The document outlines four fundamental meanings of nature and the natural: dualistic, monistic, adverbial, and four ways of conceiving nature - as a collection, web of relationships, process, and Gaia. It provides descriptions and examples for each. The dualistic view sees nature as separate from human/culture, while the monistic view sees everything as natural. The adverbial view from East Asia sees humans as fully natural but often acting unnaturally. Nature can be conceived as a collection of individuals, web of relationships between all things, set of natural processes, or long-range conditions and processes of the entire planet.

1. NATURE & THE NATURAL:
THREE FUNDAMENTAL
MEANINGS
1. Dualistic
2. Monistic
3. Adverbial (East Asia)

2. 1. DUALISTIC
Nature is what is not human or cultural,
or not disturbed by humanity & society.
nature versus human/culture
this building and plastic and nuclear waste
are not natural

3. 2. MONISTIC
Nature as everything in the phenomenal
world: that which can be studied by the
“natural” sciences.
nature versus the supernatural
this building and plastic and nuclear waste
are natural.

4. 3. ADVERBIAL
• Something is natural when it acts according to
its true nature.
• Essentially humans are fully natural.
Existentially (behaviorally) we usually act
unnaturally.
• Humans have the ability to act contrary to their
nature, based on will and reason.
• Key distinction: natural, spontaneous action
versus forced, artificial action.

5. FOUR MAJOR WAYS OF
CONCEIVING “NATURE”
1. Collection
2. Web of relationships
3. Process
4. Gaia

6. 1. NATURE AS
“COLLECTION”
 Individualism: give primacy to individuals (trees,
animals) as discrete and independent beings.
 Aggregation: nature as this particular set of
organisms, our current biodiversity and
biogeography (what is growing where, individual
ecosystems), and the abiotic conditions.

7. Policy with nature as
“collection”
 Value individuals over populations, species, ecosystems.
 Keep individual plants and animals alive.
 Attempt to preserve an ecosystem just as it is – keep it
from changing (includes fighting all fires).
 Keep populations of animals from declining, expanding,
or migrating.
 More likely to see nature as collection of resources to
exploit, but also can support animal rights.

8. 2. NATURE AS
WEB OF RELATIONSHIPS
 Ecological view: all things live in interaction with each other. An
“ecosystem” is the dynamic structure of things in relationship at a
particular location. “When we try to pick out anything by itself, we
find it hitched to everything else in the universe.” (John Muir).
 Each thing has its particular “niche” (role) in the system.
 What is primary is not the individuality or distinctness of organisms
but the ways they are interrelated with other organisms and the
physical environment.
 A forest is not a collection of trees but a community of
interdependent organisms, each with a specific role in the
ecosystem.

9. Policy with nature as “web of
relationships”
 Identify how things are interrelated, and which
species are most important to the system
(“keystone species”).
 Conserve the system of relationships (rather than
individual organisms), focusing on the whole but
attending to the most important species. Thus
protect predators and prey, especially predators.

10. NATURE AS
“PROCESS”
a set of “natural” processes not caused
by humans, which includes fires, forest
succession, periodic infestations,
periodic droughts, “natural extinction,”
etc.

11. Policy with nature as
“process”
 let forests change or regenerate through natural
processes of periodic fire, succession, etc., but fight
against “unnatural” degradations, such as massive fires
caused by build-up of debris, clear-cutting the rain forest,
etc.
 let “natural” population dynamics occur (which requires
maintaining predators); but fight against human-caused
species extinctions.

12. NATURE AS
“GAIA”
the long-range conditions, processes, and
occurrences of the planet.
 particular level of oxygen and temperature range.
 includes ice ages, huge volcano eruptions, or super-
fires, and massive extinctions caused by extra-
terrestrial object.