2. INFORMATION NEEDS AND BUSINESS
PROCESSES
• Businesses engage in a variety of processes, including:
– Acquiring capital
– Buying buildings and equipment
– Hiring and training employees
– Purchasing inventory
– Doing advertising and marketing
– Selling goods or services
– Collecting payment from customers
– Paying employees
– Paying taxes
– Paying vendors
2
3. Cont…
• Each activity requires different types of decisions.
• Each decision requires different types of information.
• Types of information needed for decisions:
– Some is financial
– Some is nonfinancial
– Some comes from internal sources
– Some comes from external sources
• An effective AIS needs to be able to integrate
information of different types and from different
sources.
3
4. Interactions between AIS and internal and
external parties
• The AIS interacts with external parties, such as customers,
vendors, creditors, and governmental agencies.
• The AIS also interacts with internal parties such as employees and
management.
• The interaction is typically two way, in that the AIS sends
information to and receives information from these parties.
AIS
Internal
Parties
External
Parties
4
6. BUSINESS CYCLES
• A transaction is:
– An agreement between two entities to exchange goods
or services; OR
– Any other event that can be measured in economic
terms by an organization.
• EXAMPLES:
– Sell goods to customers
– Depreciate equipment
6
7. Cont…
• The business transaction cycle is a process that:
– Begins with capturing of data about a
transaction.
– Ends with an information output, such as
financial statements.
• Many business processes are paired in give-get
exchanges.
7
8. Cont…
• Basic exchanges can be grouped into five
major transaction cycles:
–Revenue cycle
–Expenditure cycle
–Production cycle
–Human resources/payroll cycle
–Financing cycle
8
9. REVENUE CYCLE
• The revenue cycle involves interactions with
your customers.
• You sell goods or services and get cash.
Give
Goods
Get
Cash
9
10. EXPENDITURE CYCLE
• The expenditure cycle involves interactions
with your suppliers.
• You buy goods or services and pay cash.
Give
Cash
Get
Goods
10
11. PRODUCTION CYCLE
• In the production cycle, raw materials and
labor are transformed into finished goods.
Give Raw
Materials &
Labor
Get
Finished
Goods
11
12. HUMAN RESOURCES/
PAYROLL CYCLE
• The human resources cycle involves interactions
with your employees.
• Employees are hired, trained, paid, evaluated,
promoted, and terminated.
Give
Cash
Get
Labor
12
13. FINANCING CYCLE
• The financing cycle involves interactions with
investors and creditors.
• You raise capital (through stock or debt), repay
the capital, and pay a return on it (interest or
dividends).
Give
Cash
Get
cash
13
14. Cont…
• Thousands of transactions can occur within any of
these cycles.
• But there are relatively few types of transactions in
a cycle.
• EXAMPLE: In the revenue cycle, the basic give-get
transaction is:
– Give goods
– Get cash
14
15. Other transactions in the revenue
cycle include:
• Handle customer inquiries
• Take customer orders
• Approve credit sales
• Check inventory availability
• Initiate back orders
• Pick and pack orders
• Ship goods
• Bill customers
• Update sales and Accts Rec.
for sales
• Receive customer payments
• Update Accts Rec. for
collections
• Handle sales returns,
discounts, and bad debts
• Prepare management reports
• Send info to other cycles
15
16. Transactions in the expenditure cycle:
• MAJOR GIVE-GET:
• Give cash; get goods or
services
• OTHER TRANSACTIONS
• Requisition goods and
services
• Process purchase orders to
vendors
• Receive goods and services
• Store goods
• Receive vendor invoices
• Update accounts payable for
purchase
• Approve invoices for
payment
• Pay vendors
• Update accounts payable for
payment
• Handle purchase returns,
discounts, and allowances
• Prepare management reports
• Send info to other cycles
16
17. Transactions in the HR/payroll cycle:
• MAJOR GIVE-GET:
• Give cash; get labor
• OTHER TRANSACTIONS
• Recruit, hire, and train
employees
• Evaluate and promote
employees
• Discharge employees
• Update payroll records
• Pay employees
– Process time card and
commission data
– Prepare and distribute
payroll
• Calculate and disburse tax
and benefit employees
• Prepare management
reports
• Send info to other cycles
17
18. Transactions in the production cycle:
• MAJOR GIVE-GET:
• Give labor and raw
materials; get finished
goods
• OTHER TRANSACTIONS
• Design products
• Forecast, plan, and schedule
production
• Requisition raw materials
• Manufacture products
• Store finished goods
• Accumulate costs and
products
• Prepare management
reports
• Send info to other
cycles
18
19. Transactions in the financing cycle:
• MAJOR GIVE-GET:
• Give cash; get cash
• OTHER TRANSACTIONS
• Forecast cash needs
• Sell securities to
investors
• Borrow money from
lenders
• Pay dividends to investors
and interest to lenders
• Retire debt
• Prepare management
reports
• Send info to other cycles
• Note that: the last activity
in any cycle is to send
information to other
cycles.
19
20. Cont…
• Every transaction cycle:
–Relates to other cycles.
–Interfaces with the general ledger and
reporting system, which generates information
for management and external parties.
20
22. Cont…
• Many accounting software packages implement the
different transaction cycles as separate modules.
– Not every module is needed in every organization, e.g.,
retail companies don’t have a production cycle.
– Some companies may need extra modules.
– The implementation of each transaction cycle can differ
significantly across companies.
• However the cycles are implemented, it is critical that
the AIS be able to:
– Accommodate the information needs of managers.
– Integrate financial and nonfinancial data.
22
23. TRANSACTION PROCESSING:
THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
• Accountants play an important role in data processing. They
answer questions such as:
– What data should be entered and stored?
– Who should be able to access the data?
– How should the data be organized, updated, stored, accessed, and
retrieved?
– How can scheduled and unanticipated information needs be met?
• To answer these questions, they must understand data
processing concepts.
23
24. Cont…
• An important function of the AIS is to efficiently
and effectively process the data about a
company’s transactions.
– In manual systems, data is entered into paper
journals and ledgers.
– In computer-based systems, the series of operations
performed on data is referred to as the data
processing cycle.
24
25. Data Processing Cycle
• The data processing cycle consists of four
steps:
–Data input
–Data storage
–Data processing
–Information output
25
27. DATA INPUT
• The first step in data processing is to capture the
data.
• Usually triggered (started) by a business activity.
• Data is captured about:
– The event that occurred.
– The resources affected by the event.
– The agents who participated.
27
28. Paper-Based Source Documents
• Data are collected on source
documents
– E.g., a sales-order form
– The data from paper-based
will eventually need to be
transferred to the AIS
• Turnaround
– Usually paper-based
– Are sent from organization
to customer
– Same document is
returned by customer to
organization Cust.
Org.
Turnaround Document
28
29. Source Data Automaton
• Source data is captured
– In machine-readable form
– At the time of the business activity
• E.g., ATM’s; POS
29
30. Data Input—Accuracy and Control
• Well-designed source documents can ensure
that data captured is
– Accurate
• Provide instructions and prompts
• Check boxes
• Drop-down boxes
– Complete
• Internal control support
• Pre-numbered documents
30
31. DATA STORAGE
• Data needs to be organized for easy and efficient access.
• Let’s start with some vocabulary terms with respect to
data storage.
– Ledger
– General ledger
– Subsidiary ledger
– Coding techniques
– Chart of accounts
– Journals
– Audit trail
31
32. Ledgers
• General
– Summary level data for
each:
• Asset, liability, equity,
revenue, and expense
• Subsidiary
– Detailed data for a General
Ledger (Control) Account
that has individual sub-
accounts
• Accounts Receivable
• Accounts Payable
• Joe Smith
$250
• Patti Jones
$750
A/R
$1000
• ACME
Inc.$150
• Jones, Inc
$350
A/P
$600
32
33. Coding Techniques
• Coding is a method of systematically assigning
numbers or letters to data items to help classify and
organize them.
• Uses of Coding in AIS:
– Concisely represent large amounts of complex
information that would otherwise be unmanageable
– Provide a means of accountability over the completeness
of the transactions processed
– Identify unique transactions and accounts within a file
– Support the audit function by providing an effective audit
trail
33
34. Types of Codes
• Sequential codes
• Block codes
• Group Codes
• Mnemonic codes
34
35. Sequential Codes
• Represent items in sequential order
• Used to prenumber source documents
• Track each transaction processed
• Identify any out-of-sequence documents
• Disadvantages:
– arbitrary information
– hard to make changes and insertions
35
36. Block Codes
• Represent whole classes by assigning each class
a specific range within the coding scheme
• Used for chart of accounts
– The basis of the general ledger
• Allows for the easy insertion of new codes
within a block
– Don’t have to reorganize the coding structure
• Disadvantage:
– arbitrary information
36
37. Group Codes
• Represent complex items or events involving two
or more pieces of data using fields with specific
meaning
• For example, a coding scheme for tracking sales
might be 04-09-476214-99, meaning:
Store Number Dept. Number Item Number Salesperson
04 09 476214 99
• Disadvantages:
– arbitrary information
– overused
37
38. Mnemonic Codes
• Alphabetic characters used as abbreviations,
acronyms, and other types of combinations
• Do not require users to memorize the meaning
since the code itself is informative – and not
arbitrary
– NY = New York
• Disadvantages:
– limited usability and availability
38
39. Chart of accounts
• It is a list of all general ledger accounts an
organization uses.
• Type of block coding
• The structure of this chart is an important AIS
issue, as it must contain sufficient detail to
meet the organization’s needs.
39
40. Journals
• A general journal is used to record:
– Non-routine transactions, such as loan payments
– Summaries of routine transactions
– Adjusting entries
– Closing entries
• A special journal is used to record routine transactions. The
most common special journals are:
– Cash receipts
– Cash disbursements
– Credit sales
– Credit purchases
40
41. Audit trail
• An audit trail exists when there is sufficient
documentation to allow the tracing of a
transaction from beginning to end or from the
end back to the beginning.
• The inclusion of posting references and
document numbers enable the tracing of
transactions through the journals and ledgers
and therefore facilitate the audit trail.
41
43. Accounts Receivable Control Account-General Ledger
Accounts Receivable Subsidiary Ledger
(sum of all customers’ receivables)
Sales Journal Cash Receipts Journal
Sales Order Deposit Slip
Remittance Advice
Shipping Notice
Example of Tracing an Audit Trail
Verifying Accounts Receivable
Physical Financial
43
44. Data Storage - Cont…
• Now that we’ve learned some storage terminology,
let’s return to the data storage process.
• When transaction data is captured on a source
document, the next step is to record the data in a
journal.
• A journal entry is made for each transaction showing
the accounts and amounts to be debited and credited.
• Then they are posted to ledgers.
• But that’s not the end of the story.
44
45. Cont…
• At the end of each accounting period, we
complete the process by carrying out the
following steps.
– Prepare unadjusted trial balance.
– Prepare the end-of-period adjusting entries.
• Record in journal
• Post to ledger
– Make an adjusted trial balance.
– Using the numbers in the adjusted trial balance, prepare an
income statement.
– Prepare closing entries.
– Prepare:
• Statement of stockholders’ equity
• Balance sheet
• Statement of cash flows
45
46. COMPUTER-BASED STORAGE
CONCEPTS
• Now let’s move on to discussing some computer-based
storage concepts, including:
– Entity
– Attribute
– Record
– Data Value
– Field
– File
– Master File
– Transaction File
– Database
46
47. COMPUTER-BASED STORAGE CONCEPTS
• An entity is something about which information is
stored.
• In your university’s student information system, one
entity is the student. The student information
system stores information about students.
• Attributes are characteristics of interest with respect to the
entity.
• Some attributes that a student information system typically
stores about the student entity are:
– Student ID number
– Phone number
– Address
47
48. • A field is the physical space where an attribute is
stored.
• The space where the student ID number is stored is
the student ID field.
COMPUTER-BASED STORAGE CONCEPTS
Student ID First Name Second Name Phone number
328469993 SIMPSON ALICE 4053721111
328500732 ANDREWS BARRY 4057440236
529036409 FLANDERS CARLA 4057475863
48
49. • A record is the set of attributes stored for a
particular instance of an entity.
• The combination of attributes stored for Barry
Andrews is Barry’s record.
COMPUTER-BASED STORAGE CONCEPTS
Student ID First Name Second Name Phone number
328469993 SIMPSON ALICE 4053721111
328500732 ANDREWS BARRY 4057440236
529036409 FLANDERS CARLA 4057475863
49
50. • A data value is the intersection of the row and
column.
• The data value for Barry Andrews’ phone number is
405-744-0236.
COMPUTER-BASED STORAGE CONCEPTS
Student ID First Name Second Name Phone number
328469993 SIMPSON ALICE 4053721111
328500732 ANDREWS BARRY 4057440236
529036409 FLANDERS CARLA 4057475863
50
51. • A file is a group of related records.
• The collection of records about all students at the
university might be called the student file. If there
were only three students and four attributes stored
for each student, the file might appear as shown
below:
COMPUTER-BASED STORAGE CONCEPTS
Student ID First Name Second Name Phone number
328469993 SIMPSON ALICE 4053721111
328500732 ANDREWS BARRY 4057440236
529036409 FLANDERS CARLA 4057475863
51
53. File Types
• A master file is a file that stores cumulative
information about an organization’s entities.
• It is conceptually similar to a ledger in a manual
AIS in that:
– The file is permanent.
– The file exists across fiscal periods.
– Changes are made to the file to reflect the effects of
new transactions.
53
54. File Types
• A transaction file is a file that contains records
of individual transactions (events) that occur
during a fiscal period.
• It is conceptually similar to a journal in a
manual AIS in that:
– The files are temporary.
– The files are usually maintained for one fiscal
period.
54
56. • A database is a set of interrelated, centrally-
coordinated files.
• When files about students are integrated with files
about classes and files about instructors, we have a
database.
COMPUTER-BASED STORAGE CONCEPTS
Student
File
Class
File
Instructor
File
56
58. DATA PROCESSING
• Once data about a business activity has been collected
and entered into a system, it must be processed.
• There are four different types of file processing:
– Updating data to record the occurrence of an event, the
resources affected by the event, and the agents who
participated, e.g., recording a sale to a customer.
– Changing data, e.g., a customer address.
– Adding data, e.g., a new customer.
– Deleting data, e.g., removing an old customer that has not
purchased anything in 5 years.
58
59. Cont…
• Updating can be done through several approaches:
• Batch processing:
– Source documents are grouped into batches, and control
totals are calculated.
– Periodically, the batches are entered into the computer
system, edited, sorted, and stored in a temporary file.
– The temporary transaction file is run against the master
file to update the master file.
– Output is printed or displayed, along with error reports,
transaction reports, and control totals.
59
60. Cont…
• Online batch processing:
– Transactions are entered into a computer system as
they occur and stored in a temporary file.
– Periodically, the temporary transaction file is run
against the master file to update the master file.
– The output is printed or displayed.
• Online, real-time processing
– Transactions are entered into a computer system as
they occur.
– The master file is immediately updated with the data
from the transaction.
– Output is printed or displayed.
60
62. INFORMATION OUTPUT
• The final step in the information process is information
output.
• This output can be in the form of:
• Documents
• Documents are records of transactions or other
company data.
• EXAMPLE: Employee paychecks
• Documents generated at the end of the transaction
processing activities are known as operational
documents (as opposed to source documents).
• They can be printed or stored as electronic images.
62
63. Cont…
• Reports
• Reports are used by employees to control operational
activities and by managers to make decisions and design
strategies.
• They may be produced:
– On a regular basis
– On an exception basis
– On demand
• Organizations should periodically reassess whether each
report is needed.
63
64. Cont…
• Queries
• Queries are user requests for specific pieces of
information.
• They may be requested:
–Periodically
–One time
• They can be displayed:
–On the monitor, called soft copy.
–On the screen, called hard copy.
64
65. Output can serve a variety of
purposes:
• Financial statements can be provided to both
external and internal parties.
• Some outputs are specifically for internal use:
– For planning purposes(eg., budgets)
– For management of day-to-day operations (eg., delivery
schedules)
– For control purposes (eg., Variance analysis reports)
– For evaluation purposes (eg., Surveys of customer
satisfaction, reports on employee error rates)
65
66. • The traditional AIS captured financial data.
– Non-financial data was captured in other,
sometimes-redundant systems
• Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems are
designed to integrate all aspects of a company’s
operations (including both financial and non-financial
information) with the traditional functions of an AIS.
ROLE OF THE AIS
66
Examining Figure 1-1 provides a great amount of detail and insights as to the flow of information going from the internal and external stakeholders for business processes. Note that this information can be easily mapped to Figure 1-2 which shows the transactional activity “give-get” exchange.
The data processing cycle is a descriptive means of demonstrating the operations performed on data to make the information meaningful for decisions. Using the revenue cycle as an example, the Data Input would include the sales activity between the company and the customer involving the resources of inventory and cash (when money is ultimately collected from the customer).
Walking through the basic activities found on Table 2-1 in the text for the revenue cycle involves the sales order as the initial source document for the data input. This information is stored and often updated once other activities occur for this transaction in the revenue cycle such as an update to the sales record when the order shipped from the warehouse. As seen in Table 2-1, the various activities that occur throughout the revenue cycle can impact the sales record and require updating of new information once that activity happens. The information that management can retrieve from the AIS can be in the form of reports such as Customer Sales Report.
