4. Mangrove Forest
The mangrove forest, mangrove biome, or mangals
refer to the woodland, shrub land, or to the group of
plants that live along sheltered coastlines, ‘over wash’
islands, estuaries, deltas, river banks, and shallow
water lagoons of tropical and subtropical intertidal
zones.
5. Mangrove Forest
The mangrove forest, mangrove biome, or mangals
refer to the woodland, shrub land, or to the group
of plants that live along sheltered coastlines, ‘over
wash’ islands, estuaries, deltas, river banks, and
shallow water lagoons of tropical and subtropical
intertidal zones.
Woodland
Shrub land
Mangrove Forest Forms
6. Mangrove Forest
The mangrove forest, mangrove biome, or mangals
refer to the woodland, shrub land, or to the group of
plants that live along sheltered coastlines, ‘over
wash’ islands, estuaries, deltas, river banks, and
shallow water lagoons of tropical and subtropical
intertidal zones.
Coastline
Delta
Over wash Island Estuary
Riverbank Lagoon
Mangrove Ecosystem
7. The mangrove forest, mangrove biome, or mangals
refer to the woodland, shrub land, or to the group of
plants that live along sheltered coastlines, ‘over wash’
islands, estuaries, deltas, river banks, and shallow
water lagoons of tropical and subtropical intertidal
zones.
Mangrove Ecosystem
High Tide
Low Tide
Zone 1
Fore Shore
Zone 2
Pioneer Zone
Zone 3
Eroded Bank
Zone 4
True
Mangrove
Forest
Zone 5
Terrestrial
Margin
8. Mangrove Forest
The mangrove forest, mangrove biome, or mangals
refer to the woodland, shrub land, or to the group of
plants that live along sheltered coastlines, ‘over wash’
islands, estuaries, deltas, river banks, and shallow
water lagoons of tropical and subtropical intertidal
zones.
Topical and Subtropical Climate Zones
Topical and Subtropical Intertidal Zones
Global Distribution of Mangrove Forest
124 countries and territories in the tropical and
subtropical regions of the world.
Approximately 75% of world’s mangroves are found
in just 15 countries.
The largest percentage of mangroves is found
between the 5° N and 5° S latitudes.
9. Global Distribution of Mangrove Forests
Asia,
42%
Africa,
21%
North/Ce
ntral
America,
15%
Oceania,
12%
South
America,
11%
10. Mangrove Plant
Considered as Mangroves - the family of trees or
shrubs which live on saline coastal sediments with
slow-moving waters and hypoxic (low-oxygen) soil,
along the tropical and subtropical intertidal zones
11. Mangrove Plant
Considered as Mangroves - the family of trees or
shrubs which live on saline coastal sediments with
slow-moving waters and hypoxic (low-oxygen)
soil, along the tropical and subtropical intertidal
zones
High Tide
Low Tide
Tidal inundation
Variable Salinity
Slow-moving waters
Depositional
Hypoxic soil
12. Mangrove Plant
True Mangrove Species – trees or shrubs which have
a dense tangling mat of thick, hard, roots that
spreads under water or mud, aerial roots, salt
excretion glands, and vivipary seeds.
13. Mangrove Plant
True Mangrove Species – trees or shrubs which have
a dense tangling mat of thick, hard, roots that
spreads under water or mud, aerial roots, salt
excretion glands, and vivipary seeds.
Dense
Tangling Mat
of Roots
Aerial Roots Excretion
Glands
Vivipary
Seeds
Stilt prop Roots
Pneumato-
phores
Lenticels
Aerenchyma
Suberised
Cell Vacuoles
Salt Glands
Stomata
Propagule
18. Taxonomy
There are about 110 species considered as
"mangroves", in the sense of being a tree that grows
in saline swamps.
Among the 110 species, there are only about 80
different species of mangrove which descended form
a single ancestor.
And only about 54 species, from 20 genera, from 16
families, constitute the "true mangroves", species
that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats.
25. Global Distribution of Mangrove Forests
Asia,
42%
Africa,
21%
North/Ce
ntral
America,
15%
Oceania,
12%
South
America,
11%
26. Mangrove Area Changes Per Continent
1980-2005
7769000
3670000
2951000
2181000
2222000
6741000
3428000
2592000
2090000
2073000
6163000
3218000
2352000
2012000
1996000
5858000
3160000
2263000
1972000
1978000
0 1000000 2000000 3000000 4000000 5000000 6000000 7000000 8000000 9000000
Asia
Africa
North/Central America
Oceania
South America
2005 2000 1990 1980
27. Mangrove Area Changes of the World
1980-2005
18794000
16925000
15740000
15231000
0 2000000 4000000 6000000 8000000 10000000 12000000 14000000 16000000 18000000 20000000
2005 2000 1990 1980
20 percent of mangrove area, or 3.6 million hectares,
has been lost since 1980
About 185 000 ha were lost every year in the 1980s
About 118 500 ha per year in the 1990s
About 102 000 ha per year (–0.66 percent) during the
2000–2005 period
28. Mangrove Area Changes in the Philippines
500000
288000
175000
140000
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000
1988 1980 1970 1918
Ulugan Bay (Palawan) accounts for 15% of all
mangrove forests in the Philippines. It also contains
extensive coral reefs and sea grass beds
29. Global Distribution of Mangrove Forests
Global Distribution of Mangrove Species
Global Distribution of Threatened
Mangrove Species
Coastal development driven by growing populations
and tourism
Development of aquaculture, particularly shrimp
farming
Agricultural run-off carrying pesticides and
herbicides
Man-made changes in tidal or river flow that starve
the system of sediment input
30. Global Distribution of Threatened
Mangrove Species
Sea level rise
Human pressure on coastal ecosystems and the
competition for land for aquaculture, agriculture,
infrastructure and tourism are often high and are
major causes of the decrease in area reported.
31. Protection and Restoration
Law Enforcement
Zonation
Mangrove Rehabilitation
Mangrove Friendly Aquaculture
Inventory of Mangrove Areas and Aquaculture Ponds
32. Protection and Restoration in the
Philippines
Self-help Community-Based Mangrove Plantation of
Banacon Island, Getafe, Bohol
Propagules
Firewood, Charcoal, Piles, Posts
Amatong
Seaweeds
33. Protection and Restoration in the
Philippines
Contract Reforestation Project
Poor site selection
Lack of acceptance by the community
Barnacles and other infestations
Lack of preparation in project implementation
34. Protection and Restoration in the
Philippines
Contract Reforestation Project
Poor understanding and appreciation of the importance of
mangroves
Conflicting interests of various users/stakeholders
General lack of information and actual experience in
mangrove rehabilitation and management
Contract reforestation benefited only few contractors
35. Protection and Restoration in the
Philippines
Mangrove Tenurial Instruments
Nipa-Bakauan Special Use Permit
Community-Based Forest Management Program
Integration of aquaculture in mangrove management
36. Law Enforcement
FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries 1995
Environmental Code of Practice for Prawn Farmers
1998
SEAFDEC Regional Guidelines for Responsible
Fisheries in SEA
Philippine Code of Practice for Sustainable Shrimp
Farming 2001
37. Special Thanks To
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, USA (PH)
Annamalai University, Parangipettai, India
Australian National Herbarium, Canberra, Australia
(CANB) [list specimens]
Belgian Biodiversity Platform, Brussels, Belgium
Herbarium of the University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras,
Puerto Rico (UPR)
38. Special Thanks To
Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, USA (MO) [list
specimens]
Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle - MNHN, Herbier
National de Paris, Paris, France (P) [list specimens]
Museu Nacional de História Natural – Jardim Botânico,
Lisboa, Portugal (LISU) [list specimens]
Nationaal Herbarium Nederland, Leiden, The Netherlands
(L)
National Botanic Garden of Belgium, Meise, Belgium (BR)
39. Special Thanks To
National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan (TAI) [list
specimens]
Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane, Australia (BRI) [list
specimens]
Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid, Madrid, Spain (MA)
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK (K) [list specimens]
Royal Ontario Museum Green Plant Herbarium, Toronto,
Canada (TRT) [list specimens]
40. Special Thanks To
United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP, World
Conservation Monitoring Centre – WCMC, Cambridge,
United Kingdom
Université Libre de Bruxelles – ULB, Brussels, Belgium
(BRLU)
University of California Davis Centre for Plant Diversity,
Davis, USA (DAV) [list specimens]
University of South Florida Herbarium, Tampa, USA (USF)
Vlaams Instituut voor de Zee – VLIZ, Oostende, Belgium
41. Special Thanks To
Vrije Universiteit Brussel – VUB, Brussels, Belgium
(BRVU)
William and Lynda Steer Herbarium of the New York
Botanical Garden, New York, USA (NY)
42. Special Thanks To
International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO)
International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems (ISME)
United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre
Man and Biosphere Programme of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Environment and Health of the United Nations University
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
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