1. HS 220
SOCIOLOGY OF SCIENCE
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2. SCIENCE AND ETHICS
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3. First of all it is necessary to examine the meaning
of the words Science and Ethics, independently
and then in the context of socitey
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4. SCIENCE:
Science is a process, a system, a way to acquire knowledge about the
physical world around us.
Science, in its pure form, doesn’t have sides, good or bad, positive or
negative.
Science, one could propose, is the force of understanding
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5. ETHICS:
It is the attempt to arrive at general moral standards that tell us
(people) how to judge right from wrong, or good from bad, and how
to live moral lives
It is a set of criteria, created by man, to define a guideline to his
existence. A guideline between what should and what should not
occur.
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6. The above interpretations are, at first glance, not connected
to each other.
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7. Why should we need Ethics in Science?
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8.  Science can furnish a strong factual account of the world but it lacks the internal
resources to deal with the many normative questions it raises.
 On its own, science cannot answer questions about right and wrong about how
we ought to make decisions and act.
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9. Hence it must appeal to ethics to help formulate adequate
responses.
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10. Is Science Objective and Value Free?
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11.  The common characterization of science as value-free or valueneutral can be misleading.
 Scientists strongly disvalue fraud, error and "pseudoscience", for
example.
 At the same time, scientists typically value reliability, testability,
accuracy, precision, generality, simplicity of concepts and heuristic
power
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12. Ethos of Science by Robert Merton:
 Universalism:
Race, nationality, religion, class, or other personal or social attributes of the researcher
should not matter to the validity of conclusion.
 Communism:
Open communication and common ownership of knowledge.
 Dis intrestedness:
Beliefs not biased by authority--achieved through accountability to expert
peers
 Organized Skepticism:
It means that scientific claims must be exposed to critical scrutiny before being
accepted.
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13. Clash between Merton ethos and ethical values:
Weapons research, even if conducted according to Merton's norms
and its results evaluated using scientific standards, is not ethically
idle or value-neutral.
Research into better agricultural methods aimed to alleviate hunger or lowcost forms of harnessing solar or wind energy in poor rural areas is also not
ethical.
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14. Ethics in Research
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to
ethical norms in research.
Norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge,
truth, and avoidance of error.
For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error.
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15. Ethics in Research
Ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative
work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and
patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed
to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers
want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or
disclosed prematurely.
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16. Ethics in Research
 Many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public.
For Instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the
human subjects protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to
make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held
accountable to the public
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17. Ethics in Research
Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research.
For example, People more likely to fund research project if
they can trust the quality and integrity of research.
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18. Ethics in Research
Many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral
and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal
welfare, compliance with the law, and health and safety. Ethical lapses in
research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and
the public.
For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or
even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and
guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health
and safety or the health and safety of staff and students
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19. Codes and Policies for Research Ethics
• Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results,
methods and procedures, and publication status
• Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation,
peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of
research where objectivity is expected or required
• Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and
action.
• Carefullness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and
the work of your peers
• Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
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20. • Respect for Intellectual property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Never plagiarize
• Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just
your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
• Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for
publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
• Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to
make their own decisions
• Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
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21. • Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.
• Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race,
ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
• Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
• Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
• Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
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22. • Human Subjects Protection: When conducting research on human subjects, minimize
harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy;
take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the
benefits and burdens of research fairly.
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23. Are there any people who can offer ethical advice?
It may be useful to seek advice from a colleague, a senior researcher, your department
chair, or anyone else you can trust(?)
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24. Example for Research Plagiarism
In 1953 when James Watson and Francis Crick were credited for discovering the structure of
the DNA, when in fact the credit should have gone to a brilliant female biologist Rosalind
Franklin.
Franklin came up with the double helix structure based on X-ray images of the DNA. Her
supervisor passed her data to Watson and Crick who at the time were also studying the DNA
and realized Franklin was on the right track. In 1962 Watson and Crick received the Nobel Prize
for 'their' discovery. Franklin on the other hand was already dead. She died at the age of 38
due to radiation exposure she got from taking X-rays as part of her original research.
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25. Right & Wrong of New Knowledge
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26. The USA alone is estimated to have spent over $ 10 trillion on
nuclear arms during the Cold War (1945 - 1990).
What could have been achieved if this money would have been spent
on infrastructure, health care, education and medical research?
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27. Right & Wrong in Science Today
Genetic research is a modern area of study that raises many ethical
questions.
For example, for gene therapies it is sometime necessary to harvest stem cells
from human embryos.
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28. Right & Wrong in Science Today
Is it right to harvest these cells, even if it is done to cure someone?
The embryo could develop into a healthy baby.
However due to advancement in scientific knowledge only let the people to raise the
question about embryo which was once considered as non living
So pursuit of new knowledge and technologies force us to face new ethical questions
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29. Right & Wrong in Science Today
To study human genes researchers have fertilized eggs that contain
both human and animal DNA.
Is producing hybrid fetuses morally right?
Are we playing god when we conduct such experiments?
Some hybrid animals that have been created by researches are quite bizarre
like a mouse with a human ear.
Some genetically manipulated animals are used to produce medicine, for example
genetically manipulated cows that produce insulin for diabetics.
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30. Right & Wrong in Science Today
Thus we can conclude from above
“Morality to exist at all, there must be somethings that,
regardless of consequences, should not be done”
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31. However the advancement of genetic research holds much promise.
In 2003 researchers managed to map out entire human DNA. We now are at verge of
understanding the genetic basis for many diseases, and with genetic manipulation
possibly curing them.
For example couples could be screened so they know what risk they have to give
births to a baby with a hereditary disease. If the risk is great they could opt to have a
test tube baby that has been screened not to carry faulty genes, or through genetic
manipulation the faulty gene could be replaced by a healthy one before planting the
egg in the womb
Thus, through rational and balanced arguments we may be able to come to wise
judgments regarding the use of new knowledge and technologies even when it is
impossible to predict all the consequences these may bring about.
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32. Scientists about Ethics
“Change is one thing, progress is another. Change is
scientific, progress is ethical. Change is indubitable where as
progress is a matter of controversy”
-Bertrand Arthur William Russel
But scientists proclaim that
“Scientific Progress requires a critical mind, free of prejudice and open
to new way of thinking”
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33. “Relativity applies to Physics, not Ethics”
-Einstein
But finally Einstein regretted that was the great mistake in his life.
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34. Universal Code of Ethics for Scientists
“I will not, knowingly, carry out research which is to the detriment of humanity. If, in the
event, research to which I have contributed is used, in my view, to the detriment of the
human race then I shall work actively to combat its development”.
-Proposed by Sir Arnold Wolfendale
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35. Universal Code of Ethics for Scientists
World conference on science
Science Agenda—Framework for Action, Ethical issues
 Ethics should be part of the education and training of all scientists.
 Research institutions should foster the study of ethical aspects of scientific work.
 The international scientific community should promote environmental ethics.
 Scientific institutions should comply with ethical norms.
 Governments and civil society should set up ethics committees.
 Governments and civil society should organize debates on the ethical implications of the scientific work
 UNESCO should strengthen its Bioethics Committee and the World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and
Technology.
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36. Universal Code of Ethics for Scientists
“Solutions to ethical problems that come from scientific progress cannot be
imposed by dogma of faith, or by law. It is the civil society that must find
an acceptable solution”
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37. Bibliography
Science and Ethics
• B. Glass, "The Ethical Basis of Science" Science, Vol. 150. 1965, p.
1254. [Q1 S35]
• C.E. Reagan, Ethics for Scientific Researchers, 2nd Ed. Springfield,
Ill.: Thomas, 1971. [BJ57 R4 1971]
• J.A. Knight, "Exploring the Compromise of Ethical Principles in
Science" Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. Vol. 27, 1984, p. 432.
[QH301 P4]
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38. Bibliography
Norms of Science
• C. J. Sindermann, "Winning the Games Scientists Play" (Plenum: New
York, 1982).
• H. Zuckerman. "Deviant Behavior and Social Control in Science" in
Deviance and Social Change (Ed Sagarin, Ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage,
p. 87. [HM291 D483]
• W. Schmaus. "Fraud and the Norms of Science" Science, Technology,
& Human Values. Fall 1983. Vol. 8, #4, p. 12. [BJ57 N49]
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39. Bibliography
Plagiarism
• M. Hunt. "A fraud that shook the world of science" New York
Times Magazine. November 1, 1981, p. 1. [AP2 N675]
• A.S. Brown and D.R. Murphy. "Cryptomnesia: Delineating
indadvertent plagiarism" Journal of Experimental Psychology. Vol.
15, 1989, p. 432. [BF1 J615]
• D.S. Greenberg. "Academic fraud is no longer a family affair" Los
Angeles Times, December 6, 1988, p. 7. [AN L6]
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40. Bibliography
Scientific Credit
• P. Zurer, "Making federal cases out of disputes over scientific credit"
Chemical & Engineering News Feb. 24, 1997, p. 40. [TP1 C35]
• R. L. Rawls, "Obesity gene battle shapes up: New uncoupling protein
looks to be promising for antiobesity drugs, but who found its gene first?
Chemical Engineering News May 24, 1997, p. 44. [TP1 C35]
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41. Bibliography
Last but not least Sambit Mallick’s Lecture Notes Ethos of
Science
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42. THANK YOU
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