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Huitink et al-2014-anaesthesia
1.
References 1. Cowie B,
Kluger R, Rex S, Missant C. The utility of transoesophageal echo- cardiography for estimating right ven- tricular systolic pressure. Anaesthesia 2015; 70: 258–63. 2. Soliman D, Bolliger D, Skarvan K, Kauf- mann BA, Lurati Buse G, Seeberger MD. Intra-operative assessment of pulmo- nary artery pressure by transoesopha- geal echocardiography. Anaesthesia 2015; 70: 264–71. 3. Skjaerpe T, Hatle L. Diagnosis and assessment of tricuspid regurgitation with Doppler ultrasound. Develop- ments in Cardiovascular Medicine 1981; 13: 299–304. 4. Yock PG, Popp RL. Noninvasive estima- tion of right ventricular systolic pres- sure by Doppler ultrasound in patients with tricuspid regurgitation. Circulation 1984; 70: 657–62. 5. Skjaerpe T, Hatle L. Noninvasive esti- mation of systolic pressure in the right ventricle in patients with tricuspid regurgitation. European Heart Journal 1986; 7: 704–10. 6. Fisher MR, Forfia PR, Chamera E, et al. Accuracy of Doppler echocardiography in the hemodynamic assessment of pulmonary hypertension. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2009; 179: 615–21. 7. Rich JD. Counterpoint: can Doppler echocardiography estimates of pulmo- nary artery systolic pressures be relied upon to accurately make the diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension? No. Chest 2013; 143: 1536–9. 8. Taleb M, Khunder S, Tinkel J, Khouri S. The diagnostic accuracy of doppler echocardiography in assessment of pulmonary artery systolic pressure: a meta-analysis. Echocardiography 2013; 30: 258–65. 9. McLaughlin VV, Archer SL, Badesch DB, et al. ACCF/AHA 2009 expert consen- sus document on pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 2009; 119: 2250–94. 10. McGoon M, Gutterman D, Steen V, et al. Screening, early detection, and diagnosis of pulmonary arterial hyper- tension: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2004; 126: 14S–34S. 11. Steckelberg RC, Tseng AS, Nishimura R, et al. Derivation of mean pulmonary artery pressure from noninvasive parameters. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography 2012; 26: 464–8. 12. Aduen JF, Castello R, Lozano MM, et al. An alternative echocardiographic method to estimate mean pulmonary artery pressure: diagnostic and clinical implications. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography 2009; 22: 814–9. 13. Laver RD, Wiersema UF, Bersten AD. Echocardiographic estimation of mean pulmonary artery pressure in critically ill patients. Critical Ultrasound Journal 2014; 6: 9. 14. Otto C. Textbook of Clinical Echocardi- ography, 5th edn. Philadelphia: Else- vier Saunders, 2013; 7: 180. 15. Granstam SO, Bjorklund E, Wikstrom G, Roos MW. Use of echocardiographic pulmonary acceleration time and esti- mated vascular resistance for the eval- uation of possible pulmonary hypertension. Critical Ultrasound Jour- nal 2013; 11: 7. 16. Tossavainen E, Soderberg S, Gronlund C, et al. Pulmonary artery acceleration time in identifying pulmonary hyper- tension patients with raised pulmonary vascular resistance. European Heart Journal 2013; 14: 890–7. 17. Ali MM, Royse AG, Connelly K, Royse CF. The accuracy of transoesophageal echocardiography in estimating pulmo- nary capillary wedge pressure in anaesthetised patients. Anaesthesia 2012; 67: 122–31. 18. Haji DL, Ali MM, Royse A, Canty DJ, Clarke S, Royse CF. Interatrial septum motion but not Doppler assessment predicts elevated pulmonary capillary wedge pressure in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 2014; 121: 719–29. 19. Tsutsui RS, Borowski A, Tang WH, Tho- mas JD, Popovic ZB. Precision of echo- cardiographic estimates of right atrial pressure in patients with acute decom- pensated heart failure. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography 2014; 27: 1072–8. 20. Schiller NB, Ristow B. Doppler under pressure: It’s time to cease the folly of chasing the peak right ventricular sys- tolic pressure. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography 2013; 26: 479–82. 21. Yared K, Noseworthy P, Weyman A, et al. Pulmonary artery acceleration time proves an accurate estimate of systolic pulmonary arterial press during trans- thoracic echocardiography. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiogra- phy 2011; 24: 687–92. doi:10.1111/anae.12939 Editorial The myth of the difficult airway: airway management revisited If you always do what you’ve always done, you’ll always get what you’ve always got —Henry Ford For years, anaesthetists have tried to predict the difficult airway using various clinical signs and pre- diction models. In this issue of Anaesthesia, Nørskov et al. present a study of a large cohort of 188 064 patients in Denmark and come to a disappointing conclusion: we are not good at it [1]. Of 3391 difficult intu- bations, 3154 (93%) were unantici- pated. When difficult intubation was anticipated, only 229/929 (25%) had 244 © 2014 The Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland Anaesthesia 2015, 70, 241–257 Editorial
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an actual difficult
intubation. Diffi- cult mask ventilation was unantici- pated in 808/857 (94%) cases. Should these findings surprise us? Probably not, because we try to predict the probability that our air- way management technique will be effective and safe in a particular patient. How to do that with so many options? Following pre-oxy- genation for 3 min or with three deep inhalations, using 80% or 100% inspiratory oxygen, we can induce general anaesthesia intravenously or with volatile anaesthetics, use ten different facemasks for bag-mask ventilation, using one or two hands with or without an oropharyngeal airway, with or without cricoid pres- sure, in the half-sitting or supine position. Should we choose direct laryngoscopy we have thirty different blades and if we use a videolaryngo- scope there are fifteen different mod- els, with at least six different blades – disposable or re-usable, angulated or hyper-angulated. Subsequently, twenty different tracheal tubes are available in all sizes and with vari- ously shaped cuffs, made from dif- ferent materials and introduced through the vocal cords nasally or orally with eight different stylets or bougies. Should we decide to per- form fibreoptic intubation we could do that face-to-face or standing behind the patient, awake or anaes- thetised, with or without sedation and looking through the ‘scope’s eye- piece or using a monitor screen. Should we unexpectedly end up in a ‘cannot intubate cannot oxygenate’ situation (CICO), there are fifteen different supraglottic airway devices with or without a gastric suction channel. Ultimately, when the going gets tough, our team can perform an emergency surgical airway with sev- eral devices and techniques [2, 3]. All this illustrates that we proba- bly can select more than a million different ways to oxygenate a patient; not surprising, therefore, that it is difficult to predict success with so many options. Nørskov et al. should be applauded for sharing their results, as they clearly show that the answer is not found by doing it the same way with big numbers. This is what can be learnt from their study and from opinions of others: we may need a different approach [4]. In our opinion, the ‘difficult airway’ does not exist. It is a com- plex situational interplay of patient, practitioner, equipment, expertise and circumstances. Not that we wish to trivialise the concept of the difficult airway; failed intubation and its associated complications can cause serious patient harm. However, the incidence and the definition of the difficult airway, difficult laryngoscopy and difficult intubation are not well defined. Cook and MacDougall-Davis recently summarised that CICO has an incidence of 1:50 000 and failed intubation occurs in 1:2000 elective cases, but up to 1:200 in emergencies [5]. Rocke et al. reported difficult intubation in 7.9%, and very difficult intubation in 2%, of parturients undergoing general anaesthesia for caesarean section [6]. In a mixed surgical population, Rose et al. noted that 2.5% of patients required two lar- yngoscopies to achieve tracheal intubation and that 1.8% required more than three [7]. This suggests that difficulty with intubation occurs more frequently during obstetric anaesthesia, but that the frequency of very difficult intuba- tion is similar in obstetric and non-obstetric surgical populations. Further, that these numbers haven’t changed over the years. Furthermore, if we use the well-known definition for the diffi- cult airway endorsed by the Ameri- can Society of Anesthesiologists: “a clinical situation in which a conven- tionally trained anaesthesiologist experiences difficulty with face mask ventilation of the upper airway, diffi- culty with tracheal intubation or both”, it will unfortunately not make a clear difference for clinical practice [2]. A global competence profile of the ‘conventionally trained anaesthe- siologist’ does not exist and accord- ing to the definition, the clinician can only find out whether a patient has a ‘difficult airway’ after intuba- tion has failed. Documentation of tracheal intubation All airway management guidelines recommend pre-operative airway evaluation, which often requires patient data from previous surgery. However, accurate documentation of the intubation procedure is often ignored and standardisation of air- way management documentation is still lacking. A flaw in airway man- agement research is that much research into videolaryngoscopy still relies on the Cormack and Lehane score, which is not its intended use [8]. Moreover, differentiation between Cormack and Lehane grades 2 and 3 is not easy, even amongst well-trained professionals though the division of grade 2 into © 2014 The Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland 245 Editorial Anaesthesia 2015, 70, 241–257
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2a/2b may help
[9]. The percentage of glottic opening visible (POGO) may perhaps be preferable for docu- mentation of videolaryngoscopy, although this too is not perfect since in order to give an accurate percent- age, one has to see the whole glottis, which by definition may be impossi- ble [10]. The bottom line is that if input data are incorrect because of improper documentation or impre- cise scoring systems, the outcomes of prediction models will be unreliable. Prediction models Using a three-tier classification, Mal- lampati et al. reported difficult direct laryngoscopy in the majority of patients with a poor view of the pha- ryngeal structures [11]. Samsoon and Young reviewed a series of patients with known difficult intuba- tion and added a fourth class (no pharyngeal structures seen): in patients with difficult laryngoscopy, classes 3 and 4 predominated [12]. Unfortunately, subsequent evalua- tions showed that Mallampati/modi- fied Mallampati scores poorly predict difficult intubation [13–16]. Wilson et al.’s model, based on grad- ing patients’ weight, head and neck movement, jaw movement, mandib- ular size and prominence of the upper incisors, predicted difficult intubation with sensitivity of 75% and specificity of 88% [17]. In par- turients undergoing caesarean sec- tion, Rocke et al. utilised the modified Mallampati classification combined with other characteristics (short neck, obesity, missing/pro- truding maxillary incisors, single maxillary tooth, facial oedema, swol- len tongue and receding mandible) [6]. An easy, first-attempt intubation occurred in 96% of class-1 airways, 91% of class-2, 82% of class-3 and 76% of class-4 airways. Surprisingly, most class-4 airways were not diffi- cult to intubate, and only 4-6% of class-3/4 airways were considered to be very difficult intubations. The fol- lowing emerged as aetiological fac- tors predicting difficult or failed intubation: airway class 2 (RR 3.23); airway class 3 (RR 7.58); airway class 4 (RR 11.30); short neck (RR 5.01); receding mandible (RR 9.71); and protruding maxillary incisors (RR 8.0). Obesity and a short neck were linked factors, with obesity being eliminated as a risk factor if short neck was excluded [6]. Although the value of airway assessment in itself is acknowledged, most experts in the field conclude that simple and practical strategies may have a high sensitivity but a low specificity and positive predictive value [18–20]. However, in current scoring systems, non-patient related factors that may complicate airway management and threaten patient safety are missing: experience; time pressure; available equipment; loca- tion; and human factors [21, 22]. Debunking the myth While it can be concluded that air- way management is a highly com- plex procedure, the ‘difficult airway’ does not exist, in our opinion. A pre- viously healthy patient, whose airway is scored as Mallampati class 1 and whose trachea can be intubated with basic airway management skills, may become ‘difficult’ when he presents in septic shock and with a low oxy- gen saturation, to an emergency phy- sician in a remote hospital who performs only ten tracheal intuba- tions a year. The lack of experience, time pressure and severity of illness may render this ‘basic’ airway more complex, while an intensivist in a busy metropolitan hospital may have no problem at all. In contrast, a Mallampati class-4 airway can repre- sent a routine intubation for an anaesthetist experienced in awake intubation, even after major head and neck surgery with free flap reconstruction. For these doctors, the definition of a difficult airway will be different, and accurate pre- diction of intubation problems is impossible with current methods. It seems that we work intuitively and become sensitive to subtle warn- ing signs of possible airway danger (e.g. presence of hoarse voice or the size of a tumor in patients with head and neck cancer), that may not be included in routine airway assess- ment. While this experience evolves according to our share of failed intu- bations (expected and unexpected), the less experienced doctor must also be able to differentiate between a nor- mal and a potentially challenging air- way. We would propose a more careful balance between patient related factors and airway manage- ment skills. ‘Complexity factors’, a term that is commonly used to describe contributory factors in behavioural, technical, economic and other systems, that may add to the complexity of the procedure, should be identified and weighed as well (Table 1) [23]. Moreover, as argued above, airway management is sensi- tive to both context [24] and time (and therefore to ‘plan continuation error’ [25]). The initial airway man- agement plan, seemingly clear and rock solid in the beginning, could 246 © 2014 The Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland Anaesthesia 2015, 70, 241–257 Editorial
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prove wrong if
the situation is rapidly changing; for example, if a tumour starts bleeding during intubation, the videolaryngoscope may no longer be useful and may have to be exchanged for another device that is indepen- dent of good vision. If we ignore the warning signs during intubation that we need to change our strategy, the risk for potentially severe complica- tions increases considerably. Experi- ence and training increase awareness and prevent the potential pitfall of plan continuation error, which has been recognised as an important fac- tor in aviation crashes. Another important observation from previous studies is the fact that if one airway management technique is difficult or fails, the risk of other techniques’ being difficult or failing is consider- ably increased: this is defined as ‘composite failure’ of airway manage- ment [6]. Basic and advanced airways A classification system should be used that can decrease the risk of continuation error, prevent compos- ite failure, and frames the context of airway management with respect to potential complexity factors. It should be able to differentiate clearly between normal and chal- lenging airways, and ideally be inde- pendent of clinical experience. We propose a different approach to the classic distinction into non-difficult versus difficult airway management: basic versus advanced. We suggest that this reflects the learning that comes with many years’ experience, of which airways are easily managed with standard techniques in a con- trolled clinical environment, and which aren’t. Every patient should be assessed in the same way before airway management (Fig. 1). The basic airway (Table 2) In a patient with a basic airway, there are no complexity factors and man- agement of the airway can be com- pleted without time pressure, within a minute, by a well-trained medical person. Without complexity factors, bag-mask ventilation, supraglottic airway device insertion and direct laryngoscopy with a standard laryn- goscope blade are all expected to be successful [20]. Even emergency and postoperative management is likely to present few real challenges because the anatomy is normal and the surgi- cal procedure has been performed outside the respiratory tract. Most of our patients will have basic airways. In the rare event of unexpected difficulties, it should be possible to call for help early and/or to wake up the patient, without undue risk. Some experts opine that airway management should be stan- dardised to increase safety [26]. That could possibly be done with basic airways. All other airways that do not meet these criteria can be classified as advanced airways. The advanced airway In patients with advanced airways, it must be anticipated that airway Table 1 Complexity factors that may be a threat to patient safety during airway management, arranged according to a ‘HELP-ET’ checklist. Factor Example(s) Human factors Language barrier, fatigue, stress Experience Lack of skills (e.g. flexible awake intubation is needed but the team has never done this procedure) Location Remote hospital, no expert help available Patient factors Prior radiation therapy to the neck, airway obstruction Equipment Technical problems Time pressure Rapid desaturation, unstable vital signs Advanced airway; number of factors determine level of care/help needed Basic airway i.e. basic skills HELP-ETchecklist PHASE checklist Airway assessment Figure 1 Assessment plan for all patients presenting for airway management. © 2014 The Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland 247 Editorial Anaesthesia 2015, 70, 241–257
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management can be
challenging, because of the presence of one or more of the aforementioned com- plexity factors. In these cases, spe- cial measurements or advanced skills may be needed, for example the immediate availability of a dedi- cated airway management trolley or, in cases with many complexity factors, the help of an airway man- agement expert and/or head and neck surgeon. There is a distinction between the paediatric and adult airway. For our classification, paediatric is defined as children younger than 12 years; above this, dentition should be permanent and most patients will not have loose teeth that might otherwise present a problem during airway management. An advanced airway could be fur- ther classified according to the number and type of complexity factors, as in Table 1. Thus, for example, 1E would indicate one complexity factor present in the category Experience, while 3HPT would be an advanced airway with three complexity factors (Human factors, Patient factors, Time pressure). In the 4th National Audit Pro- ject (NAP4), the following complex- ity factors were strong predictors for complications: body mass index (Patient factors); head and neck con- ditions (Patient factors); absence of capnography (Equipment factors); communication problems (Human factors); out of theatre location (Location); and wrong emergency surgical technique (Experience, Time pressure) [27]. Conclusions We suggest that the term ‘difficult air- way’ has been a cause of confusion and that we should start redefining air- way assessment and management. We propose that airway assessment should focus on differentiating between the basic and advanced airway. Further research should evaluate the factors that cause complexity and therefore complications, and we can move away from doing what we’ve always done. Acknowledgement We are grateful to Dr Naveen Eipe, The Ottawa Hospital, University of Ottawa, Canada, for critically read- ing this manuscript. J. M. Huitink Assistant Professor Department of Anesthesiology VU University Medical Center Amsterdam The Netherlands Email: j.huitink@vumc.nl R. A. Bouwman Staff Anesthesiologist Department of Anesthesiology Catharina Hospital Eindhoven The Netherlands References 1. Nørskov AK, Rosenstock CV, Wetterslev J, Astrup G, Afshari A, Lundstrøm LH. Diagnostic accuracy of anaesthesiolo- gists’ prediction of difficult airway management in daily clinical practice: a cohort study of 188 064 patients reg- istered in the Danish Anaesthesia Table 2 Requirements for a classification of a basic airway, arranged accord- ing to a ‘PHASE’ checklist. Patient* ASA physical status 1-2 Age > 12 years Cooperative BMI < 25 kg.mÀ2 Height > 130 cm < 200 cm Weight > 30 kg < 100 kg Airway management in hospital environment History No prior history of airway management complications or problems No prior reconstructive surgery and/or radiation therapy to upper airway or neck No medical syndrome that is associated with airway management problems Airway Mallampati 1–2 with mouth opening > 3 cm No loose teeth or buck teeth Good neck flexion and extension (> 5 cm movement from tip of chin to sternal notch) No large beard that makes face mask oxygenation problematic No short neck (thyromental distance > 4 cm) No tumors or lumps in upper airway or neck region No active bleeding in the upper airway No inspiratory stridor Surgical procedure Outside upper airway or neck region Evaluation of vital signs Saturation at start of procedure without supplemental oxygen > 95% Stable vital signs: systolic arterial pressure > 95 mmHg; heart rate 40–140 beats.minÀ1 ; respiratory rate 14–20 breaths.minÀ1 *Pregnant patients will most probably have BMI > 25 kg.mÀ2 and are often classified as advanced airways. 248 © 2014 The Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland Anaesthesia 2015, 70, 241–257 Editorial
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70: 272– 81. 2. Apfelbaum JL, Hagberg CA, Caplan RA, et al. Practice guidelines for manage- ment of the difficult airway: an updated report by the American Soci- ety of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the Difficult Airway. Anesthesiology 2013; 118: 251–70. 3. Henderson JJ, Popat MT, Latto IP, Pearce AC. Difficult Airway Society guidelines for management of the unanticipated difficult intubation. Anaesthesia 2004; 59: 675–94. 4. Greenland KB, Irwin MG. Airway man- agement – ‘spinning silk from cocoons’. Anaesthesia 2014; 69: 296–300. 5. Cook TM, MacDougall-Davis SR. Compli- cations and failure of airway manage- ment. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2012; 109: i68–85. 6. Rocke DA, Murray WB, Rout CC, Gouws EB. Relative risk analysis of factors associated with difficult intubation in obstetric anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1992; 77: 67–73. 7. Rose DK, Cohen MM. The airway: prob- lems and predictions in 18,500 patients. Canadian Journal of Anesthe- sia 1994; 41: 372–83. 8. Angadi SP, Frerk C. Videolaryngoscopy and Cormack and Lehane grading. Anaesthesia 2011; 66: 628–9. 9. Yentis SM, Lee DJ. Evaluation of an improved scoring system for the grad- ing of direct laryngoscopy. Anaesthesia 1998; 53: 1041–2. 10. Levitan RM, Ochroch EA, Rush S, Shofer FS, Hollander JE. Assessment of airway visualization: validation of the percent- age of glottic opening (POGO) scale. Academic Emergency Medicine 1998; 5: 919–23. 11. Mallampati SR, Gatt SP, Gugino LD, et al. A clinical sign to predict difficult tracheal intubation: a prospective study. Canadian Anaesthetists’ Society Journal 1985; 32: 429–34. 12. Samsoon GL, Young JR. Difficult tra- cheal intubation: a retrospective study. Anaesthesia 1987; 42: 487–90. 13. Langeron O, Masmo E, Hevaux C, et al. Prediction of difficult mask ventilation. Anesthesiology 2000; 92: 1229–36. 14. Kheterpal S, Martin C, Shanks AM, Tremper KK. Prediction and outcomes of impossible mask ventilation: a review of 50000 anesthetics. Anesthe- siology 2009; 267: 891–7. 15. Lundstrøm LH, Vester-Andersen M, Møller AM, Charuluxananan S, L’her- mite J, Wetterslev J. Poor prognostic value of the modified Mallampati score: a meta-analysis involving 177 088 patients. British Journal of Anaes- thesia 2011; 107: 659–67. 16. Lee A, Fan LTY, Gin T, Karmakar MK, Ngan Kee WD. A systematic review (meta-analysis) of the accuracy of the Mallampati tests to predict the difficult airway. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2006; 102: 1867–78. 17. Wilson ME, Spiegelhalter D, Robertson JA, Lesser P. Predicting difficult intuba- tion. British Journal of Anaesthesia 1988; 61: 211–6. 18. Huitink JM. Personalized airway manage- ment. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Anes- thesiologie 2013; 26: 16–7. http://www. anesthesiologie.nl/uploads/284/1645/ 2013-02.pdf(accessed23/11/2014). 19. Yentis SM. Predicting difficult intuba- tion – worthwhile exercise or pointless ritual? Anaesthesia 2002; 57: 105–9. 20. Henderson J. Airway management in the adult. Miller’s Anesthesia, 7th edn. Philadelphia, USA: Churchill Living- stone, 2009. 21. Flin R, Fioratou E, Frerk C, et al. Human factors in the development of compli- cations of airway management: preli- minary evaluation of an interview tool. Anaesthesia 2013; 68: 817–25. 22. Endsley M. Toward a theory of situa- tion awareness in dynamic systems. Human Factors 1995; 37: 32–64. 23. Azim SW. Understanding and managing project complexity. PhD Thesis, The Uni- versity of Manchester, 2010. https:// www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/da- tastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man- scw:121030&datastreamId=FULL-TEXT. PDF (accessed 23/11/2014). 24. Hung O, Murphy O. Context sensitive airway management. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2010; 110: 982–3. 25. McCoy CE, Mickunas A. The role of con- text and progressive commitment in plan continuation error. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 2000; 44: 26– 9. http://hcibib.org/HFES00#S2 (acc- essed 23/11/2014). 26. Combes X, Jabre P, Jbeili C, et al. Prehos- pital standardization of medical airway management: incidence and risk factors of difficult airway. Academic Emergency Medicine 2006; 13: 828–34. 27. Cook TM, Woodall N, Frerk C, eds. Fourth National Audit Project of the Royal College of Anaesthetists and Dif- ficult Airway Society. Major complica- tions of airway management in the United Kingdom. Report and Findings. London: Royal College of Anaesthetists, 2011. doi:10.1111/anae.12989 Editorial If a little bit is wrong, how much is alright? Interpreting the significance of small numerators in clinical trials A clinician colleague reports no failures in the last 20 intubation attempts using a new device and sug- gests this is satisfactory evidence of efficacy. However, a true population failure rate up to and including 14% would produce zero failures in 20 patients at least 5% of the time, lend- ing some doubt to the claim of a 100% success rate. While statistical programs can calculate an exact 95% confidence interval in this setting, an easy approximation is to use the ‘rule of three’ (ROT) as suggested by Han- ley and Lippman-Hand [1] in an © 2014 The Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland 249 Editorial Anaesthesia 2015, 70, 241–257
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