Unit 3 Tutorials Early Christian ThroughEarly Renaissance A.docx

Unit 3 Tutorials: Early Christian Through
Early Renaissance Art: 401 AD - 1450 AD
INSIDE UNIT 3
Early Christian and Byzantine Art and Architecture
Early Christian Art and Architecture
Images of Christ
Early Churches
Byzantine Art and Architecture
Icons and Iconoclasm
Islamic Art
Islamic Art
Islamic Architecture
Ceramics, Textiles and Calligraphy
Alhambra
Early Asian Art
Asian Art and Architecture
Chinese Buddhist Art and Architecture
Song Dynasty Landscape Painting
Art and Architecture of Buddhism in Japan
The Hindu Temple
The Ancient Americas
The Ancient Americas
The Maya

South America
Art and Architecture of Ancient American Civilizations
Early Mediveal, Romanesque, and Gothic Art
Early Medieval and Romanesque Art
Romanesque Architecture
Romanesque Art
Gothic Architecture
Chartres Cathedral
Late Gothic/Early Renaissance Art
© 2019 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered
trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 1
Late Gothic/ Early Renaissance in Italy
Early Northern Renaissance Art
Fifteenth-Century Flemish Painting
The Early Renaissance in Florence
Evaluating Works of Art
Early Renaissance Architecture
Early Christian Art and Architecture
by Sophia Tutorial
Early Christian art and architecture has a relationship with
Christianity, Judaism, and the Roman
Empire. This lesson covers:
1. Time Period and Location: Early Christian Art and
Architecture

2. Early Christianity
3. Catacombs
4. Synagogue at Dura-Europos
Early Christian art reflects its close ties to Judaism, and its
architecture reflects the need for secrecy.
1. Time Period and Location: Early Christian Art
and Architecture
In this lesson you will explore the following two periods of
time:
The historical lifespan of Jesus Christ
Early Christianity
The historical lifespan of Jesus Christ was an important period.
Zero AD is commonly associated with the birth
of Christ; however, 0 AD marks a single moment in time and
was either a best estimate or a miscalculation.
Depending on the Gospel in the Bible, the birth of Christ
actually falls within a range from 4 BC, which
corresponds to the death of Herod the Great, to 6 AD, which
corresponds to the census of Quirinius, who was
the Roman head of Syria.
The reason the census comes into play is that it is often the
reason given for Joseph and Mary, who are the
parents of Jesus, to be traveling to Joseph’s homeland of
Bethlehem from their new home of Nazareth.
The second time period covered in this lesson is referred to as
early Christianity, and it ranges from sometime

after Jesus’ historical death to the First Council of Nicea in 325
AD, when Christian leaders got together under
the Emperor Constantine and made the first group effort to
organize Christianity into a formal religion.
The timeline below highlights the two periods covered in this
lesson.
The origins of Christianity are in the Middle East, within and
around the modern-day borders of Israel. This
region is considered extremely important to the Abrahamic
religions of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Due
to its religious and historical significance, it has been fought
over since antiquity, and the borders have
changed countless times.
The map below shows the region covered in this lesson.
On the above map, modern-day Israel is shown in red. To the
east is the modern-day country of Jordan. The
ancient and biblical cities of Jericho, which is not pictured, and
Bethlehem, the city of Jesus’ birth and
ancestral home to his father, Joseph, are located in an area
called the West Bank. This area is the present-day
home of the largest population of Palestinian Arabs. Nazareth in
northern Israel is where Jesus was thought to
have grown up. Jerusalem is very important in the history of all
three Abrahamic religions (Christianity,
Judaism, and Islam). For Christians, Jerusalem is of particular
importance because of its association with the
crucifixion of Jesus.

2. Early Christianity
The Christian movement began with the teaching and ministry
of Jesus of Nazareth. “Christian” means
“relating to Christ.” As influential as the figure of Christ is
historically and religiously, his ministry only lasted
around three years according to the Gospels, which are the
scriptural accounts of his life and comprise part of
the New Testament in the Christian Bible.
Jesus was eventually executed by the Romans when he was
around the age of 33. Christianity really began as
a movement well after his death. It’s important to note that
Jesus himself was Jewish, not Christian.
The spread of Christianity wasn’t only due to one individual,
however, but is largely credited to one of his
apostles, named Paul. Eventually, the Christian movement
spread outside of the Middle East. It took hold in
many places within the Roman Empire, including Rome itself.
Remember, Christianity at this time wasn’t a formal religion. In
fact, there were many Christian sects, and it was
considered more of a Jewish cult at this time.
Eventually the Roman government took notice of these

Christians, and the Roman persecution of them began
during the first century AD. It didn’t officially end until the
fourth century AD, but tolerance for Christians was
beginning to show as early as the second century AD.
Christianity has close ties to ancient Rome and Judaism. The
Christian religion even became the official
religion of Rome during the fourth century AD, thanks in large
part to the Emperor Constantine. However, until
this time, being a Christian was a risky proposition. Due to this,
early Christian architecture that predates the
adoption of Christianity by the Roman Empire can be seen to
reflect this need for secrecy.
3. Catacombs
CatacombsCatacombs are essentially subterranean cemeteries.
The rooms, or cubiculacubicula, were set off of the major
hallways. The bodies of the dead were placed within these
rooms.
IN CONTEXT
The use of catacombs to bury the dead isn’t unique to
Christians. The catacombs of Rome were
constructed in large part by necessity. Land within the city was
in short supply. The secrecy of the
location of catacombs allowed the early Christians a place to
worship safely, as they were sacred
ground and the Romans usually refrained from persecuting
Christians there.
Here is an image of an artist’s depiction of what the catacombs
looked like.

A Procession in the Catacomb of Callixtus by Alberto PisaA
Procession in the Catacomb of Callixtus by Alberto Pisa
1905
Painting
The Christian catacombs in Rome originated in the second
century AD. Because they weren’t buried
in the traditional sense of the word, exposed human remains
were not uncommon.
Here is a picture of the catacombs as they actually are, lit up
with a floodlight. This is from the
second century AD. Notice the exposed human remains.
Christian CatacombsChristian Catacombs
2nd century AD
Rome, Italy
This last image, below, shows the use of wall space as a place
to create important religious imagery,
typically inspired by stories from the sacred texts associated
with Christianity.

Christian CatacombsChristian Catacombs
2nd-3rd centuries AD
Rome, Italy
There wasn’t an official split from Judaism until the fourth
century. Even though the rift between Christianity
and Judaism was widening, early Christians still borrowed
traditions and religious history from Judaism. The
first five books of the Christian Old Testament are still
equivalent to the Torah of Judaism.
CatacombsCatacombs
An underground cemetery with tunnels and rooms with burial
chambers
CubiculaCubicula
Burial chambers in a catacomb
4. Synagogue at Dura-Europos
Dura-Europos was a Roman city located in modern-day Syria.
Interestingly, this city was apparently rather
tolerant of practicing Christians and Jews, given that there are
above-ground examples of an early
synagoguesynagogue, as well as the earliest known example of a
Christian house-church. While these two structures
were not physically connected, they are positioned rather close

to each other in the city.
Synagogue at Duras-EuroposSynagogue at Duras-Europos
3rd century AD
Syria
The images on the walls of the synagogue are notable for their
similarity to the Christian imagery that can be
found on the catacombs under the city of Rome. Both sets of
imagery depict important scenes or stories from
the Tanakh, or Jewish Bible.
The first image from the synagogue, pictured below, is of the
baby Moses being picked out of the river in
Egypt.
Moses Found in the River from the synagogue at Dura-
EuroposMoses Found in the River from the synagogue at Dura-
Europos
3rd century AD
Syria

This next image is of Moses leading the Israelites across the
Red Sea to escape the army of the Pharaoh
Ramses II.
Exodus and the crossing of the Red Sea from the synagogue at
Dura-EuroposExodus and the crossing of the Red Sea from the
synagogue at Dura-Europos
3rd century AD
Syria
The orant figure is a figure of a person that is gesticulating in a
particular way. It’s the traditional gesture of
prayer, where the elbows are close to the body and the arms are
sort of outstretched. Below is an example of
Noah in the pose of an orant figure.
Noah praying in the Ark from a Roman catacombNoah praying
in the Ark from a Roman catacomb
3rd century AD
Rome, Italy
SynagogueSynagogue
A Jewish house of worship

Orant FiguresOrant Figures
Image of a person in the early Christian position of prayer, with
arms outstretched
Christianity, Judaism, and the Roman Empire all had an impact
on early Christian art and architecture.
In this lesson, you learned about the time period and location of
early Christian art and architecture.time period and location of
early Christian art and architecture.
Early ChristianityEarly Christianity began with the teaching and
ministry of Jesus of Nazareth, and while his ministry
only lasted around three years, according to the Gospels,
Christianity really began as a movement
after Jesus’ death.
Finally, you learned about catacombscatacombs and the
Synagogue at Dura-Europos.Synagogue at Dura-Europos.
Catacombs, or
subterranean cemeteries, were used to bury the dead, but also
were used as secret locations for
early Christians to worship safely. The Synagogue at Dura-
Europos was a Jewish house of worship
located within the city of Dura-Europos, a Roman city located
in modern-day Syria.
Source: THIS WORK IS ADAPTED FROM SOPHIA AUTHOR
IAN MCCONNELL.

Catacombs
An underground cemetery with tunnels and rooms with burial
chambers.
Cubicula
Burial chambers in a catacomb.
Orant figures
Image of a person in the early Christian position of prayer, with
arms outstretched.
Synagogue
A Jewish house of worship.
Images of Christ
by Sophia Tutorial
Christian art did not begin to flourish until after the adoption of
Christianity as the Roman Empire's
official religion. This lesson is about images of Christ and the
relationship between pagan religion,
Christianity, and the artwork from this period. Specifically, you

will learn about:
1. Time Period and Location: Images of Christ
2. Early Christian Art
3. Christ as Good Shepherd #1
4. Christ as Sol Invictus
Early Christian art was influenced by the religion and culture of
the Roman Empire.
1. Time Period and Location: Images of Christ
The lifespan of Jesus Christ covers only about 33 years.
Interestingly, his official birth year is up for debate.
The artwork covered in this lesson ranges from the second
century AD to around 450 AD. The geographical
region of this lesson is the Italian Peninsula, mainly two cities,
Rome and Ravenna, both in Italy.
Below is the timeline highlighting the period covered in this
lesson.
Here is a map of the Italian Peninsula with the cities of Rome
and Ravenna marked.
2. Early Christian Art
One of the reasons that the study of Christian art is important is
that there are no existing images of Christ
from his lifetime. Images depicting Christ don’t appear until

sometime after his death.
Christian art really began to flourish after the adoption of
Christianity as the Roman empire’s official religion. In
fact, Christian art wasn’t publicly produced until after
Constantine because of the fear that Christians would be
persecuted and killed. Christian art shows strong evidence of
syncretismsyncretism, or a union of sorts between
elements of the pagan and Christian religions. This cultural
exchange between religions and philosophies isn’t
new, but it is interesting in how it affects traditional
understandings of the Christian religion.
ke for instance, December 25. This is the
official date for celebrating the birth of Christ,
but scholars agree almost unanimously that this is most likely
not the true date of his birth. However, there
are two pools of thought as to why December 25 was the chosen
date. The first is that it is a mathematical
calculation based on his supposed death during the Jewish feast
of Passover. The second thought is that it
was adopted based on a pagan religious celebration associated
with the solstice and the return of the sun
that was celebrated on or around December 25.
Although the origin of December 25 as the birth of Christ is
debatable, the syncretism that is suggested in the
works of art from this time is widely accepted by scholars.
SyncretismSyncretism
Attempt at uniting differing or opposing practices in religion or
philosophy

This example of Christ as good shepherd is from the catacomb
of Priscilla, located in Rome, Italy.
Christ as a Good Shepard at Catacomb of PriscillaChrist as a
Good Shepard at Catacomb of Priscilla
2nd-3rd century AD
Fresco
Rome, Italy
Like other images of Christ from this time, he’s shown as a
youthful shepherd figure, an inspiration that likely
stemmed from earlier Greco-Roman depictions of Apollo and
Hermes as good shepherds.
This image also draws forth comparisons to an earlier example
of Arcade Greek sculpture and its depiction of
a calf-bearer, an example of which can be seen here:
Moschophoros (also known as Calf-Bearer)Moschophoros (also
known as Calf-Bearer)
570 BC

Marble
Rather than offering an animal for sacrifice, the good shepherd
finds a lamb lost from his flock and returns it to
the fold. The artwork of Christ carrying a sheep on his
shoulders symbolizes the Christian religion, where
Christ is the good shepherd and the fold is faith in the Christian
God.
This is also an example of Christian iconographyiconography,
or visual symbolism, that represents the Gospel narratives of
Christ describing himself as the good shepherd laying his life
down for his flock, which foreshadows Jesus’
eventual crucifixion, a sacrifice scripture says is done willingly
for the good of humankind.
IconographyIconography
A type of visual symbolism; Christian iconography, for
instance, might make references to the biblical story of
the nativity.
4. Christ as Sol Invictus
Syncretism is evident in the mosaic “Christ as Sol Invictus.”
Found in a mausoleum beneath the Basilica of
Saint Peter’s in Rome, this is one of the earliest known images
of a regal Christ. He’s also thought to be
depicted as the sun god Sol Invictus, which was a later form of
the sun deity in the Roman religion.
Invictus”.

Christ as Sol Invictus in the Mausoleum of the Julii, St. Peter's
BasilicaChrist as Sol Invictus in the Mausoleum of the Julii, St.
Peter's Basilica
Late 3rd century
Mosaic
Rome, Italy
Pay close attention to the rays of light emanating from his head
in the image above. Aside from the cross-like
shape depicted, the halo or ring of light surrounding the head of
Christ or other important church figures is a
type of imagery seen in almost all of the later depictions of
Christ. This is another example of syncretism.
This final image is another mosaic, this time for the mausoleum
of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy.
Christ as Good Shepherd at Mausoleum of Galla PlacidiaChrist
as Good Shepherd at Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
425-433 AD
Mosaic

Ravenna, Italy
A mosaic is an image, typically on the ceiling, wall, or floor,
created out of colored ceramic or glass tiles.
The mausoleum of Galla Placidia is literally covered in mosaics
and is considered one of the best surviving
examples of mosaic artwork from this time period.
What is interesting about this image of Christ as good shepherd
is how he’s changed in appearance from a
youthful Apollo-like version of a shepherd to a much more
regal- or imperial-looking version of a shepherd. It’s
quite obvious, given the dates of these creations and the manner
in which they are depicted, that these are
not actual likenesses of Christ but rather reflections of the
people or cultures that created them.
This mosaic was created after Christianity became the main
religion of Rome, and undoubtedly it reflects the
desire to make the image of Christ appear more grand and
imperial. Some clues to this are the use of the gold
and purple robes, which are colors of the emperor, the golden
cross-shaped staff, and his head bathed in a
golden aura. This imagery of Christ as King is another common
depiction in the Christian art that was to come.
When Christianity became the Roman empire’s official religion,
Christian art began to flourish. In this
lesson, you learned about the time period and location of images

of Christ.time period and location of images of Christ. One of
the reasons that
the study of early Christian artearly Christian art is important is
that there are no existing images of Christ from his
lifetime.
You explored some examples of artwork in this lesson,
including:
Christ as Good Shepherd #1Christ as Good Shepherd #1
“Christ as Sol Invictus”“Christ as Sol Invictus”
Christ as Good Shepherd #2Christ as Good Shepherd #2
IAN MCCONNELL.
Iconography
A type of visual symbolism. Christian iconography for instance,
might make references to the biblical
story of the nativity.
Syncretism
Attempt of union between differing or opposing practices in
religion or philosophy.

Early Churches
by Sophia Tutorial
Early churches used two different design formats, which you
will explore in this lesson. Specifically,
you will learn about:
1. Time Period and Location: Early Churches
2. Early Churches
3. Santa Costanza
4. Old St. Peter's
5. Santa Sabina
Many early Christian churches were based on the design format
of the Roman basilica.
1. Time Period and Location: Early Churches
The architecture in this lesson is dated in the range of the third
century AD to fourth century AD in Rome.
Below is a timeline highlighting the period covered in this
lesson.
2. Early Churches
Like art, early churches are a reflection of the cultures in which
they were created. Early Christians didn’t
necessarily have an inherent artistic style, so they drew upon
what they knew or what they had been exposed

to.
IN CONTEXT
Churches are often re-purposed buildings or temples. Two main
design plans for churches were
used in the period explored in this lesson: the basilicabasilica
design and the central plan. The basilica
design was essentially an elongated rectangle that formed the
central navenave, terminating in an apseapse.
The apse area with a triumphal arch, which originally would
have been where the emperor was
seated, instead became an area for the Christian altar, clergy
seating, and, in many cases, the choir
as well.
Here is a diagram of the basilica design:
Here is a different example of the basilica style, this time with a
transepttransept, which is the crosspiece that
was added to give it more of a cross shape.
A centrally planned church has no long central nave. Instead,
the altar is positioned in the middle of

the church, and is surrounded by a circular walkway called an
ambulatoryambulatory. This style of church
became more popular in the fourth and fifth centuries, but was
largely replaced by the basilica-style
design later on. The cross shape, which originally was more of a
coincidence, eventually became its
own major and intentional design element in the planning of
churches.
Below is a diagram of a centrally planned church. Notice the
altar in the center and the surrounding
walkway.
Many early churches were based on the design of the Roman
basilica, which lent itself well to
Christian religious ceremonies. Originally used as meeting or
audience halls, the basilica was a
rectangular shape with a long central aisleaisle called a nave,
that terminated in a rounded, semi-circular
section called an apse.
AmbulatoryAmbulatory
An area for walking, usually semicircular, around the apse of a
church
CathedralCathedral
The main church that contains the bishop’s throne

ApseApse
An architectural term; a recess or semicircular space in a
building, vaulted and, in a church, often used by the
choir
AislesAisles
The walkway between the sections of seats, for example, in a
theater
NaveNave
A long central aisle that extends the whole length of the church
BasilicaBasilica
A columned meeting hall in ancient Rome; later, a church with
columns
3. Santa Costanza
Not all churches were based on this basilica design, however. It
was common to reclaim a temple or building
to be repurposed as a church, and this was the case with Santa
Costanza in Rome. Santa Costanza was
originally built as a mausoleummausoleum for the Emperor
Constantine’s daughter, but later was converted to a church.
Because of its original purpose, Santa Costanza is based on
what’s called a central plan.
Below is an interior view of Santa Costanza, which was
originally constructed in 350 BC.
Santa CostanzaSanta Costanza

Coverted Mausoleum of Constantine's daugher
350 AD
Rome, Italy
This image is taken from the ambulatory, which is separated
from the central area and altar by a colonnade of
Corinthian-style columns. A clerestoryclerestory provides light
from above. Notice the windows.
The next image is of one of the surviving mosaicsmosaics from
inside Santa Costanza).
Mosaic from Santa CostanzaMosaic from Santa Costanza
Originally, a Roman Bacchus motif, adapted to Christianity as
symbolic of the blood and Eucharist of
Christ
350 AD
Mosaic
Rome Italy
The original design was a Bacchus motif with putti, or little

chubby, winged spirits, harvesting grapes for wine.
Bacchus was the Roman deity of wine and the grape harvest.
Interestingly, in an example of syncretism, this
image was kept by the Christians, who felt it was evocative of
the Christian rite of Eucharist. The angels
gathering grapes for wine were symbolic of the blood of Christ.
ClerestoryClerestory
A part of a building that rises above the roofs–basically
windows above eye level, primarily for allowing light
and ventilation
MosaicMosaic
A system of patterns on a floor, wall, or ceiling constructed of
small colored pieces of inlaid stone, glass, clay,
or other materials
MausoleumMausoleum
A tomb or building containing tombs
4. Old St. Peter’s
The basilica style can be seen in several other churches,
including Old Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome,
diagrammed below.
The term “old” is to distinguish it from the newer Saint Peter’s,
built centuries later. If you look closely, you can
see the rectangular basilica design with its central nave and
auxiliary aisles, the cross shape, and the apse. It

was originally constructed in 360 AD.
Nothing from Old Saint Peter’s Basilica survives. It was
deconstructed and a new church, the new St. Peter’s
Basilica, was built in its place. However, this fresco of Old
Saint Peter’s provides a nice cross-section of what
the fourth-century building looked like:
Old Saint Peter's BasilicaOld Saint Peter's Basilica
4th Century
Fresco
Notice the colonnade and rounded arcade, which is that row of
arches, as well as the tiered roof and resulting
clerestory at the very top. In many ways, the basilica of Old
Saint Peter’s evokes many of the design elements
of Egyptian temples from centuries earlier. It’s no wonder,
though, given that the Romans themselves were
inspired by the stylistic conventions of ancient Egypt.
5. Santa Sabina
This image is of the basilica-style fifth century church of Santa
Sabina in Rome:

Santa SabinaSanta Sabina
422-432 AD
Rome, Italy
At first glance it could be mistaken for the basilica at Trier,
Germany, which has a very similar design, as well
as an exterior brick construction. However, the interior features
very familiar design elements. The central
nave and side aisles are separated by a Corinthian-style
colonnade that you can see here:
Interior of Santa SabinaInterior of Santa Sabina
422-432 AD
Rome, Italy
Note the rounded arcade that supports the structure, with the
clerestory above.
Here is an image of the apse of Santa Sabina:
Apse and triumphal arch of Santa SabinaApse and triumphal
arch of Santa Sabina

422-432 AD
Rome, Italy
Two main design formats were used in early churches. In this
lesson, you learned about the timetime
period and location of early churchesperiod and location of
early churches.
Churches are often re-purposed buildings or temples, and this
was no different in early churchesearly churches.
Two main design plans for churches were used in the time
period explored in this lesson: the basilica
design and the central plan.
Finally, you explored the following examples of architecture
from early churches:
Santa CostanzaSanta Costanza
Old St. Peter’sOld St. Peter’s
Santa SabinaSanta Sabina
IAN MCCONNELL.
Aisles
The walkway between the sections of seats located, for example
in a theater.

Ambulatory
An area for walking, usually semicircular, around the apse of a
church.
Apse
An architectural term; a recess or semicircular space in a
building, vaulted and used often by the choir
in a church.
Basilica
A columned meeting hall in ancient Rome, later a church with
columns.
Cathedral
The main church that contains the bishop’s throne.
Clerestory
A part of a building that rises above the roofs – basically
windows above eye level primarily for
allowing light and ventilation.
Mausoleum
A tomb or building containing tombs.
Mosaic

A system of patterns on a floor, wall, ceiling constructed of
small color pieces of inlaid stone, glass, or
clay or other types of materials.
Nave
A long central aisle that extends the whole length of the church.
Byzantine Art and Architecture
by Sophia Tutorial
The Byzantine Empire is historically and religiously very
important. It was during this time that the
focus of the Roman Empire was moved east and Christianity
replaced centuries of polytheism. Things
changed, including architecture and artistic styles. In this
lesson, you will explore:
1. Time Period and Location: Byzantine Art and Architecture
2. Emperor Constantine
3. Rise of Christianity
4. Hagia Sophia
5. San Vitale and the Mosaics of San Vitale
6. Christ Pantocrator

The establishment of the new capital in Constantinople moved
the focus of the Roman Empire east and
facilitated a new artistic style that combined eastern and
western conventions.
1. Time Period and Location: Byzantine Art and
Architecture
The Byzantine Empire can be broken into the following periods:
The Early Period
Constantinople became the new capital of the eastern Roman
Empire
Middle Byzantium
843 to 1204 AD
Late Byzantium
1204 to 1453 AD
Constantinople is finally overrun by the Ottoman Turks
Two empires were prominent during these times, Western and
Eastern. Historically, Rome was the capital of
the Western Empire. However, it is important to know that this
capital did move twice. When Rome was
defeated by the barbarians in 410 AD, the capital had already
moved to Ravenna, Italy, from its former location
in present-day Milan.
The new capital of the Eastern Empire, established under the
emperor Constantine, was the city of
Constantinople. This was originally the Greek city of
Byzantium. After the conquest of Constantinople by the
Ottoman Turks in 1453, it was renamed Istanbul. Istanbul is
located in modern-day Turkey.

2. Emperor Constantine
Constantine was a major figure in the political shakeup and
subsequent religious changes that occurred
during the fourth century AD. He is often credited with splitting
the empire of Rome, but this is not true.
It was his predecessor, the emperor Diocletian, who split the
empire into Eastern and Western empires. The
Roman Empire had become so huge, it had become a
bureaucratic nightmare to run. When Constantine
became ruler of the Eastern Empire, he moved the capital to
ByzantiumByzantium, renamed it Constantinople, and ran
his empire from there.
Political disorganization of the time left major parts of the
Western Empire vulnerable to continued barbarian
attacks. Eventually, Rome was defeated in 410 AD by the
Visigoths, a barbarian tribe. The Western Empire
officially ended after the conquest of Ravenna by barbarians in
479 AD.
Take a look below at this image showing the approximate
borders of the Western and Eastern Empires of
Rome at the time of the conquest of Ravenna, Italy, in 476 AD:
ByzantiumByzantium
A Greek city rebuilt by Constantine in 330 AD and renamed

Constantinople
3. Rise of Christianity
The rise of Christianity was also historically important.
Emperor Constantine is largely responsible for later
adoption of Christianity as the official state religion, replacing
centuries of polytheism. The Edict of Milan
declared religious tolerance to Christians and others, and by the
end of the fourth century, Christianity was
officially declared the state religion. This all happened many
years after Constantine’s death in 337 AD.
ByzantineByzantine
A term referencing the Byzantine Empire, a style of art
developed during the Byzantine Empire characterized
by religious iconography, very formal, shallow pictorial space,
and rich colors
4. Hagia Sophia
The ByzantineByzantine Empire, as it came to be known,
developed its own unique blended style of Eastern and
Western convention. It was in this new blended style that the
church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was
designed under the reign of Emperor Justinian during the sixth
century AD.
This church embodies the style and architectural elements that
are now associated with the Byzantine Empire,
including:
A pendentive dome

A centralized plan
Extensive detail covering every surface of the church’s interior
Hagia Sophia was built to be a cathedral, or a church that
houses the cathedra, the throne of a Christian
bishop. Justinian developed an ambitious plan to return the
empire to its former glory, and from this plan came
the architectural masterpiece, Hagia Sophia.
The supportive pendentives are separated by a clerestory at the
base of the massive dome, which creates the
effect of the dome appearing to float effortlessly above the
building. PendentivePendentive is one of two primary
architectural methods of supporting a circular dome on a
rectangular or polygonal base. A squinchsquinch is another
method.
In the image below, the arrow highlights the pendentive.
Take a look at the rectangular base below. The squinches are
the four blue triangles that are built in to
provide a base for the circular bottom of the dome.
Here is an exterior view of the Hagia Sophia:
Hagia SophiaHagia Sophia

532-537 AD
Istanbul, Turkey
Notice the minarets, the four towers, on the side. These were a
later addition completed when the church was
converted to a Muslim mosque after the Ottoman Turks. Hagia
Sophia is in Istanbul, Turkey, which is the
modern-day city of what used to be Constantinople.
PendentivePendentive
An architectural term; a construction that allows the placement
of the circular dome over a rectangular room
SquinchSquinch
An architectural term; a small arch, or corbelling, built across
the interior between two walls as a support in a
square tower
5. San Vitale and the Mosaics of San Vitale
The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, is a centrally
planned church.
Construction began in 526 AD. The exterior brick facade, an
octagonal shape, is rather constrained in
comparison to the interior design of the church.
Here is an image of San Vitale:

San VitaleSan Vitale
526-547 AD
Ravenna, Italy
IN CONTEXT
The Basilica or Church of San Vitale is important because it is
an example of classical Byzantine
architectural design. The interior mosaics really capture our
interest. It’s literally covered in these
interior mosaics that have remained in relatively excellent
condition, considering their age. The
imagery depicted is all religious in nature.
San Vitale was completed during the reign of the Emperor
Justinian, but it is not known whether he
actually saw the church. He was a very religious man who
ambitiously sought to establish the former
greatness of the Roman Empire. In addition to his artistic
campaign, his military campaign was
successful in reclaiming large portions of the former empire,
including Italy, much of North Africa, and
parts of Spain.
Justinian was married to the empress Theodora. He saw himself
as Christ’s representative on earth.
This notion is evident in this depiction of Justinian and his
attendants in this mosaic from the north

wall of San Vitale.
Emperor Justinian and His Attendents on the north wall of San
VitaleEmperor Justinian and His Attendents on the north wall of
San Vitale
547 AD
Mosaic
Ravenna, Italy
This mosaic from 547 AD is positioned under and perpendicular
to that mosaic on the right side of
Christ, which was, symbolically, a very important position.
Some of the Byzantine stylistic high points that stand out
include:
Almond-shaped eyes
Tall, elongated bodies
Roughly nine heads tall
Flat, two-dimensional rendering
Use of overlapping to suggest space and denote importance
The Emperor is the only one not overlapped. He also wears the
purple and gold imperial robes. His
head is surrounded by a golden halo, and he holds a Eucharistic
platter.

Directly across from Justinian is his wife, Theodora, in a
similar composition from 547 AD, shown
below.
Empress Theodora and Her Attendants on south wall of San
VitaleEmpress Theodora and Her Attendants on south wall of
San Vitale
547 AD
Mosaic
Ravenna, Italy
Notice above that the figures are elongated, and there is the use
of overlapping. Theodora is the
furthest forward and wears the purple and gold imperial robes.
Hers, however, are trimmed with
images of the Magi, or the three wise men. Her head is framed
by a halo.
Like her husband, she holds a Eucharistic object, a Eucharistic
cup of Christ. However, she is
attended by fewer people and is positioned on the less desirable
left side of Christ, symbolic of her
status in comparison to Justinian.
An interesting tidbit of information about the mosaic of
Justinian and his attendants is the number of
attendants, which not coincidentally was the number 12. This is
the same as the number of disciples of Jesus
Christ.
6. Christ Pantocrator

Other images designed in the Byzantine style can also be found
in Greece several hundred years later.
Below is an image of Christ PantocratorPantocrator from the
central dome of the Church of the Dormition.
Christ Pantocrator on central dome of the Church of the
DormitionChrist Pantocrator on central dome of the Church of
the Dormition
Late 11th century AD
Mosaic
Daphne, Greece
This above image of Christ is designed in the Byzantine style.
Notice the almond-shaped eyes, the sharp
nose, and the elongated features. This almost brooding figure of
Christ would actually be looking down on
you from above. It’s a mosaic that’s situated within the dome of
the church. Other images of Christ Pantocrator
use a similar depiction with the right hand of Christ in a
blessing gesture and the left hand holding the New
Testament.
PantocratorPantocrator
Refers to a specific Christian iconography; icon image of Christ
understood in Greek as “ruler of all”

Reverse PerspectiveReverse Perspective
Also called Byzantine perspective, where lines of vanishing
points diverge outside the picture plane or
outside a painting
Picture PlanePicture Plane
The invisible plane that corresponds to the surface of the
painting, the picture plane is like a window opening
out onto another world.
During the Byzantine Empire, the focus of the Roman Empire
was moved east and Christianity
replaced centuries of polytheism. Architecture and artistic
styles began to change and adapt. In this
lesson, you learned about the time period and location of
Byzantine art and architecture.time period and location of
Byzantine art and architecture.
You learned about Emperor ConstantineEmperor Constantine,
who was a major figure in the political shakeup and
subsequent religious changes that occurred during the fourth
century AD. It was during this time that
there was a notable rise in Christianity.rise in Christianity. By
the end of the fourth century, Christianity was officially
declared the state religion. This all happened years after
Constantine’s death in 337 AD.
Finally, you explored several examples of Byzantine art and

architecture, including:
Hagia SophiaHagia Sophia
San Vitale and the Mosaics of San VitaleSan Vitale and the
Mosaics of San Vitale
Christ PantocratorChrist Pantocrator
IAN MCCONNELL.
Byzantine
A term referencing the Byzantine Empire, a style of art
developed during the Byzantine Empire
characterized by religious iconography, very formal, shallow
pictorial space and rich colors.
Byzantium
A Greek city rebuilt by Constantine in 330 AD and renamed
Constantinople.
Pantocrator
Refers to a specific Christian iconography; icon image of Christ
understood in Greek as “ruler of all.”
Pendentive
An architectural term; a construction that allows the placement
of the circular dome over a rectangular
room.

Picture Plane
The invisible plane that corresponds to the surface of the
painting, the picture plane is like a window
opening out onto another world.
Reverse Perspective
Also called Byzantine perspective where lines of vanishing
points diverge outside the picture plane
or outside a painting.
Squinch
An architecture term; a small arch, or corbelling built across the
interior between two walls as a
support in a square tower.
Icons and Iconoclasm
by Sophia Tutorial
There was once a period in time when Christian images was
banned, and religious images or icons
were literally destroyed. Several influences led to the
destruction of icons. This lesson covers:

1. Time Period and Location: Icons and Iconoclasm
2. Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels
3. Transfiguration of Christ
4. Iconoclasm
5. Virgin (Theotokos) of Vladimir
Byzantine iconoclasm refers to a time when the veneration of
Christian images was banned, and religious
images or icons were literally destroyed.
1. Time Period and Location: Icons and
Iconoclasm
The Byzantine Empire is broken into three main eras:
Early Byzantine
Middle Byzantine
Late Byzantine
The artwork in this lesson falls within the early and middle
periods. The geographical region covered in this
lesson is the Sinai Peninsula and the monastery of Saint
Catherine at Mount Sinai. According to the Book of
Exodus, this is the biblical location where Moses received the
Ten Commandments from God.
A monastery is a collection of buildings that are cared for and
lived in by religious monks.
2. Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels
According to the Christian church, religious icons are not the
same as idols. In fact, idol worship was forbidden
according to Jewish law. Many adherents to Christianity, which

has its roots in Judaism, were uncomfortable
with the veneration of images in the early centuries of
Christianity. They thought of it as a form of idolatry. At
some point, however, the distinction was made between the
veneration of images and use of images for
prayer and meditation versus worshiping the idols themselves.
iconography from the sixth century AD:
Virgin and Child with Saints and Angels at Monastery of St.
CatherineVirgin and Child with Saints and Angels at Monastery
of St. Catherine
Second half of 6th century
Encaustic on wood panel
Mt. Sinai, Egypt
This above painting of the Theotokos, or Virgin Mary, and the
child Jesus with saints and angels is located at
the Monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai. It is an
encaustic painting, which means the paint is made of
a pigment suspended in a beeswax binder. Unlike tempera paint,
which is limited in its blending capabilities,
encaustic paint can be blended together more easily to create
greater variations in color.
Mary is the central figure of this image, and functions as a sort
of throne for the baby Jesus. Jesus is known by

Christians as the King of Kings. He and his mother are flanked
by two saints, Theodore and George, both
warrior saints who are said to have killed dragons, which is
likely symbolism for Jesus conquering evil.
Notice how Mary, Jesus, and the angels in the background are
rendered in a way that hints at depth and
volume, while the saints are rather flat in their appearance,
despite the very detailed and rather realistic-
looking robes. All figures have halos surrounding their heads,
but only the four in front have golden halos,
which perhaps is an indication of their status with respect to the
angels behind them.
3. Transfiguration of Christ
Transfiguration refers to the moment when a person changes
from mortal to divine. Here, this is in reference
to Jesus’ prophesized rise from the dead.
E Take a look at this image of the transfiguration
of Jesus, also located in the monastery of
Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai from 554-565 AD:
Transfiguration of Jesus at Monastery of St.
CatherineTransfiguration of Jesus at Monastery of St. Catherine
548-565 AD
Mosaic
Mt. Sinai, Egypt

This above image is an interesting depiction in a number of
ways. First, Christ, who is shown radiating light, is
surrounded by a dark blue mandorlamandorla, as opposed to the
usual gold coloring. Instead, the artist chose to color
the entire background gold, opting not to include any type of
landscape or indication of depth and space. For
example, there are no shadows cast, even in the presence of all
that light.
Some scholars have suggested that this was intended, due to its
use as an icon meant to evoke a quality that
has no connection to a physical time or place.
The heavenly images of Christ and the prophets Elijah and
Moses that flank him are rather serene and
composed compared to the disciples John, Peter, and James,
who appear to be very scared.
Notice the way in which the ground line appears. Generally
speaking, the ground line is an element that sort
of defines the edge of a picture. But if you look carefully, you
can see how some of the figures are behind it.
The two prophets, however, are stepping over it. The central
disciple is actually straddling it.
MandorlaMandorla
An area of radiance or luminous glow in paintings that are
sacred; usually appears as a disk or halo but can
extend to include the whole body
4. Iconoclasm
During the eighth century a ban on religious imagery was
enacted under the reign of Emperor Leo III.

IconoclasmIconoclasm refers to the destruction or
deconstruction of religious imagery and iconsicons. Examples
of iconoclasm
can be found throughout history. The Byzantine Empire
experienced two periods of iconoclasm, the first in the
eighth century and the second during the ninth century. The end
of the second period of iconoclasm in
Byzantium marked the beginning of the middle Byzantine
period in 843 AD.
IconIcon
A religious image of an important person from Christianity,
used as an aid to worship in the Byzantine tradition
IconoclasmIconoclasm
The intentional deconstruction of religious or political icons,
symbols, or monuments
5. Virgin (TheotokosTheotokos) of Vladimir
If we jump ahead towards the end of the middle Byzantine
period, we can take a look at this next religious
image.
called “The Virgin of Vladimir” due to it being
located in Russia.
Virgin of Vladimir (Virgin of Child)Virgin of Vladimir (Virgin
of Child)

11th-12th century AD
Tempera on wood panel
Originally from Constantinople, now resides in Moscow, Russia
Vladimir is a city in this case, not a person.
This image of the Virgin Mary and child was likely created in
Constantinople, and it is an example of tempera
paint on wood. Remember, tempera paint is limited in its ability
to blend with other colors, so the tendency is
to paint with tiny or smaller brush strokes. This can come
across as flat in its appearance or lacking in the
depth that is possible with other types of paint.
Compared to the encausticencaustic painting from earlier in this
lesson, this painting seems rather two-dimensional or
flat. The theme of a tender scene between a mother and child is
common in artwork. Notice the depiction of
Jesus. Until the Renaissance, more often than not, Jesus is
depicted as a tiny adult in appearance.
There are exceptions, of course. In fact, the encaustic painting
from earlier depicts Jesus with a much more
natural set of proportions, like those of a small child. It’s an
interesting stylistic choice, though, that you see
returning again and again in religious imagery. It is believed to
be an intentional Christian suggestion of
Christ’s inherent perfection, that even though he’s a child, he’s
still the savior of mankind.

TheotokosTheotokos
The Greek title of the Christian Virgin Mary as the Mother of
God
EncausticEncaustic
A type of painting that uses beeswax as a binder
In this lesson, you learned about Byzantine iconoclasm and its
reference to a time when the
veneration of Christian images was banned and religious images
or icons were literally destroyed.
This lesson started off with a review of the time period and
location of icons and iconoclasmtime period and location of
icons and iconoclasm.
Not only did this lesson explore iconoclasmiconoclasm, or the
destruction or deconstruction of religious imagery
and icons, you also looked at examples of icons found
throughout history, including:
Virgin and Child with Saints and AngelsVirgin and Child with
Saints and Angels
The Transfiguration of ChristThe Transfiguration of Christ
Virgin (Theotokos) of VladimirVirgin (Theotokos) of Vladimir
Source: This work is adapted from Sophia author Ian
McConnell.

Encaustic
A type of painting that uses beeswax as a binder.
Icon
A religious image of an important person from Christianity,
used as an aid to worship in the Byzantine
tradition.
Iconoclasm
The intentional deconstruction of religious or political icons,
symbols or monuments.
Mandorla
An area of radiance or luminous glow in paintings that are
sacred, usually appears as a disk or halo
but can extend to include the whole body.
Theotokos
The Greek title of the Christian Virgin Mary as the Mother of
God.
Islamic Art

by Sophia Tutorial
The origin of Islam can be traced back to a religious prophet,
Muhammad. The basic history and
tenets of Islam are important when attempting to understand
why Islamic art is aniconic. This lesson
explores:
1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Art
2. Basic Tenets of Islam
3. Rise of Islam
4. Aniconic
Islam traces its origin to the divine revelations of Muhammad, a
religious prophet, and shares a religious
ancestry with Judaism and Christianity.
1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Art
The religious prophet MuhammadMuhammad was born in
Arabia in 570 AD in the city of Mecca. His revelations from
God
are said to have begun in 610 AD. The beginning of IslamIslam
is in 622 AD, marked by the migration of
Muhammad and his followers to the city of Medina to escape
persecution. Muhammad died in 632 AD, but his
religion endured and today is the second largest religion in the
world after Christianity.
Adherence to the faith of Islam can be found all over the world
today. However, in the late 15th century, the
Islamic world covered approximately the area overlaid in green
on the map shown here:

Included in this area, which is considered the Islamic world,
are:
Northern Sahara
Parts of Eastern Africa (including modern-day Somalia)
Spain
Eastern portions of Europe
The entire Middle East
The majority of India
IslamIslam
The religious faith of Muslims with the basic principle of
absolute submission to Allah
MuhammadMuhammad
In Islam, the prophet and messenger of Allah
2. Basic Tenets of Islam
Islam was an extremely influential religion, and it remains so
today. This religion dictates religious and secular
laws for its adherents, and five pillars of Islam make up the
basic tenets of the religion:
Declaration of faith (there is one God, AllahAllah, and
Muhammad is his chosen prophet)
Prayers (five specific prayers said daily while facing Mecca)
Alms-giving (giving to the poor)
Fasting

Pilgrimage to Mecca (if physically and financially able to)
AllahAllah
In Islam, God, the Supreme Being
MosqueMosque
A Muslim temple or place of worship
3. Rise of Islam
The rise of Islam begins with Muhammad, who was born in
Arabia in 570 AD. At the time of his birth, this
region was predominantly religiously polytheistic. Muslims
believe that Muhammad received revelations from
God beginning in 610 AD. This is believed to be the same time
that he began to preach, gaining a modest
following.
When he was persecuted because of his beliefs, he fled the city
with his followers, eventually settling north of
Mecca in the city of Medina. During this time, his following
grew and he returned eight years later to Mecca
with 10,000 soldiers to control the city and convert the people
to Islam.
The Koran (or Qur'an) is the sacred text of Islam. It is
essentially a codification of the sacred revelations and
laws of Islam. The spread of Islam was twofold, spreading
person to person and then politically as the
conquest of new lands by Islamic civilization, such as the

Ottoman Turks, expanded the religion to the parts of
the world under their authority.
4. Aniconic
The art of Islam is aniconicaniconic, meaning there are no icons
allowed, a distinct contrast to Christian art. Islamic art
is dominated by absolutely beautiful geometric patterns and
motifs. You won’t find anything like the Christian
iconography or images we’ve already looked at. In fact, images
of Allah and Muhammad are strictly forbidden.
Images of Allah and Muhammad are forbidden because of
Islam’s connection with Judaism and Christianity.
All three Abrahamic religions trace the lineage of their faiths
back to and through the prophet Abraham. All
three religions take their ban on idolatry from the law of Moses.
The forbiddance of idolatry in the veneration
of images became murky water for Christians and was the
underlying issue that spurred the iconoclasm of the
eighth and ninth centuries. Muslims interpret this law as
forbidding the use of figures in their religious art,
including and especially images of Allah or Muhammad.
Being in proximity to Byzantium undoubtedly influenced the
Islamic civilizations. The Christian church’s
struggles with the veneration of images would have likely
reinforced the original argument in Islam against
the use of images.
AniconicAniconic
Not allowing images or idols

ArabesqueArabesque
A spiraling or serpentine line or motif
Muhammad, a religious prophet, is responsible for the rise of
Islamrise of Islam. To help you understand this idea
in more detail, this lesson covered the time period and location
of Islamic arttime period and location of Islamic art.
Furthermore, the basic tenets of Islambasic tenets of Islam were
explored. Remember, these are a declaration of faith,
prayers, alms-giving, fasting, and pilgrimage to Mecca.
Finally, you learned about Islamic art and why it is
aniconicaniconic, meaning there are no icons allowed. This
stems back to the connections Islam has with Judaism and
Christianity, because all three of these
religions trace their lineages back to Abraham and the law of
Moses that forbids idolatry. Even images
of Allah and Muhammad are forbidden in art from this time.
Allah
In Islam, God, the Supreme Being.
Aniconic

Not allowing images, or idols.
Arabesque
A spiraling or serpentine line or motif.
Islam
The religious faith of Muslims with the basic principle of
absolute submission to Allah.
Mosque
A Muslim temple or place of worship.
Muhammad
In Islam, the prophet and messenger of Allah.
Islamic Architecture
by Sophia Tutorial
Civilizations that Islam has touched as well as some Islamic
religious beliefs have both had influence
on Islamic architecture. This lesson covers:
1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Architecture
2. Basic Features of Islamic Architecture
3. Dome of the Rock

4. Great Mosque, Qayrawan
5. Great Mosque at Cordoba
6. Mosque at Isfahan
Design elements of Islamic architecture are a blend of styles
from the civilizations that Islam has touched and
reflective of some Islamic religious beliefs.
1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Architecture
This lesson covers architecture ranging from the seventh
century AD to the 17th century AD.
The timeline below highlights this period. Notice that 600 AD,
the beginning of the seventh century, and 1700
AD, the end of the 17th century, are labeled as end points.
2. Basic Features of Islamic Architecture
The first area of focus for this lesson is the elements found in
Islamic buildings, including:
The minbar
The mihrab
The Qibla
The hypostyle prayer hall
Styles of architecture vary, but there are some common design
features that distinguish Islamic architecture
from other styles. The minbarminbar, the mihrabmihrab, and
QiblaQibla are common within all mosques. One of the most
unique
elements of Islamic architecture is the use of geometric or
vegetal patterns. These are patterns that can be

repeated and continued indefinitely in any direction. They can
adorn the exterior and interior of buildings and
are just as common within smaller works of art.
The dome is a borrowed element from earlier forms of
architecture, such as the Christian design of the Hagia
Sophia in Istanbul. Minarets are the (usually) thin towers that
rise around, or are attached to, Islamic mosques.
They are used as places to call people to prayer. The hypostyle
prayer hallhypostyle prayer hall is a space separated by columns
for privacy. Finally, the horseshoe or keyhole archhorseshoe or
keyhole arch is another characteristic element of Islamic
architecture, an
example of which is shown here:
Horseshoe archHorseshoe arch
MinbarMinbar
In Islam, the pulpit from which the sermon is delivered
MinaretMinaret
A tower attached to a mosque and used for calling people to
prayer
MihrabMihrab
In a mosque, a niche or decorative panel showing the direction
of Mecca
Qibla WallQibla Wall
Also kiblah; in Islam, the wall that indicates the direction of

Mecca and the Kaaba, for prayer
Hypostyle Prayer HallHypostyle Prayer Hall
In a mosque, a personal space separated by columns for privacy
Horseshoe ArchHorseshoe Arch
Also called a keyhole arch; semicircular and characteristic of
Islamic architecture
3. Dome of the Rock
Within the holy city of Jerusalem, Israel, the Dome of the Rock
can be found. This building is a shrine that was
constructed by Muslims in the late seventh century after the city
had been taken from the Byzantines in 638
AD. The Dome of the Rock shares certain characteristics with
Byzantine architecture, which was an influence
on the architects of the dome. The octagonal-shaped, centrally
planned building was just one of these
influences.
The Dome of the Rock, of the late seventh century, is pictured
below:
Dome of the Rock shrineDome of the Rock shrine
Late 7th century
Jerusalem, Israel
Architecturally, the building is dominated by the huge, golden
dome. It is covered in beautiful, colorful, vegetal

and geometric patterns, which continue inside. This building is
a shrine built over the Foundation Stone, which
is the holiest location in all of Judaism. The stone was
originally covered by the Jewish Temple of Solomon
that once stood in the same spot. In terms of Islam, some
scholars regard it as the location where Muhammad
ascended into heaven.
4. Great Mosque, Qayrawan
The next building is found within Qayrawan, Tunisia, and is an
example of a hypostyle mosque that was
largely constructed during the ninth century.
Great Mosque at QayrawanGreat Mosque at Qayrawan
836-875 AD
Qayrawan, Tunisia
This huge stone building resembles examples of Roman
architecture, specifically with the large central
courtyard enclosed by a colonnade. However, instead of a
rounded arcade like we’d see with Roman
architecture, this is an example of a horseshoe style arcade.
Right at the top of the column, the masonry juts
in, creating a keyhole shape with the arch and columns.
5. Great Mosque at Cordoba
When people think of Islam, they tend to think of the Middle
East, but the Iberian Peninsula, which is home to
modern-day Portugal and Spain, has a rich history associated

with Islam and the narrow Strait of Gibraltar. This
strait separates the peninsula from the African continent. The
strait did little to prevent the Moors from
Northern Africa from coming over and occupying it for many
centuries.
The Great Mosque at Cordoba, shown below, is another
fantastic example of a hypostyle prayer hall that
makes use of the horseshoe shape in the lower arches. It was
completed in the late 10th century.
Prayer hall in Great Mosque at CordobaPrayer hall in Great
Mosque at Cordoba
Late 10th century
Cordoba, Spain
6. Mosque at Isfahan
Our last example of Islamic architecture is located within the
city of Isfahan, Iran, and was constructed over
many centuries. Eventually completed in the 17th century, it’s
an impressive example of Islamic architecture at
its finest.
Mosque at IsfahanMosque at Isfahan

17th century AD
Isfahan, Iran
What cannot be appreciated from this photo, however, is the
attention to detail paid to the vegetal and
geometric patterns or designs that adorn the mosque. Take a
close look particularly at the colorful examples
that cover two entrance gates that are flanked by the minarets
and the large peaked dome in the background.
Islamic architecture has roots in several of the civilizations that
Islam has touched as well as in some
Islamic religious beliefs. This lesson started with a review of
the time period and location of Islamictime period and location
of Islamic
architecturearchitecture, followed by an explanation of the basic
features of Islamic architecturebasic features of Islamic
architecture. Remember,
many of the terms to know were covered in this section.
Continuing on, you looked at elements of architecture such as
the minbar, mihrab, Qibla, and the
hypostyle prayer hall. These elements were explored further
using examples of Islamic architecture,
including:
Dome of the RockDome of the Rock
Great Mosque, QayrawanGreat Mosque, Qayrawan
Great Mosque at CordobaGreat Mosque at Cordoba
Mosque at IsfahanMosque at Isfahan
Source: This work is adapted by Sophia Author Ian McConnell.

Horseshoe arch
Horseshoe arch
Also called a keyhole arch, semicircular and characteristic of
Islamic architecture.
Hypostyle Prayer Hall
In a mosque, a personal space separated by columns for privacy.
Mihrab
In a mosque, a niche or decorative panel showing the direction
of Mecca.
Minaret
A tower attached to a mosque calling people to prayer.
Minbar
In Islam, the pulpit from which the sermon is delivered.
Qibla wall
Or kiblah, in Islam, the wall that indicates the direction of
Mecca and the Kaaba, for prayer.

Ceramics, Textiles and Calligraphy
by Sophia Tutorial
Because representations of figures in Islamic art are not
allowed, artists had to resort to other areas
and techniques to find and show meaning in their artwork.
Small objects and textiles both became
very important to Islamic artists and Islamic culture. Ceramics,
textiles, and calligraphy were more
abundant, and these served as ways for artists to make their
marks. This lesson covers:
1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Ceramics
2. Small Objects and Calligraphy
3. Bowl with Kufic Border
4. Macy Jug
With the absence of figural representations in Islamic art,
production of ceramics, textiles, and calligraphy
became major outlets for artistic expression.
1. Time Period and Location: Islamic Ceramics
This lesson covers examples of art from the 11th century to the
early part of the 13th century. The works of art
in this lesson come from within modern day Iran.

2. Small Objects and Calligraphy
Given the Islamic view on representational art, with the
exception of architecture, the production of large
public works was essentially non-existent during this time. This
made the production of smaller objects and
textiles particularly important, both as a form of artistic
expression and as a form of personal art. Remember,
representations of Allah and Muhammad are forbidden in
artwork. However, the representation of human and
animal forms was not expressly forbidden and was typically
acceptable for personal works of art.
The traditional story booklets typically owned by wealthier
Muslims used these images of representations of
human and animal forms in the artwork of miniaturesminiatures.
The production of textiles is also deeply rooted in the culture of
Islam. These are figurative canvases for the
display of beautiful arabesque patterns, and they are of
particular importance in their use as prayer rugs. In
the absence of representational art, calligraphy became one of
the primary forms of artistic expression.
Calligraphy in Islam is symbolically a very important art form,
particularly the Kufic scriptKufic script, which was used to
record the first copies of the Koran.

Kufic scriptKufic script
O KNOW
MiniatureMiniature
A small-scaled version, i.e., painting, illuminated text
Kufic ScriptKufic Script
Oldest form of calligraphy; the first copies of the Koran were
written in Kufic script
3. Bowl with Kufic Border
Below is an example of calligraphy used as decorative
enhancement.
Bowl with Kufic BorderBowl with Kufic Border
11-12th century AD
Iran
This example is Samarkand WareSamarkand Ware ceramic
work. It is a bowl with a decorative Kufic border, which reads,
“Planning before work protects you from regret. Prosperity and
peace.”
Samarkand WareSamarkand Ware
An Islamic ceramic style characterized with decorations in
green, yellow, pink, and brown

4. Macy Jug
Another type of ceramic work is called LusterwareLusterware.
Here is an example called a Macy jug:
Macy JugMacy Jug
Early 13th century
Iran
This jug is a striking example from the early 13th century.
Notice the two layers: a solid inner layer that holds
the liquid, and an open, decorative, outer layer that depicts
harpies, sphinxes, and quadrupeds, or four-
legged animals. Encircling the bottom in a difficult-to-see,
lighter blue band, is a love poem written by an
anonymous poet.
LusterwareLusterware
Middle Eastern in origin, a type of pottery decorated with
glassy, metallic lusters
During the time period and location of Islamic ceramicstime
period and location of Islamic ceramics, many representations
of figures in Islamic art
were not allowed. This meant that artists showed meaning in

their artwork using other techniques.
Small objects and calligraphySmall objects and calligraphy, as
well as other textiles, became very important to the Islamic
culture.
In this lesson, you looked at two examples of Islamic artwork
from this period: a bowl with Kuficbowl with Kufic
borderborder and a Macy jugMacy jug. The first piece of
artwork was calligraphy used as decorative enhancement,
and the last was an example of Lusterware.
IAN MCCONNELL.
Kufic Script
Oldest form of calligraphy; the first copies of the Qur’an were
written in Kufic script.
Lusterware
Middle Eastern in origin, a type of pottery decorated with
glassy, metallic lusters.
Miniature
A small scaled version i.e. painting, illuminated text.
Samarkand Ware

An Islamic ceramic style characterized with decorations in
green, yellow, pink and brown.
Alhambra
by Sophia Tutorial
The palace fortress of Alhambra in Spain is an important
structure in Islamic architecture, both
historically and politically. This lesson covers:
1. Time Period and Location: Alhambra
2. Alhambra
3. Courtyard of the Lions
4. Muqarnas Vault
Alhambra is an important example of Islamic architecture in
Spain.
1. Time Period and Location: Alhambra
Like many forms of large-scale architecture, the construction of
Alhambra took place in stages over many
centuries and under many rulers, both Christian and Muslim.
This lesson focuses on the ninth through 14th
centuries. This period largely covers the beginnings of
Alhambra and the muqarnas vault construction from
the 14th century. Alhambra is located just west of the city of

Granada in Spain.
The timeline below highlights the period covered in this lesson.
2. Alhambra
Many ancient buildings were lost to modern times as they were
destroyed by conquering civilizations.
Alhambra, however, is different. This palace fortress is
important because it is essentially a time capsule of
preserved Nazarid palaces that were built within it. It was
preserved even after the Christian reoccupation of
Spain.
Alhambra is actually an Arabic word meaning “red castle,” a
name that reflects the use of reddish stone in the
building’s construction.
Alhambra gives us an impression of what royal life was like in
Islamic Spain under the Nazarids, who were the
last Arabian Muslim dynasty in Spain. They lost their hold on
the Iberian Peninsula with the final battle of
Granada in 1492.
AlhambraAlhambra
889 AD

Granada, Spain
It was originally constructed as a strategic military fortress with
a high vantage point in view of the city.
Eventually palaces were built for the Nazarid rulers inside the
walls of Alhambra, some of which still exist
today, even after the reconstructions that took place after
ownership switched from Muslim to Christian.
3. Courtyard of the Lions
One of the most impressive buildings within Alhambra is the
Palace of the Lions and the Courtyard of the
Lions that resides within it. It is a beautiful marble courtyard,
circled by a colonnade with horseshoe-style
arches above which were the chambers where the sultan’s wives
lived.
The Courtyard of the Lions draws its name from the unusual
fountain perched upon 12 stone lions, and it is
decorated with a poem by the famous Islamic poet, Ibn
ZamrakIbn Zamrak. As people traveled through the arches, they
would be led to the Hall of the Abencerrajes and Hall of Two
Sisters, where the poet Ibn Zamrak is
responsible for other poetic inscriptions within the muqarnas
vault.
and the fountain from which the courtyard
draws its name.

Courtyard of the LionsCourtyard of the Lions
1362
Granada, Spain
Ibn ZamrakIbn Zamrak
Famous poet and statesman for Granada, Al-Andalus; his
narratives of his writings decorate fountains, i.e., the
Fountain of the Lions and palaces.
4. Muqarnas Vault
The Hall of the Abencerrajes is in front of the Hall of Two
Sisters, within which is the famous muqarnas vault.
MuqarnasMuqarnas are stalactite architectural elements that
hang down from the ceiling and were likely intended to
reflect the sunlight coming into the room, creating abstract
patterns. The effect is an ethereal and heavenly
quality that contrasts sharply with the military solidity of the
outer fortress.
The Hall of the Abencerrajes is actually named after the knights
that were supposedly beheaded there.
Muqarnas vault in Hall of the AbencerrajesMuqarnas vault in

Hall of the Abencerrajes
14th century AD
Granada, Spain
MuqarnasMuqarnas
Islamic or Persian architecture, a type of corbel decorative
projecting element
MiradorMirador
Spanish; an architectural term; a balcony built on an upper floor
to assist with an open view
An important structure in Islamic architecture, both historically
and politically, is the palace fortress of
Alhambra in Spain. In this lesson, you explored the time period
and location of Alhambra.time period and location of Alhambra.
To do this, you learned about AlhambraAlhambra as well as two
additional pieces of architecture from this
period: the Courtyard of the LionsCourtyard of the Lions and
the muqarnas vaultmuqarnas vault. The Courtyard of the Lions
resides within
the Palace of the Lions. It is a beautiful marble courtyard,
circled by a colonnade with horseshoe-style
arches above which were the chambers where the sultan’s wives
lived. The Hall of the Abencerrajes
is in front of the Hall of Two Sisters, within which is the
famous muqarnas vault.

IAN MCCONNELL.
Ibn Zamrak
Famous poet and statesman for Granada, Al-Andalus; his
narratives of his writings decorate fountains,
i.e. the Fountain of the Lions and palaces.
Mirador
Spanish, an architectural term, a balcony built on an upper floor
to assist with an open view.
Muqarnas
Islamic or Persian architecture, a type of corbel decorative
projecting element.
Asian Art and Architecture
by Sophia Tutorial

China and Japan historically have had a close relationship, and
the influence of Buddhism on both of
these cultures has had much impact on Asian art. It is important
to understand the basic tenets of
Buddhism and two types of Buddhism, Zen and Pure Land,
when exploring artwork from this region
and period in time. This lesson will cover:
1. Location: Asian Art
2. China and Japan
3. Buddhism
Buddhism was very influential on the art and architecture of
China and Japan.
1. Location: Asian Art
The focus for this lesson is the geographical region of China.
The historic Silk Road, which is located in this
region, is largely responsible for the cultural exchanges between
Western and Eastern civilizations, as well as
within Asia itself.
2. China and Japan
China and Japan may not have always been best friends
necessarily, but these two Asian countries have a
close relationship historically. China had significant influence
on the cultural, linguistic, religious, political, and
artistic development within Japan.
Both cultures were very influenced by the rise of Buddhism.
This was largely due to the Silk Road. Buddhism
found its strongest integration within the cultures of China and
Japan, despite developing in India. Influenced
by devotional cults and Bhakti, a movement characterized by

the deeply reciprocal love between a devotee
and a personal god, India began seeing significant growth in
Hinduism between the 4th and 11th centuries.
3. Buddhism
Although distinct religions, Buddhism and HinduismHinduism
are closely related, and share many essential
characteristics. This overlap in religions includes the veneration
of images. The veneration of images was
perceived as idolatrous by other religions, such as Islam.
Because of this conflict, the results were the
destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas, which are colossal statues
of Buddha carved within massive rock walls.
Their destruction occurred in Afghanistan in 2001 by the
Taliban, despite the best efforts globally to preserve
them.
The idea of a devotional cult is at the heart of Pure LandPure
Land Buddhism, a type of Buddhism that emphasizes
devotion to a form of Buddha-- the Buddha of Infinite Light.
The belief was that in order to be reborn within the
Pure Land, or Pure Realm, one must be sincerely devoted to the
Buddha of Infinite Light. ZenZen Buddhism, on
the other hand, was a more introspective take on Buddhism with
an emphasis on personal enlightenment
through the study of Buddhist teachings and the use of
meditation.
Both types had, and still have, a large following within Asia.
But regardless of the type of Buddhism, the basic

tenets remain essentially the same. Buddhists believe in the four
noble truths. These four truths include:
Truth of suffering
Truth of the cause of suffering
Truth of the end of suffering
Truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering
Karma is another basic tenet of Buddhism, and refers to actions
and consequences, or cause and effect. The
third basic tenet is the concept of reincarnation, which is a
cycle of spiritual rebirth in order to achieve
enlightenment.
Pure LandPure Land
The heavenly realm of a Buddha.
ZenZen
A school and teaching of Chinese Buddhism that emphasizes
enlightenment and individual understanding of
Buddhist teachings through formal studies and observances.
HinduismHinduism
A system of religious practice in India that emphasizes the idea
of dharma, or duty, and corresponding daily
rituals and practices.
Buddhism was very influential on the art and architecture of
China and Japan. You learned about the
location of Asian artlocation of Asian art in this lesson. China
and JapanChina and Japan have a significant and historical
relationship, and

they are both influenced by the religion of BuddhismBuddhism
in various ways. Remember, though, that the
veneration of images was perceived as idolatrous by other
religions, such as Islam. This resulted in
the destruction of some Asian artwork such as the Bamiyan
Buddhas, colossal statues of Buddha
carved within massive rock walls.
IAN MCCONNELL.
Hinduism
A system of religious practice in India that emphasizes the idea
of dharma, or duty, and
corresponding daily rituals and practices
Pure Land
The heavenly realm of a Buddha.
Zen
A school and teaching of Chinese Buddhism that emphasizes
enlightenment and individual
understanding of Buddhist teachings through formal studies and
observances.

Chinese Buddhist Art and Architecture
by Sophia Tutorial
Buddhism played a major role in dynastic China, and influenced
Chinese art. This lesson explores
Chinese Buddhist art and architecture by looking at examples of
both. Specifically, you will learn
about:
1. Time Period and Location: Chinese Buddhist Art
2. Tang Dynasty
3. Longmen Caves
4. Pure Land Buddhism
5. Chinese Pagodas
The Buddhist religion was very influential on the art and
architecture of dynastic China.
1. Time Period and Location: Chinese Buddhist
Art
During the Common Era, China was ruled by a succession of
dynasties. This period of time stretched from
after 0 AD to the early 20th century.
Below is a timeline highlighting a partial list of some of the
ruling dynasties during this period.
Note that this is not a definitive list by any stretch, but rather
an outline. Some of the dynasties on this list may
stand out to you, such as the Qin Dynasty, which is where the
word “China” derives from. It’s the first one on

the left. The Ming dynasty is known for the production of the
white and blue porcelain vases that are named
after it.
In this lesson, you will explore the art and architecture from
two periods shown on the above timeline in blue:
the Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty. The Song dynasty itself
is actually broken up into two parts, the North
and South.
China is a country that, along with Russia to the north and India
to the south, comprises the majority of the
Asian continent. Two locations covered today are Luoyang,
China, and Foguang Pagoda, just a bit northeast.
The Silk RoadSilk Road, which was named after one of the
primary goods traded via this route, is shown on the map
below. It was one of the most important means of cultural
exchange throughout Asia as well as between
Eastern and Western cultures. It actually passes right by the city
of Luoyang.
Silk RoadSilk Road
A modern term that refers to the trade routes that linked Asia
with the Mediterranean
2. Tang Dynasty
The Tang dynasty succeeded the Sui dynasty and successfully
reunited a broken China. The Tang dynasty
subsequently became one of the most important periods of

Chinese cultural development. It was also a time
when Buddhism was the primary religion throughout China, and
there was a proliferation of art with Buddhism
as its theme.
3. Longmen Caves
The Longmen Caves are located in Luoyang, China, and feature
sculptural relief that spans almost 1,000
years. In this lesson, you will explore some examples of
monumental sculptural relief, specifically the
Vairocana Buddha.
The Vairocana Buddha is one of the largest, if not the largest,
sculptures of the Buddha, and it resides within
an even larger, complex assortment of Buddhist iconography in
these caves. “Vairocana” means “illuminator,”
and depicts the large figure of the Buddha in a lotus, or
meditative, position.
Below is an image of the Vairocana Buddha, created during the
Tang Dynasty, 618 AD to 907 AD.
Vairocana Buddha and Longmen CavesVairocana Buddha and
Longmen Caves
618-907 AD (Tang Dynasty)
Luoyang, China
In the above image of this triadtriad, Buddha is on the right. He
is flanked by BodhisattvasBodhisattvas and disciples who, in

typical hierarchic scale, are smaller but still colossal in size.
DID YOU KNOW
One way to tell the Bodhisattvas and the Buddha apart, aside
from their size and position, is in their depiction.
The Buddha is shown wearing a topknot (how he wears his hair)
and is in the meditative lotus position with his
hands in mudras, which are symbolic hand gestures. The
Bodhisattvas look almost identical, and stand on
either side of the Buddha, creating a triad grouping.
TriadTriad
In Buddhism, an artistic grouping of three characters, usually
Buddha in the center flanked by two
bodhisattvas, but there could be some variation
BodhisattvaBodhisattva
Someone who is capable of achieving enlightenment, but who is
motivated by great compassion to assist
others in their spiritual development
4. Pure Land Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion that is composed of different branches,
all of which share a similar foundation and
ancestry. Zen and Pure Land Buddhism are two of these
branches. Unlike Zen Buddhism, adherents to Pure
Land Buddhism believe that enlightenmentenlightenment cannot
be achieved on your own but only through faith in a form
of Buddha called Amida BuddhaAmida Buddha. Pure Land
predates Zen Buddhism by about 350 years, and arose during
the

Tang dynasty, quickly gaining a strong following.
These branches of Buddhism are similar to the branches of
Christianity, such as Catholic, Baptist, Lutheran, et
cetera.
There are two ways of referring to the same Buddha, Amida and
Amitabha. Amida is more common in Japan,
while Amitabha is more common in China.
Paradise of AmitabhaParadise of Amitabha
9th century AD
Dunhuang, China
The above image is a 9th century painting in Dunhuang, China,
a major stop on the Silk Road that
consequently became a major site of Buddhist art. This is just
one of many cave paintings at this particular
site. This painting is interesting in how it depicts the Pure Land
as consisting of Tang dynasty imperial
architecture, which is a definite nod to the style of the time, but
also the very honest and human depiction of
paradise as something familiar, something like home.

EnlightenmentEnlightenment
Also known as nirvana, the highest state of spiritual being in
Buddhism, characterized primarily by a complete
lack of worldly desire
Amida BuddhaAmida Buddha
Principal Buddha in the Pure Land sect, practiced primarily in
East Asia, and known for longevity and
possessing unlimited merits from good works over many past
lives
5. Chinese Pagodas
It is important to think back to the idea that the veneration of
sacred relics is an important part of Buddhism.
The Chinese pagoda is a type of shrine that was developed, like
the Indian stupa structures that preceded it,
to house sacred Buddhist relics. The relics were housed under
the foundation floor of the pagoda in many
cases, sealed off from the rest of the structure, which also
functioned as a Buddhist temple that could be
entered, unlike the Indian stupa.
The pagodas were wooden structures and featured many
innovative design elements, such as the post-and-
lintel variant called dougong, which is a form of Chinese roof
bracketing.

structure:
Dougong supporting a structure at a Japanese templeDougong
supporting a structure at a Japanese temple
Unlike many types of structures, the walls within the pagoda are
not load-bearing. Instead, the weight of the
roof structure is channeled through massive vertical columns by
way of the dougong. Layers of wooden
beams are laid perpendicular to each other and cantilevered over
a supportive column.
example of this structure.
If you can imagine here, those little gray blocks are supposed to
be going back into the picture running
perpendicular to the blue block. You can see how this rather
ingenious method allows for portions of the
structure to be extended outwards, and allows for a surprising
amount of elasticity in earthquake-prone areas,
something with which stone structures are notoriously poor.
The Foguang Si Pagoda in Shanxi Province in China is a
Buddhist temple and shrine. At about 216 feet tall, it is
the tallest wooden structure ever made. It was constructed in
1056 during the Northern Song dynasty, and it is
an octagonal design with column supports in the corners of that
octagon. This structure is symmetrically
balanced and supported by the use of 60 giant, four-tiered
brackets that hold the structure together.

Shanxi Province in China:
Foguang Si PagodaFoguang Si Pagoda
1056 AD
Shanxi Province, China
If you look at the walls or the sides of the octagon, you will see
that these were not load-bearing. Actually, all
the weight is channeled into the columns that you can’t see, that
are in the corners of the octagon.
PagodaPagoda
A Chinese tower with multiple tiers and a bracketed wooden
roof; it is based loosely on the idea of an Indian
stupa.
Buddhism had a significant role in dynastic China, influencing
the artwork from this area and period. In
this lesson, you began by looking at the time period and
location of Chinese Buddhist art.time period and location of
Chinese Buddhist art. The TangThe Tang
dynastydynasty became one of the most important periods of
Chinese cultural development when it reunited

a broken China.
You learned about the Longmen cavesLongmen caves, home to
the Vairocana Buddha, one of the largest examples
of sculpture of the Buddha within an even larger, complex
assortment of Buddhist iconography. You
also learned that Buddhism is a religion that is composed of
different branches, Zen and Pure LandZen and Pure Land
BuddhismBuddhism being two of these branches.
Finally, you explored the Chinese pagodas,Chinese pagodas, a
type of shrine that was developed, like the Indian stupa
structures that preceded it, to house sacred Buddhist relics.
IAN MCCONNELL.
Amida Buddha
Principal Buddha in the Pure Land sect, practiced primarily in
East Asia, and known for longevity and
possessing unlimited merits from good works over many past
lives.
Bodhisattva
Someone who is capable of achieving enlightenment, but who is
motivated by great compassion to

assist others in their spiritual development.
Enlightenment
Also known as nirvana, the highest state of spiritual being in
Buddhism, characterized primarily by a
complete lack of worldly desire.
Pagoda
A Chinese tower with multiple tiers and a bracketed wooden
roof. It is based loosely on the idea of an
Indian stupa.
Silk Road
A modern term that refers to the trade routes that linked Asia
with the Mediterranean.
Triad
In Buddhism, an artistic grouping of three characters, usually
Buddha in the center flanked by two
bodhisattvas, but there could be some variation.
Song Dynasty Landscape Painting
by Sophia Tutorial

Song Dynasty landscape paintings are known for basic traits
such as shifting perspective. In this
lesson, you will explore examples of Buddhist art and
architecture from China. In doing so, you will
learn about the influences on art from this time period.
Specifically, this lesson covers:
1. Time Period and Location: Song Dynasty Landscape Painting
2. Neo-Confucianism
3. Landscape Painting
a. “Travelers Among Mountains and Streams”
b. “Fishing on a Mountain Stream”
c. “Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View”
Neo-Confucianism was an important philosophical influence on
northern Song landscape painting.
1. Time Period and Location: Song Dynasty
Landscape Painting
China was ruled by a succession of dynasties throughout the
Common Era. The Common Era was the period
of time from 0 AD to the early 20th century. This lesson covers
the Song dynasty, which was weak militarily,
but extremely progressive technologically, politically, and
philosophically. The artwork that we’ll be looking at
all comes from China.
The timeline below highlights many of the dynasties that ruled

during the Common Era. Notice that the Song
dynasty, covered in this lesson, is blue.
2. Neo-Confucianism
ConfucianismConfucianism dates back to the sixth and fifth
centuries BC. Neo-ConfucianismNeo-Confucianism, or New-
Confucianism, is a
form of Confucianism that revived Confucianist thought and
became ingrained in the sociopolitical context of
China.
Portrait of ConfuciusPortrait of Confucius
The idea of "li" is a fundamental part New-Confucianism. Li is
viewed as an underlying reason and order to
nature, or connection between nature and living beings. This
belief was very influential on the way that
landscape painters created their images and depicted nature in
their artwork. Artists of this time sought to
represent the idea of nature rather than specific places.
ConfucianismConfucianism
A belief system based on the teachings of Confucius that
emphasizes love and respect for human beings, the
value of learning, and the value of family, including ancestors
Neo-ConfucianismNeo-Confucianism
A moral and ethical Chinese philosophy that revived
Confucianism, but added influences from Daoism and

Buddhism and emphasized the importance of nature and a sense
of spiritual connection with nature
Li (idea)Li (idea)
The underlying reason and order of nature, as seen in its living
forms
Ji (spirit)Ji (spirit)
Life energy or life force
3. Landscape Painting
The Chinese landscape painting of the Song dynasty is different
than landscape paintings we see in, for
example, 15th or 16th century Italy. Chinese landscape
paintings do not depict specific places, but ideas of
features within nature.
Below is an example of a painting that is not an image of a
specific mountain scene, like a photograph; rather,
this piece of work evokes the idea or sense of the concept of a
mountain scene. It also makes use of shifting
perspective.
Chinese Landscape PaintingChinese Landscape Painting
Shifting perspectiveShifting perspective is a way of visually
moving the viewer through the painting in a number of
directions. This
is done by having no fixed vanishing point like there is in linear
perspective. Rather, objects appear closer and

farther away, detailed or less detailed, depending on the way the
artist is intending to pull the viewer through
the landscape. It’s a different way of viewing a painting than
what is typical in Western landscape paintings
and arguably a more organic way of looking at the landscape.
The use of shifting perspective was better suited to the long
horizontal scrolls on which these Chinese
landscapes are painted. The painting wasn’t intended to be
framed, but extended indefinitely in all directions.
Shifting PerspectiveShifting Perspective
A characteristic of traditional Chinese paintings as a way to
break time and space
Feng ShuiFeng Shui
A Chinese practice in which elements of space are arranged in a
way that maximizes the flow of energy
3a. “Travelers Among Mountains and Streams"3a. “Travelers
Among Mountains and Streams"
The scene below is just a small detail from a much larger—
almost seven feet long—scroll.
Travelers Among Mountains and StreamsTravelers Among
Mountains and Streams
1000-1020 AD

Ink on silk
Even though the title references the travelers, nature is
obviously the subject of this painting, dominating the
scroll and relegating the travelers to tiny figures that are almost
hidden within the painting. Again, there isn’t a
single vanishing point in this example, but rather a use of
shifting perspective to visually move you across the
width of the landscape.
3b. “Fishing on a Mountain Stream”3b. “Fishing on a Mountain
Stream”
The image below gives you a better idea of the use of shifting
perspective.
Fishing on a Mountain StreamFishing on a Mountain Stream
1049 AD
Ink on silk
While it is titled “Fishing on a Mountain Stream,” the idea in
the title is not very evident from this image. Nature
is clearly the focus, rather than a specific place. It could be any
place. It’s an idea of nature. Linear perspective
would be too limiting in this kind of landscape.
3c. “Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View”3c.
“Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant View”
This final example, titled “Streams and Mountains with a Clear

Distant View,” is an example of the southern
Song dynasty landscape style.
Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant ViewStreams and
Mountains with a Clear Distant View
1190-1230 AD
Ink on silk
Xia Gui
Here the artist uses a sharper contrast between light and dark, as
well as more simplified forms than what
we’ve seen previously. It’s essentially a different application of
the same stylistic elements of Chinese
landscape painting. It evokes a sense of a human connection in
nature, but in a more reserved way than that
of the northern Song style. In either case, Song dynasty
landscape paintings embody our connection to
nature, and they achieve more than just the depiction of nature
to create a state of mind.
Landscape paintings in the Song Dynasty were interesting in
their depiction of nature. In this lesson,
you learned about the time period and location of Song Dynasty
landscape paintings.time period and location of Song Dynasty
landscape paintings. It is important to
understand that neo-Confucianismneo-Confucianism played a
role in artwork and architecture during this dynasty.
Artists of this time sought to represent the idea of nature rather
than specific places.
Chinese landscape paintingslandscape paintings do not depict

specific places, but ideas of features within nature. In this
lesson, you explored these examples of Chinese landscape
painting:
“Travelers Among Mountains and StreamsTravelers Among
Mountains and Streams”
“Fishing on a Mountain StreamFishing on a Mountain Stream”
“Streams and Mountains with a Clear Distant ViewStreams and
Mountains with a Clear Distant View”
IAN MCCONNELL.
Confucianism
A belief system based on the teachings of Confucius that
emphasizes love and respect for human
beings, the value of learning, and the value of family, including
ancestors.
Feng Shui
A Chinese practice in which elements of space are arranged in a
way that maximizes the flow of
energy.
Ji (spirit)

Life energy or life force.
Li (idea)
The underlying reason and order of nature, as seen in its living
forms.
Neo-Confucianism
A moral and ethical Chinese philosophy that revived
Confucianism, but added influences from Daoism
and Buddhism and emphasized the importance of nature and a
sense of spiritual connection with
nature.
Shifting Perspective
A characteristic of traditional Chinese paintings as a way to
break time and space.
Art and Architecture of Buddhism in Japan
by Sophia Tutorial
Chinese culture greatly influenced the art and architecture of
Japan. This lesson covers:
1. Time Period and Location: Art and Architecture of Buddhism

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