity, both internal and external, but it is also the cus-
todian and transmitter of the spirit of the people, as
it has grown up through the centuries in language,
in customs and in faith. . . . [I]t represents the im-
manent spirit of the nation. . . . It is the State which
educates its citizens in civic virtue, gives them a
consciousness of their mission, and welds them into
unity... . It leads men from primitive tribal life to that
highest expression of human power which is Empire.
Source: Benito Mussolini, The Political and Social Doctrine
of Fascism, translated by Jane Soames (London: Leonard
and Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press, 1933).
1012 chapter 21 / the collapse and recovery of europe, 1914–
1970s
[T]he Fascist State. . . is not reactionary, but rev-
olutionary, in that it anticipates the solution of the
universal political problems which elsewhere have to
be settled in the political field by the rivalry of par-
ties, the excessive power of the Parliamentary regime
and the irresponsibility of political assemblies; while
it meets the problems of the economic field by a
system of syndicalism°. . . and in the moral field en-
forces order, discipline, and obedience to that which
is the determined moral code of the country. Fas-
cism desires the State to be a strong and organic body,
at the same time reposing upon broad and popular

support.. . .The Fascist State organizes the nation,but
leaves a sufficient margin of liberty to the individual;
the latter is deprived of all useless and possibly harm-
ful freedom,but retains what is essential; the deciding
power in this question cannot be the individual, but
the State alone.The Fascist State is not indifferent to
the fact of religion in general, or to that particular
and positive faith which is Italian Catholicism.The
State professes no theology,but a morality, and in the
Fascist State religion is considered as one of the deep-
est manifestations of the spirit of man, thus it is not
only respected but defended and protected.
For Fascism the growth of Empire, that is to say
the expansion of the nation, is an essential manifes-
tation of vitality, and its opposite a sign of deca-
dence. Peoples which are rising, or rising again
after a period of decadence, are always imperialist;
any renunciation is a sign of decay and of death.
Fascism is the doctrine best adapted to represent
the tendencies and the aspirations of a people, like
the people of Italy, who are rising again after many
centuries of abasement and foreign servitude. But
Empire demands discipline, the coordination of all
forces and a deeply felt sense of duty and sacrifice:
this fact explains . . . the necessarily severe measures
which must be taken against those who would
oppose this spontaneous and inevitable movement
of Italy in the twentieth century. . . for never before
has the nation stood more in need of authority, of
direction, and of order.
°syndicalism: federations of trade unions under state
direction.

Document 21.2
Hitler on Nazism
Unlike Mussolini,Adolph Hitler published his political views
well before he
came to power. Born in Austria, Hitler absorbed a radical form
of German
nationalism, which he retained as a profoundly disillusioned
veteran of World
War I. In 1919, he joined a very small extremist group called
the German Work-
ers Party, where he rose quickly to a dominant role based on his
powerful ora-
torical abilities. Inspired by Mussolini’s recent victory in Italy,
Hitler launched
in 1923 an unsuccessful armed uprising in Munich for which he
was arrested
and imprisoned.During his brief stay in prison (less than a
year), he wrote Mein
Kampf (My Struggle), part autobiography and part an exposition
of his political
and social philosophy.Armed with these ideas, Hitler assumed
the leadership
of Germany in 1933 (see pp. 990–93).
■ What larger patterns in European thinking does Hitler’s book
reflect
and what elements of European thought does he reject?
Consider in
particular his use of social Darwinism, then an idea with wide
popularity in Europe.

axis powers
■ How does Hitler distinguish between Aryans and Jews? How
does he
understand the role of race in human affairs?
■ What kind of political system does Hitler advocate?
■ What goals for Germany—both domestic and foreign—did
Hitler set
forth in Mein Kampf ?
■ What aspects of Hitler’s thinking might have had wide appeal
in
Germany during the 1930s?
■ How do you think Mussolini and Hitler might have responded
to each
other’s ideas?
Adolph Hitler
Mein Kampf (My Struggle)
1925‒1926
Nation and Race
There are some truths which are so obvious that for
this very reason they are not seen or at least not rec-
ognized by ordinary people. . . . Every animal mates
only with a member of the same species. . . . Any
crossing of two beings not at exactly the same level
produces a medium between the level of the two
parents.. . . Such mating is contrary to the will of Na-
ture for a higher breeding of all life. . . .The stronger
must dominate and not blend with the weaker, thus

sacrificing his own greatness. Only the born weak-
ling can view this as cruel . . . , for if this law did not
prevail, any conceivable higher development of or-
ganic living beings would be unthinkable.
In the struggle for daily bread all those who are
weak and sickly or less determined succumb, while
the struggle of the males for the female grants the
right or opportunity to propagate only to the health-
iest. . . . No more than Nature desires the mating of
weaker with stronger individuals, even less does she
desire the blending of a higher with a lower race,
since, if she did, her whole work of higher breeding,
over perhaps hundreds of thousands of years, might
be ruined with one blow.. . . All great cultures of the
past perished only because the originally creative race
died out from blood poisoning.
Those who want to live, let them fight, and those
who do not want to fight in this world of eternal
struggle do not deserve to live. . . .
All the human culture, all the results of art, sci-
ence, and technology that we see before us today,
are almost exclusively the creative product of the
Aryan. . . . [H]e alone was the founder of all higher
humanity, therefore representing the prototype of
all that we understand by the word “man.” He is the
Prometheus of mankind from whose bright forehead
the divine spark of genius has sprung at all times. . . .
Exclude him, and perhaps after a few thousand years
darkness will again descend on the earth, human
culture will pass, and the world turn to a desert.
All who are not of good race in this world are

chaff.
The mightiest counterpart to the Aryan is rep-
resented by the Jew.. . . Since the Jew.. .was never in
possession of a culture of his own, the foundations of
his intellectual work were always provided by oth-
ers. His intellect at all times developed through the
cultural world surrounding him.. . .
He lacks completely the most essential require-
ment for a cultured people, the idealistic attitude.
In the Jewish people the will to self-sacrifice does
not go beyond the individual’s naked instinct of
Source:Adolph Hitler, Mein Kampf (originally published
1925–26).
1970s
self-preservation.Their apparently great sense of soli-
darity is based on the very primitive herd instinct
that is seen in many other living creatures in this
world. . . . [T]he Jew is led by nothing but the naked
egoism of the individual.
With satanic joy in his face, the black-haired
Jewish youth lurks in wait for the unsuspecting girl
whom he defiles with his blood, thus stealing her
from her people.With every means he tries to de-
stroy the racial foundations of the people he has set
out to subjugate. . . . And so he tries systematically to
lower the racial level by a continuous poisoning of
individuals.And in politics he begins to replace the

idea of democracy by the dictatorship of the prole-
tariat. In the organized mass of Marxism he has found
the weapon which lets him.. . subjugate and govern
the peoples with a dictatorial and brutal fist.
In economics he undermines the states until the
social enterprises which have become unprofitable
are taken from the state and subjected to his financial
control.
In the political field he refuses the state the
means for its self-preservation, destroys the founda-
tions of all national self-maintenance and defense,
destroys faith in the leadership, scoffs at its history
and past, and drags everything that is truly great into
the gutter.
Culturally he contaminates art, literature, the the-
ater, makes a mockery of natural feeling, overthrows
all concepts of beauty and sublimity, of the noble
and the good, and instead drags men down into the
sphere of his own base nature.Religion is ridiculed,
ethics and morality represented as outmoded, until
the last props of a nation in its struggle for existence
in this world have fallen.
If we pass all the causes of the German collapse
[defeat in World War I] in review, the ultimate and
most decisive remains the failure to recognize the
racial problem and especially the Jewish menace. . . .
The lost purity of the blood alone destroys inner
happiness forever, plunges man into the abyss for all
time, and the consequences can never more be elim-
inated from body and spirit. . . . All really significant
symptoms of decay of the pre-War period can in the
last analysis be reduced to racial causes.

The State
The State is only a means to an end. . . . Above all,
it must preserve the existence of the race. . . .We, as
Aryans, can consider the State only as the living
organism of a people, an organism which does not
merely maintain the existence of a people, but func-
tions in such a way as to lead its people to a position
of supreme liberty by the progressive development
of the intellectual and cultural faculties.
We National Socialists know that in holding these
views we take up a revolutionary stand in the world
of today and that we are branded as revolutionaries....
As a State the German Reich shall include all
Germans. Its task is not only to gather in and fos-
ter the most valuable sections of our people but to
lead them slowly and surely to a dominant position
in the world. . . . It will be the task of the People’s
State to make the race the centre of the life of the
community. It must make sure that the purity of the
racial strain will be preserved....Those who are phys-
ically and mentally unhealthy and unfit must not per-
petuate their own suffering in the bodies of their
children. . . .
One thing is certain: our world is facing a great
revolution.The only question is whether the out-
come will be propitious for the Aryan portion of
mankind or whether the everlasting Jew will profit
by it. By educating the young generation along the
right lines, the People’s State will have to see to it
that a generation of mankind is formed which will
be adequate to this supreme combat that will decide

the destinies of the world. . . .
[T]he People’s State must mercilessly expurgate...
the parliamentarian principle, according to which
decisive power through the majority vote is invested
in the multitude.Personal responsibility must be sub-
stituted in its stead. . . .The best constitution and the
best form of government is that which makes it quite
natural for the best brains to reach a position of dom-
inant importance and influence in the community....
Genius of an extraordinary stamp is not to be judged
by normal standards whereby we judge other men.
There are no decisions made by the majority
vote, but only by responsible persons.And the word
“council” is once more restored to its original mean-
axis powers
ing. Every man in a position of responsibility will
have councilors at his side, but the decision is made
by that individual person alone. . . .
[T]he principle of parliamentarian democracy,
whereby decisions are enacted through the major-
ity vote,has not always ruled the world.On the con-
trary, we find it prevalent only during short periods
of history, and those have always been periods of
decline in nations and States. . . .
Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy
[W]e National Socialists must hold unflinchingly

to our aim in foreign policy, namely, to secure for the
German people the land and soil to which they are
entitled on this earth... . If we speak of soil in Europe
today, we can primarily have in mind only Russia
and her vassal border states. . . .
The National Socialist movement must strive to
eliminate the disproportion between our population
and our area—viewing this latter as a source of food
as well as a basis for power politics—between our
historical past and the hopelessness of our present
impotence. And in this it must remain aware that
we, as guardians of the highest humanity on this
earth, are bound by the highest obligation, and the
more it strives to bring the German people to racial
awareness . . . , the more it will be able to meet this
obligation. . . .
State boundaries are made by man and changed
by man.. . .And in this case, right lies in this strength
alone. . . . Just as our ancestors did not receive the
soil on which we live today as a gift from Heaven,
but had to fight for it at the risk of their lives, in the
future no folkish grace will win soil for us.. . but only
the might of a victorious sword. . . .
Never forget that the most sacred right on this
earth is a man’s right to have earth to till with his
own hands, and the most sacred sacrifice the blood
that a man sheds for this earth.
Document 21.3
The Japanese Way

In the Japanese language the word kokutai is an evocative term
that refers to
the national essence or the fundamental character of the
Japanese nation and
people. Drawing both on long-established understandings and
on recently
developed nationalist ideas, the Ministry of Education in 1937
published a
small volume, widely distributed in schools and homes
throughout the coun-
try, entitled the Kokutai No Hongi (Cardinal Principles of the
National Entity of
Japan). That text, excerpted in Document 21.3, defined the
uniqueness of
Japan and articulated the philosophical foundation of its
authoritarian regime.
(See pp. 993–96 for the background to this document.) When
the Americans
occupied a defeated and devastated Japan in 1945, they forbade
the further dis-
tribution of the book.
■ According to Cardinal Principles, what was kokutai? How did
the document
define the national essence of Japan? How did its authors
compare
Japan to the West?
■ What was the ideal role of the individual in Japanese society?
■ What were the major tasks confronting Japan in the 1930s,
according to
the document?

1970s
■ How might this document have been used to justify Japan’s
military
and territorial expansion?
■ Why do you think the American occupation authorities banned
the
document?
■ What aspects of this document might Hitler have viewed with
sympathy,
and what parts of it might he have found distasteful or
offensive?
Cardinal Principles of the National Entity of Japan
1937
The various ideological and social evils of present-day Japan
are the result of ignoring the funda-
mental and running after the trivial, of lack of
judgment, and a failure to digest things thoroughly;
and this is due to the fact that since the days of Meiji
so many aspects of European and American culture,
systems, and learning, have been imported, and that,
too rapidly.As a matter of fact, the foreign ideologies
imported into our country are in the main ideol-
ogies of the [European] Enlightenment that have
come down from the eighteenth century, or exten-
sions of them.The views of the world and of life
that form the basis of these ideologies... lay the high-
est value on, and assert the liberty and equality of,
individuals. . . .
We have already witnessed the boundless Im-

perial virtues.Wherever this Imperial virtue of com-
passion radiates, the Way for the subjects naturally
becomes clear.The Way of the subjects exists where
the entire nation serves the Emperor united in
mind. . . .That is, we by nature serve the Emperor
and walk the Way of the Empire. . . .
We subjects are intrinsically quite different from
the so-called citizens of the Occidental countries. . . .
When citizens who are conglomerations of sep-
arate individuals independent of each other give sup-
port to a ruler, . . . there exists no deep foundation
between ruler and citizen to unite them. However,
the relationship between the Emperor and his sub-
jects arises from the same fountainhead, and has pros-
pered ever since the founding of the nation as one
in essence. . . .
Our country is established with the Emperor. . . .
For this reason, to serve the Emperor and to receive
the Emperor’s great august Will as one’s own is the
rationale of making our historical “life” live in the
present. . . .
Loyalty means to reverence the Emperor as [our]
pivot and to follow him implicitly. . . . Hence, offer-
ing our lives for the sake of the Emperor does not
mean so-called self-sacrifice, but the casting aside of
our little selves to live under his august grace and the
enhancing of the genuine life of the people of a
State. . . . An individual is an existence belonging to
the State and her history,which forms the basis of his
origin, and is fundamentally one body with it. . . .

We must sweep aside the corruption of the spirit
and the clouding of knowledge that arises from set-
ting up one’s “self ” and from being taken up with
one’s “self ” and return to a pure and clear state of
mind that belongs intrinsically to us as subjects, and
thereby fathom the great principle loyalty. . . .
Indeed, loyalty is our fundamental Way as subject,
and is the basis of our national morality. Through
loyalty are we become Japanese subjects; in loyalty do
we obtain life and herein do we find the source of
all morality. . . .
In our country filial piety is a Way of the highest
importance. Filial piety originates with one’s family
as its basis, and in its larger sense has the nation for
its foundation. . . .
Our country is a great family nation, and the
Imperial Household is the head family of the sub-
Source: J. O. Gauntlett, trans., and R. K. Hall, ed.,
Kokutai No Hongi (Cardinal Principles of the National
Entity of Japan) (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1949), 53–183.
axis powers
jects and the nucleus of national life.The subjects
revere the Imperial Household, which is the head
family, with the tender esteem they have for their
ancestors; and the Emperor loves his subjects as his
very own.. . .

When we trace the marks of the facts of the
founding of our country and the progress of our
history, what we always find there is the spirit of
harmony.. . .The spirit of harmony is built upon the
concord of all things. When people determinedly
count themselves as masters and assert their egos,
there is nothing but contradictions and the setting
of one against the other; and harmony is not
begotten. . . .That is, a society of individualism is
one of the clashes between [masses of ] people. . .
and all history may be looked upon as one of class
wars. . . .
And this, this harmony is clearly seen in our
nation’s martial spirit. Our nation is one that holds
bushido° in high regard, and there are shrines deify-
ing warlike spirits. . . . Bushido may be cited as show-
ing an outstanding characteristic of our national
morality. . . .That is to say, though a sense of obliga-
tion binds master and servant, this has developed in
a spirit of self-effacement and meeting death with
a perfect calmness. In this, it was not that death was
made light of so much as that many tempered him-
self to death and in a true sense regarded it with
esteem. In effect, man tried to fulfill true life by the
way of death. . . .
To put it in a nutshell, while the strong points of
Occidental learning and concepts lie in their ana-
lytical and intellectual qualities, the characteristics of
Oriental learning and concepts lie in their intuitive
and aesthetic qualities.These are natural tendencies
that arise through racial and historical differences;
and when we compare them with our national spir-
its, concepts, or mode of living, we cannot help rec-

ognizing further great and fundamental differences.
Our nation has in the past imported, assimilated, and
sublimated Chinese and Indian ideologies, and has
therewith supported the Imperial Way, making pos-
sible the establishment of an original culture based
on her national polity. . . .
Since the Meiji restoration our nation has adapted
the good elements of the advanced education seen
among European and American nations, and has ex-
erted efforts to set up an educational system and ma-
terials for teaching.The nation has also assimilated
on a wide scale the scholarship of the West, not only
in the fields of natural science,but of the mental sci-
ences, and has thus striven to see progress made in
our scholastic pursuits and to make education more
popular. . . .
However, at the same time, through the infiltra-
tion of individualistic concepts, both scholastic pur-
suits and education have tended to be taken up with
a world in which the intellect alone mattered. . . .
In order to correct these tendencies, the only
course open to us is to clarify the true nature of our
national polity, which is at the very source of our
education, and to strive to clear up individualistic
and abstract ideas.°bushido: the way of the warrior.
Using the Evidence:
Ideologies of the Axis Powers
1. Making comparisons: What similar emphases can you find in
these
three documents? What differences can you identify? Consider
especially

the relationship of individuals and the state.
2. Criticizing the West: In what ways did Mussolini, Hitler, and
the
authors of Cardinal Principles find fault with mainstream
Western societies
and their political and social values?
1970s
3. Considering ideas and circumstances: From what concrete
conditions
did the ideas expressed in these documents arise? Why did they
achieve
such widespread popularity? You might even consider using
these docu-
ments to make the case in favor of fascist or authoritarian
government
from the viewpoint of the 1930s.
4. Considering ideas and action: To what extent did the ideas
articulated
in these documents find expression in particular actions or
policies of
political authorities?
5. Noticing continuity and change: To what extent were the
ideas in these
documents new and revolutionary? In what respects did they
draw on long-
standing traditions in their societies? In what ways did they
embrace mod-
ern life and what aspects of it did they reject? Have these ideas

been com-
pletely discredited or do they retain some resonance in
contemporary
political discourse?
1019
Visual Sources
Considering the Evidence:
Propaganda and Critique in World War I
More than any other conflict before it,World War I was
represented visu-ally and publically in many ways. Newspapers
competed to print the
most sensational pictures, many taken by soldiers themselves
using handheld
cameras.The war also offered a highly popular theme for the
new technology
of cinema and the emerging motion picture industry. One of the
most perva-
sive uses of art and artists involved the prolific creation, under
government aus-
pices, of posters designed to generate public support for the
war. Independent
artists, many of whom participated in the war, tried to depict its
horror and
devastation, both during the conflict and after it finally
ended.The first three
visual sources illustrate the official propaganda dimension of
the war’s repre-
sentation, while the final two provide examples of how that
enormous con-
flict and its outcomes were subjected to artistic scrutiny.

The “total” character of World War I ensured that women would
be mo-
bilized for the struggle in many ways. In Russia, after the
revolution of early
1917, a number of all-female combat units were created to
shame or inspire the
war-weary male soldiers into greater action. Some British
women even pre-
sented men not in uniform with a white feather, symbolizing
cowardice, to en-
courage them to enlist. More widely, women were recruited into
war-related
industries to replace the men who were away fighting, as the
British poster on
page 982 indicates.American women were strongly encouraged
to save food,
especially wheat, to support the war effort. Posters also gave
the great struggle
a feminine face.Visual Source 21.1 is a 1917 U.S. poster meant
to encourage
people to buy Liberty Bonds,which raised money for the war
effort and dem-
onstrated the buyer’s patriotism.
■ How would you describe the posture of the woman in this
poster?
What image of a woman does it seek to convey?
■ What message does the backdrop of the poster communicate?
Notice
the church and city in flames.
■ In appealing for sacrifice or public support in time of war,
why might a
feminine image be more effective than a masculine image?

■ Compare this poster with the British one shown on page 982
in this
chapter.What different message about the role of women does
this image
convey? To what kind of audience did each of these posters
appeal?
1970s
Among the chief uses of wartime propaganda posters was to
portray the
enemy in the most despicable terms. German posters, for
example, often
depicted the country’s enemies as animals or misbehaving
children, suggest-
ing that they were something less than fully human. They
usually showed
Russians as alcoholics.Visual Source 21.2 is a French poster
from around 1915.
Visual Source 21.1 Women and the War (Library of Congress,
LC-USZCA-9462)
1021considering the evidence / visual sources: propaganda and
critique in world war i
It pictures Germany as Thor, an ancient pagan Germanic god of
thunder, who
had been turned into a demonic figure as Christianity took hold
in Europe.

The caption at the top of the image reads: “The god Thor—the
most bar-
baric of the barbarian divinities of old Germany.”
■ What does the poster convey by presenting Germany as Thor?
■ Note the Prussian imperial eagle standing on a bomb.What
impression
of German goals does that convey?
■ How do you understand the religious imagery of this French
print?
Notice Thor preparing to destroy a church with his hammer as
well as
the broken cross between his feet at the bottom.
■ To whom do you think such images were directed and for
what
purpose?
A distinctive feature of World War I was the extensive use of
troops drawn
from the colonies of the contending powers. Many thousands of
African and
Asian men took part in that struggle, both in their homelands
and in Europe.
The French, for example,were initially reluctant to employ
colonial troops, fear-
ing to arm black men and perhaps uncertain of their loyalty. But
the desperate
need for manpower finally overcame these reservations, and
France recruited
large numbers of men from its North and West African colonies
as well as from
Southeast Asia. Some 71,000 French colonial soldiers died in
the war.Visual

Source 21.3 shows a French wartime poster; the French
translates as “Day of
the African Army and Colonial Troops.”
■ What image of African soldiers does the poster suggest? How
might
this image be at variance with that of earlier European
stereotypes of
their African subjects?
■ What is conveyed by the juxtaposition of an African soldier
and his
French counterpart fighting together?
■ Why might the French have set aside a special day to honor
colonial
troops?
■ How might the experience of fighting in Europe have affected
the
outlook of a West African soldier?
The destructiveness of the Great War was almost beyond the
imagination
of contemporary Europeans.Among its most notable and horrific
features was
the long period of trench warfare, in which lines of entrenched
men, often not
far apart, periodically went “over the top,” only to gain a few
yards of bloody
ground before being thrown back with enormous
causalities.Visual Source 21.4
shows a particular instance of this process by the British painter
John Nash
(1893–1977), who was an official war artist. Nash was also part
of an eighty-

man British unit that was sent over the top in late 1917 and one
of only twelve
1022
Visual Source 21.2 Defining the Enemy (The Art Archive)
1023
Visual Source 21.3 War and the Colonies (Private
collection/Barbara Singer/The
Bridgeman Art Library
1970s
survivors of that attack.Three months later he painted this
haunting picture
from his memory of that experience.
■ What posture toward the war does this image convey? Do you
think
Nash’s military superiors were pleased by the painting?
■ How does the painting portray the attitude of the soldiers?
■ What does war do to human beings? What answer to this
question does
this image suggest?
■ How might you imagine the response of those who created the
first

three images to John Nash and this portrayal of trench warfare?
Among the many outcomes of the Great War was the presence in
every
European country of disillusioned, maimed, and disfigured
veterans, many of
them literally “men without faces.” For some intellectuals and
artists, they
represented the fundamentally flawed civilization that had given
rise to such
carnage. Often neglected or overlooked, such men were
reminders of a terrible
past that others wanted to forget.The German artist Otto Dix
(1891–1969),
who served in his country’s military forces throughout the war
and was seri-
ously wounded, portrayed this situation in a 1920 painting
called Prague Street
(Visual Source 21.5). In 1924, he joined with other artists to
mount an exhibi-
tion entitled No More War. His antiwar activism later earned
Dix the enmity
of the Hitler regime,which fired him from his academic position
and destroyed
some of his paintings. Artistically, Dix worked in a style known
as the “new
objectivity,” which focused heavily on the horrendous outcomes
of the war.
It deliberately included subject matter that was upsetting and
even ugly, and
it made little attempt to create a unified image, preferring to
present discon-
nected “particles of experience.”
■ How does the painting describe the situation of the veterans?

■ On the left, the arm of a wealthy man drops a coin into the
outstretched
hand of a maimed veteran, while on the right, a well-dressed
woman in
a pink dress and high heels walks by with her dog.What do
these features
add to the portrayal of the plight of the veterans?
■ Notice the leaflet on the skateboard of the legless cripple at
the bottom.
It reads “Juden raus” ( Jews out).”What does this suggest about
the political
views of these veterans? Keep in mind that Hitler, although not
maimed,
was a disillusioned veteran of World War I, as were many of his
early
followers.
■ What do the images in the store windows suggest?
■ What commentary does this painting make on German society
after
the country’s defeat in World War I? How does it foreshadow
what was
to come?
1025
Visual Source 21.4 The Battlefield (Imperial War Museum,
London/The Bridgeman Art Library)
1026

Visual Source 21.5 The Aftermath of War (Kunstmuseum-
Stuttgart © 2010 Artist’s Rights Society (ARS),
New York/VG Bildkunst, Bonn)
1027considering the evidence / visual sources: propaganda and
critique in world war i
Using the Evidence:
Propaganda and Critique in World War I
1. Describing the war: Based on these visual sources, how
would you
define the novel or distinctive features of World War I
compared to earlier
European conflicts?
2. Considering war and progress: How do you think Otto Dix
and John
Nash might have responded to the ideas of Condorcet contained
in
Document 16.2, pages 752–54?
3. Images as propaganda and criticism: This selection of visual
sources
contains a mix of those that express essentially government-
sponsored
messages and those that convey the outlook of individual
artists.What ideas
about the war did governments seek to inculcate in their
citizens? How
do the paintings of John Nash and Otto Dix respond to those
ideas?
4. Seeking further evidence: What other kinds of visual sources

would be
useful in constructing a visual history of World War I?
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Running head: DATA ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION
TEMPLATE 1
DATA ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION TEMPLATE 4
Data Analysis and Application (DAA) TemplateLearner

NameCapella University
Data Analysis and Application (DAA) Template
Use this file for all assignments that require the DAA Template.
Although the statistical tests will change from week to week,
the basic organization and structure of the DAA remains the
same. Update the title of the template. Remove this text and
provide a brief introduction.Section 1: Data File Description
Describe the context of the data set. You may cite your previous
description if the same data set is used from a previous
assignment.
Specify the variables used in this DAA and the scale of
measurement of each variable.
Specify sample size (N).Section 2: Testing Assumptions
1. Articulate the assumptions of the statistical test.
Paste SPSS output that tests those assumptions and interpret
them. Properly integrate SPSS output where appropriate. Do not
string all output together at the beginning of the section.
Summarize whether or not the assumptions are met. If
assumptions are not met, discuss how to ameliorate violations
of the assumptions.Section 3: Research Question, Hypotheses,
and Alpha Level
1. Articulate a research question relevant to the statistical test.
2. Articulate the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
3. Specify the alpha level.Section 4: Interpretation
1. Paste SPSS output for an inferential statistic. Properly
integrate SPSS output where appropriate. Do not string all
output together at the beginning of the section.
2. Report the test statistics.
3. Interpret statistical results against the null hypothesis.Section
5: Conclusion
1. State your conclusions.
2. Analyze strengths and limitations of the statistical test.
References
Provide references if necessary.
DATA ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION: T-tests 1

DATA ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION: T-tests 9
Data Analysis and Application: T-testsHeather A.
LachariteCapella University
Introduction to T-tests
A rudimentary inferential statistic that is frequently used
in psychological study is called the t-test. There are always two
variables when involving t-tests. There is the predictor variable
(X) and the outcome variable (Y). Along with the logic of t-
tests, all inferential statistics include independent variables of t-
tests and all function under assumptions. In this paper, we will
also explore the null and alternative hypothesis for t-tests. The
null hypothesis predicts no significant difference in population
means. When speaking of a directional alternative hypothesis
for a t test, the researcher will conclude that the population
means vary in a precise track. In terms of a non-directional
alternative hypothesis, the research will propose that the
population means vary, however, it will not specify which mean
is preeminent.
Data Description
Lacharite (2017), previously reported the description of the data
as:
“Gender: Categorical variable, having two values 1 for female
and 2 for male. The scale of measurement here is nominal
GPA: It is the cumulative grade point average of students at the
start of the course. The scale of measurement here is ratio. GPA
has a value of 1-4.
Total: It is the combined scores of quizzes one, two, three,
four, five, and the final exam. It is a value between 1-100, and
it is an interval measurement.
Final: This is only the final score, also an interval measurement

The sample size is 105” (p. 3).
Per Howell (2011), an independent samples t-test compares the
mean scores of two groups on a given variable. For this
assignment, descriptive statistics, visual representation of the
distribution, test of normality, as well as an independent
samples t-test and test of homogeneity will be created and
computed. GPA and Gender are the variables used for this
assignment. Gender, which is measured on nominal scale of
measurement is the first variable. This variable is considered a
dichotomous variable that has values of 1 and 2. GPA is the
second variable yet this variable is measured on an interval
scale rather than a nominal scale.Section 2: Testing Assumption
Some assumptions that can be made are, that the dependent
variable can be considered as normally distributed, this can be
checked with the Q-Q plot. The next assumption is that the two
groups are considered independent of each other. In addition,
the two groups have no effect on the dependent variable. This
can be checked by using the Levene’s Test.
Something is wrong with the output tables. The sample size
should be 105. The case processing table shows that only 88 of
the students were included in the analysis. Please go back and
see what might have happened.
Case Processing Summary
gender
Cases
Valid
Missing
Total
N
Percent

N
Percent
N
Percent
gpa
dimension1
1
64
100.0%
0
.0%
64
100.0%
2
41
100.0%
0
.0%
41
100.0%
Descriptive
Gender
Statistic
Std. Error
gpa
1
Mean

99.33
1.779
95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound
95.76
Upper Bound
102.89
5% Trimmed Mean
98.79
Median
99.00
Variance
174.039
Std. Deviation
13.192

Minimum
75
Maximum
137
Range
62
Interquartile Range
20
Skewness
.451
.322
Kurtosis
.224
.634
2
Mean
101.82
2.207
95% Confidence Interval for Mean

Lower Bound
97.32
Upper Bound
106.31
5% Trimmed Mean
101.41
Median
100.00
Variance
160.716
Std. Deviation
12.677
Minimum
83

Maximum
128
Range
45
Interquartile Range
20
Skewness
.354
.409
Kurtosis
-.731
.798
Tests of Normality
gender
Kolmogorov-Smirnova
Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic
df
Sig.
Statistic
df

Sig.
gpa
dimension1
1
.079
55
.200*
.972
55
.235
2
.101
33
.200*
.960
33
.261
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction
*. This is a lower bound of the true significance.
After reviewing the descriptive table output by the SPSS
software, it can be determined that both samples are drawn from
normal population. Since the p-value is > than 0.05, the samples
are considered drawn from normal population. An unpaired t-
test can be conducted since both samples are independent of
each other. The t-test will assess for a significant difference of
the two-sample’s means. As listed, there is a sum of 55
observations for gender 1. Within those 55 observations there is
a mean GPA of 99.33 and a standard deviation of 13.192. In
looking at Gender 2, there is a sum of 33 observations. Within
the 33 observations there is a mean GPA of 101.82 and a
standard deviation of 12.677. With these calculations, one can
conclude there is a difference of -2.491 between the two
samples.
The Shapiro-Wilk Test is considered a formal statistical

test of normality. For this test, to have a normal distribution
results would have to indicate a value of 1.0. Anything less than
1.0 would represent a departure from a perfect normal shape.
Thus, we can conclude for this assignment the normal
distribution is slightly departing from a perfect normal shape as
the value is indicating a 0.972 for gender 1 and 0.960 for gender
2.
In terms of the Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances, it
shows if the second assumption is satisfied. There is
approximate equal variance between the two groups on the
dependent variable. The significant value will need to be 0.05
or less for either variance to be measured as considerably
diverse. A value 0.05 or greater would tell that the variances are
not considerably diverse. The Levene’s Test for Equality
determined the variances show there is no treatment effect due
to the fact they are almost equal. Given the value is 0.959, it is
greater than 0.05 therefore the variances are almost equal or has
no treatment effect
Section 3: Research Question, Hypotheses, and Alpha Level
Per Howell (2011), an inferential procedure is utilized in
statistics to make inferences about unknown populations or
scores that vary depending on the data that is utilized and the
purpose of making the inference. Regression analysis is a
procedure utilized to analyze several variables. It focuses on the
relationship between a dependent variable and on or more
independent variables. Therefore, regression analysis was the
inferential procedure used in this assignment. Per Howell
(2011), assuming there is not a significant difference between
the population mean and the sample mean is a null hypothesis.
Furthermore, he explains that an alternative hypothesis assumes
there is in fact a significant difference. The alpha level is
another term for the level of significance. The alpha level for
this assignment is .05. Below is the null and alternative
hypothesis’s in statistical form that can be tested, along with
the research question the t-test will answer:
Null Hypotheses (H o): There is no real difference between gpa

of males and females.
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): There is a significant difference
between gpa of males and females
Research Question: Are female GPA’s higher than males?
When an independent sample t test was completed to test
the hypothesis’s, the null hypothesis can be accepted. This is
concluded due to the t-statistics value is 0.87 with 86 degrees of
freedom. Furthermore, 0.387 is the p-value for the t statistic,
which is less than 0.05. With a 5% level of significance the null
hypothesis is acceptable. The result being, GPA between males
and females has no real difference.Interpretation
In using the Shapiro-Wilks and Kolmogorov-Smirnov
tests, the outcomes precisely demonstrate adequate indication
that the test of normality of, GENDER and IQ, were drawn from
a normal population. Q-Q plots, box plots and the descriptive
statistics, supported this conclusion. It was detected that the
two samples were autonomous of one another, which allowed
for an unpaired t-test which will test the mean of the two
samples for a significant difference. In addition, it was observed
that Gender 1 has 55 subjects with a mean IQ of 99.33 and a
standard deviation of 13.192, while Gender 2 has 33 subjects
with a mean IQ of 101.82 and a standard deviation of 12.677.
As previously stated, the difference between the two samples IQ
were observed at -2.491.
In examining the top line of the results from the
independent sample t-tests, it displays the variances are
approximately equal (-.870 and -.879), but the essential point
will display variances that are not equal. However, based on the
Levene’s test, results demonstrate an approximate equal
variance due to the p-value being .959. Looking at the value of
t-statistics, we see the value calculated at 0.870 with degrees of
freedom calculated at 86. Given 0.870 is greater than 0.05 and
represents a 5% level of significance, we can accept the null
hypothesis. By accepting the null hypothesis, it is being
determined there is no real difference between the IQ’s
of males and females.

Also, the t-test table is off. It seems that the information is in
the wrong columns. The degrees of freedom (df) column should
be 86, but that number is under the significance column.
The degrees of freedom should be N-2 for a t-test. So the
degrees of freedom should be 103, not 86.
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
F
Sig.
T
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean Difference
Std. Error Difference
95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
Lower
Upper
gpa
Equal variances assumed
.003
.959
-.870
86
.387

-2.491
2.863
-8.183
3.201
Equal variances not assumed
-.879
69.665
.383
-2.491
2.835
-8.145
3.163Conclusion
Make sure to recap the results and state whether or not the null
should be accepted or rejected
Overall, t-tests have been designed for independent means
that are established on certain presumptions. If the said
presumptions end up being inaccurate then the results of the
analysis can be labeled flawed. When using t-tests it is
important to remember it only examines the means and does not
provide information on individual scores. This could be
considered a strength or weakness depending on the context of
one’s research. A limitation of the t-test is that it usually
requires a larger sample size. A sample size too small can be
considered as having deficient power (Connelly, 2011). The t-
test can however be universally utilized if you have two
different groups means to be analyze. This can be with GPA and
gender like in this assignment, or in a brewery as this is where
the t-test was developed. The t-test monitored the quality of
stout at the Guinness brewery in Dublin, Ireland (Connelly,
2011). Some other highlights of t-tests include, it’s calculation
is done with ease, it tells you how different the mean of one
sample is from the rest of the group, and requires little data. In
my opinion, the t-test is a great statistical test die to the fact

that it is important to keep track of the conclusions of the mean
rather than single scores of the individuals, which can give
researchers a more majority oriented position.
References
Connelly, L. M. (2011). t-tests. Medsurg Nursing, 20(6), 341.
Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com.library.capella.edu/docview/9085495
22?accountid=27965
Howell, D.C. (2011). Fundamental statistics for the behavioral
sciences (7th ed).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Lacharite, (2017). Correlations. Unpublished Manuscript.
Capella University.

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