2. 2
ARC213-HISTORYOFARCHITECTUREI
COURSEAIM
• Analytical study of past architectural antecedents will aid in acquainting students‟ with our
architectural heritage and arousing interest in postulating architectural solutions that are
responsivetothebuiltenvironmentofthis civilization
COURSEOBJECTIVES
• ChroniclehowthearchitectureofearliercivilizationsevolvedtoModernarchitectureofthisage
i.e.traditioncannotbe jettisonedinarchitectureotherwisetherewould be noformsatall.
(JoachimWinckleman,Marc-AntonineLaugier).
• Acquaintuswitharchitecturalinnovationsandshortcomingsofpastcivilizationsusingit asa
springboard toforgeabetterunderstandingofthepresent.
• Evaluatehowinfluencessuchasclimate,topography,location,religion,creativityandpurpose
affectthearchitectureofaplace.
• T
ounderstandhowdevelopmentandrefinementincivilization andageoflearning,positively
enhancesarchitecturalpossibilitiesandstructuralinnovations.
• Ultimately,studentsmustunderstandthatthebuildingmaterialsavailableandthetechnology
developedtoutilizethem throughdifferentcivilizationslargelydeterminethenature ofthe
architectureofthat civilization.
3. symbolofthedevelopmentofcivilizedinstitutions.
3
BACKGROUNDUNDERSTANDINGOFARCHITECTURE
WHA
TISARCHITECTURE?
• Architectureistheart andscienceortechniqueofdesigningandbuildingwhichmust demonstrate
thesolutionof thepracticalproblemsassociatedwiththepurposeofbuildingsuch asbeautyand
utility,andformandfunction.
WHA
TISHISTORYOFARCHITECTURE?
• History of architecture is the study of the chronological record of events (as affecting a nation or
people),basedonacriticalexaminationofarchitecturalsourcematerialsandusuallypresenting an
explanationoftheircausesfromancientperiodstothepresentday.
PURPOSEOFARCHITECTURE
• T
ofulfilbothpracticalandexpressiverequirements;throughbothutilitarianandaestheticmeans.
• Almosteverysettledsocietyusestheirbuildingtechniquestoproducevariousindigenousand
regional architectural styles unique to them such as Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Japanese,
renaissance,modern,e.t.c.
• Servesmanasaformofdefenceagainstthenaturalenvironment
• Givesmanthebenefitsofahumanenvironment(builtenvironment),aprerequisiteforanda
4. civilizationoftheearly people. 4
GENERALOVERVIEW(ANCIENT–MODERNPERIOD)
A.ANCIENTARCHITECTURE
• Ancientmanlivedinnaturalshelterprovidedby caves.
• Duetohisnomadicnature,hestartedconstructionactivityofbuildingofhutswithbamboosand
thatched leaves.
• Thehutsprotectedhimfrom:
o Inclementelementsofweathersuchassun,windandrain.
o Thehutsgavehimsecurityfromwildanimals.
o It gave himtimetoresearch fornewconstructionmaterials eg.mud,bricks andstone.
• Earlymangotinspirationfromnatureintheformofshapesandcolourofleavesandflowers,
andexploitedtheireffectsontheeyesandmind.
• Hesoonstartedconstructingdifferenttypesofhutswithwalls,roofs,floors,doorsandwindows.
• However,hewasnotsatisfiedwithhishut,sohestartedthinkingofimprovingitsutility.
• Herealizedthatcertainproportionsofdoors,windows,heightandwidthofwalls,certaincolour
combinationsandtexturesweremoreaestheticallyappealing.
• Healso observed that various forms, suchas cubes, cones, spheres, cylinders or pyramids seen
inlightandshadecreatedvariedimpressionsonthemindoftheobserver.
• Constructionalformschangedgraduallyasartintroduceditselfintoconstructionwithnewideas of
utility,formandfeelingfor aesthetics.
• All these crude developments in his architectural utilities are evidence of refinement in
6. GENERALOVERVIEW(ANCIENT–MODERNPERIOD)
E.GREEKARCHITECTURE
• TheGreekswerepredominantlygoodinliteratureandarchitecture.
• Theyclearlyreflecttheprogressofthesoulofman(intuitive thinking).
• Thecivilization ofGreececannotbetraceddowntoanyknowncivilization butwasmainlya
creationoftheirrestless,innovatingandchallengingmind.
• TheGreekscouldnotexercisealltheserightsunderthePersian ruleuntilthelatterwere
overthrownbyAlexandertheGreataround 338BC.
• This independence led to Greek architecture achieving magnificence and mastery of
composition.
• Greekarchitectureasdemonstratedinthebuildingsthey designedanderected(temples, fountain
house, agora, theatres, public baths) were in themselves documents of their civilization than any
singleworkofGreekliterature.
• In this sense, architecture might be called the sheet anchor of history, without which the
everlastingtestimonyofthemonumentswouldcertainlybecomenullandvoid.
• Greek architecture was influenced by the factors of religion, history and social rather than of
materials available.
• TheGreeksdevelopedastyleofproportionknownas“orderofarchitecture”.
• An order of architecture is a systematic proportioning of the base, column and entablature
relatedtothediameterofa column.
• It issaidthattheseorderswerebasedontheproportionsofthehumanbody.
• TheordersareDoric,Ionicand Corinthian. 6
8. GENERALOVERVIEW(ANCIENT–MODERNPERIOD)
8
H.RENAISSANCEARCHITECTURE
• Renaissancemeans“rebirth”- aFrenchtranslationofanItalianword„rinascita‟.
• It wastherevivaloftheoldstyle(classical)ofartandarchitectureandliteratureduringthe
renaissanceperiod(AD1500-1700).
• Therewasupsurgeofinterestinclassicallearningandvalues,andrevivalof naturalism.
• Proportioningwasseenasthepredeterminingfactorofbeauty.
• Leon Battista Alberti (1401-1472) defined beauty in architecture as a harmony of all parts in
whatsoever subject it appears, fitted together with such proportion and connection that nothing
couldbeadded,diminishedoraltered,butforthe worse.
• A relationship between architectural proportion and renaissance pictorial device of perspective
wasformulatedbyFillipoBrunelleschi(1377-1446)duringthisperiod.
• Piero della Franscesca defined perspective as objects seen from afar in proportion to their
repetitive distance.
9. GENERALOVERVIEW(ANCIENT–MODERNPERIOD)
I. MODERNARCHITECTURE
• TheperiodfromAD1750onwardsisknownastheperiodofmodernarchitecture.
• Modernarchitecturecanbeclassifiedintotwokinds;
i. Vernaculararchitectureconformscloselytothetraditionalwayof design.
o It ischaracterizedbyminimumofcreativityandoriginality.
o Masonsandcarpenters areexpertsinconstructingsuch type ofbuildingswithout any
guidancefromarchitectsorotherbuilding professionals.
ii. Designedarchitectureistheresultofaconsciousefforttocreatesomething new.
o Function,formandfeelingforutilityandaestheticsarethethreeconsiderationsindesigned
architecture.
J.FACTORSTHA
TLEDTOBIRTHOFMODERNARCHITECTURE
• Industrial revolutionofthe18thcenturybroughtaboutachangeinthetraditionalstyle ofliving.
• Wealthalsochangedhandsbringingintoexistenceaneweliteclasswith newtastes.
• Buildingswereneededforfactories,schools,offices,hospitals,airports,residences,etc.
• Manrealizedthefutilityofmeaninglessornamentationofbuildings,thetraditionalstylesand
ordersof architecture.
• TheeconomicdepressioncausedbytheFirstWorldWar,broughtabouttheneedandimportance
forfunctionalplanning.
• Thedevelopmentanduseofreinforcedconcrete(RC)inconstruction triggeredtherapid
developmentofmodernarchitecture.
• FunctionalstructurewithRCcolumns,beams,andslabswerefoundtobeeconomicalowingto the
increasedspeedofconstructionandproperutilizationofspace.
• Architectsgotmorefreedomtoplanbuildingssuitableforvariouspurposesand environments. 9
11. EGYPTIANARTSANDARCHITECTURE(5000-30BC)
A. INTRODUCTION
• It involvesthebuildings,sculpture,paintinganddecorativeartsofAncientEgyptfromabout
5000BCtotheconquestofEgyptbyRomein 30BC.
• Egyptian architectureweremadetoserve apurely religious purpose. Thatis;
o Temples were decorated with paintings and filled with statues of gods and kings, in the belief
thatdoingsoservedthegodsandwasasignofdevotiontotheking.
o Palaceswerebuiltfortheworshipofthekingsandtoserveashisdwellingplaceaswellasfor
publicadministration.
o T
ombswerebuilttoensuretheenjoymentofdeadkingsintheirlifeafterdeath.
o Jewelryandamulets(charms)werewornnotonlyfor decorationbutasprotectionagainst
harm.
• Therefore,architecturecannotbedevoidofthecultureandtraditionofthe people.
• EgyptianartsandarchitecturewerenotforallEgyptiansbutonlyforkingsandmembersofthe
rulingelites,andalsoforthe gods.
B. ARCHITECTURALINFLUENCES
• Ancient Egyptian architecture was an offshoot of various environmental influenceswhich
include;
(i). Historical
• Oldestandmostancientcivilization.
• InformationaboutEgyptiancivilizationisderived from: 11
12. B. ARCHITECTURALINFLUENCES(contd)
(i). Historical(contd)
12
a. ancientliterary sources,
b. recordsofpapyriandtabletsthrough archaeology.
c. archaeologicalstudyofEgyptianbuildingsandtheirinscriptions
d. stelae(slabusedintheancientworldprimarilyasagravemarkerbutalsofordedication,
commemorationanddecoration).
• Social life in Egypt wasdetermined by the dictatorial rule of the pharaoh (his court, officials and
priesthood)atoneendofthescaleandthestrenuously-toilingpeasantsattheother.
• Heemployedlargestaffoftrainedcraftsmen,andleviedvastarmiesoflabourersfortheerection of
monumentalbuildingsprimaryofwhichisthepyramids.
• Thelabourers are probably motivated byadeepfaith in the divinity of their leaders andabelief in
immortality.
• They also thoughtthattheir contributionswouldimprovetheirown prospectsatthefinal
judgmentinthe afterworld.
• Captivesandforeigners)werealsoemployedinpublicworks(Ex.1:9-14).
(ii). Religious
• Thereisacloseconnectionbetweenreligionandarchitecture,forthepriesthood waspowerful,
investedwithunlimitedauthorityandequippedwithallthelearningofthe age.
• ThetraitsoftheEgyptianreligiousriteswerereproducedintheir architecture.
• Therewerecultsofmanygodsrepresentingnaturalphenomenaandtheheavenlybodies,such as
thesun,moonandstars,andbytheworshipofanimalsaspersonificationofgods.
13. 13
B. ARCHITECTURALINFLUENCES
(ii). Religious(contd)
• Theybelievedinlifeafter death.
• Thus,theyerected sucheverlasting monumentsaspyramidsforthepreservation ofthedead.
• Theearthlydwellingresidencewasregardedasatemporarylodging,andthetombasthe
permanentabode.
• Thepharaohswereseenasgodsdivine representatives onearth.
• Afterdeath,theybecameimmortal,joiningthegodsinthe afterworld.
• Egyptians also believed that the body and soul were important to human existence, in life and in
death e.g. their funerary practices, such as mummification and burial in tombs, were designed to
assistthedeceasedfindtheirwayinthe afterworld.
• Egyptiansbelievedthatonlythesoulsofkingswentontoenjoylifewiththegodsandnot the
souls of the nobles, which continued to inhabit the tomb and needed to be nourished by daily
offeringsoffoodanddrink.
• T
oencouragethesoultoreturntothebody, thebodywaspreservedandastatuetteinthe likeness
ofthedeceasedwasplacedinthetomb.
• Statuettescalledshabtiorshawabti, (slavesforthesoul)werealsoplaced inthetombsto
performworkonbehalfofthedeceasedintheafterlife.
• Thetombswerefilledwithfood,tools,domesticwares,andtreasures(all thenecessitiesoflife) to
ensurethesoul'sreturntothebodysothatthedeceasedwouldlivehappilyeverafter.
14. B. ARCHITECTURALINFLUENCES(contd)
(iii). Climatic
• Equableandwarmi.e.nosnowandfrost;rainfallisrare;alltheseconditionscontributedto the
preservationofancientEgyptianmonuments.
a. Roofdrainagewasnotanimportantconsideration,thusflatroofsofstoneswereusedto cover
thebuildings,excludingtheintenseheatinthe process.
b. Norealneedforwindows,thusmassivewallswereused.
c. Themassivewallsalsoprotecttheinteriorfromthefierceheatofthesun,andIt providedan
uninterruptedsurfacefor hieroglyphics
d. Brilliantsunshineenabledsufficientlighttoreachtheinterioroftemplesthroughdoorsand
roofslits.
(iv). Geographical
• EgyptissituatedalongthebanksoftheNileRiverwhichdividestoformoutletstothe
MediterraneanSeaatthenorthandtotheRedSeaattheeast.
• Thetwoseasservedasinletsandoutletsforbothwesternandforeigntrade,andasanunfailing
meansofcommunication.
• The Nileturnsdesertsandsintofruitfulfieldsforapredictableagriculturalsystem,thus it
affordedastabilityoflifeinwhichartsandcraftsreadily flourished.
• Therefore,thebanksoftheNileRiverbecamethesiteoftheirvillages,cities andcemeteries.
• Equally,thedesertsandtheseas,whichprotectedEgyptonallsides,contributedtoits stability
bydiscouragingseriousinvasionforalmost2000years. 14
15. B. ARCHITECTURALINFLUENCES(contd)
(v). Geological
• BuildingmaterialsthatwereabundantlyavailableinEgyptare:
a. Stone
• Peoplelive inrivermudhousesexceptinrarecasesofstonebeingmorereadilyavailable.
• Evenpharaohslived inbrickpalaces androckwasreserved forthedeadandthegods.
• Egyptianmonumentshaveremainedlastinglargelyduetothedurabilityofthematerials.
• Egyptian architecturewasmadepossiblenotonlybythe materials, but also bythe methodsof
quarrying,transportingandraisingenormousblocksofstoneintoposition.
b. Sun-driedBricks
• T
ombsandtempleswereconstructedofstonewhiledomesticbuildingswerebuiltwithsun-
driedbricks.
• Thesun-driedbrickswerestrongandlasting(i). whenprotectedagainsttheweatheronthe
externalface; (ii). groundwaterdidnotdissolve orfloodtheirfoundations .
• Thebrickswere300-450mminlengthand150-200mmin width.
• Fivedays'workwouldmakeabout5000bricksneededforaworker'sonestoreyhouseof60-
80m²with400mmthickwalls.
b. Reedsand Palm-leaves
• Used to frame or reinforce mud-brick constructions (wattle and daub), or as mats for panels,
partitionsand fences.
d. Mortar
• TheancientEgyptiansdidnotknowthehardsettinglimeplasterinventedbytheGreeks,but
usedinstead amixture ofgypsumandquartzwithsmall amountsoflime.
15
16. B. ARCHITECTURALINFLUENCES(contd)
(v). Geological(contd)
d. Wood
• Doorsandshuttersweremadeofit andupperstoreyfloors.
• Thelongestbeamsthatcouldbecutfromlocalwoodwereonlythreetofourmeterslong.
• If theceilingwaswiderthanthat,it hadtobesupportedwithwooden pillars.
• Whenabuildingwasabandoned,allwoodenand stonepartswereremoved tobereused
somewhereelse.
C. ARCHITECTURALCHARACTER
• Domesticarchitectureconsistedofpapyrusandpalm-branchribs,plasteredoverwithclay.
• Wall or fences were made by stacking vertically, bundles of stems side by side, tied together by
anotherbundleplacedhorizontallynearthetop.
• Alternatively, palm-leaf ribs were planted in the ground at short intervals, with others laced in a
diagonal network across them, andsecured to ahorizontal membernear the top; thewhole being
daubedwithmudafterwards.
• Sun-driedmudbrickswerealsousedaswallingmaterial.
• Thewallsweremadetodiminishcoursebycoursetowardsthetopfor stability.
• The inner face of the wall remained vertical for ordinary convenience, while it was the outer face
whichtapered upwards.
• Vaultingwasintroducedbutnever usedinmonumental stoneworktill theadvent oftheRomans.
• Egyptian columns have a distinctive character derived from vegetable origin; their shafts
indicative of bundles of plant stems, gathered-in a little at the base, and with capitals seemingly
derived fromthelotusbud,thepapyrusflowerortheubiquitouspalm.
• Egyptianmonumentalarchitectureisessentiallyacolumnarandtrabeated style. 16
17. 17
D. ARCHITECTURALTYPOLOGY
• Threeprincipalbuildingtypes:tomb,templeanddomestic architecture.
T
ombArchitecture
• Highlydevelopedandoftengrandiose.
• Thetombnotonly protectedthecorpsefromdesecrationbutalsoprovidedit with materialsto
ensurecontinuedexistenceafter death.
• T
ombswereof threemaintypes namely; Royal pyramids, Private tombs(tombsof the elites) and
Rock-cuttombs.
a).RoyalPyramids
• Theroyalpyramidswereelaboratestructureswithimportantreligiouspurposessuchas:
i. Belief in life after death: they use every means at their disposal to build lasting tombs, to
preserve the body, and to bury with it the finest commodities that might be needed for the
sustenanceandeternalenjoymentofthe deceased.
ii. LocatedonthewestsideoftheNileRiver:Because thesunsetsinthewest,Egyptians believed
thattobetheentrancetotheworldwherethedeaddwells.
iii. Orientationofthepyramidsiseast- westwhichparalleledthedaytimecourseofthesunasit
risesand sets.
iv.Height of the pyramid was meant to take away the breath of the onlooker and cause him to
trembleandtoimpressthemwiththeruler‟sgod-like strength.
18. a). RoyalPyramids(contd)
18
• Thegiganticpyramidswereconspicuoustargetsfortomb robbers.
• Therefore,generationsofkingshidtheirtombsintheValleyoftheKingsinanattempttoelude the
robbers.
• Despiteeffortstohidetheentrances,thievesmanagedtofindthetombs,pillagingandemptying
themoftheirtreasures,jeopardizingthehopeforeternal life.
• Thetombsconsistedofaseriesofcorridors,stepsandroomsthatendedinaburialchamber.
• Thedoorfromthetombformedapointoftransitionfromtheworldofthelivingtotheworldof the
dead.
• Astelaemarkedtheentranceofthetombandborethenameoftheroyal occupant.
StagesofEvolutionofEgyptianT
ombArchitecture
• 1st DynastyKings(2920-2770 BC)wereburied incemeteriesbuiltofsun-dried mudbricks
(mastabas).
• Thefirstpyramid(Steppyramid)wasintroducedduringthe3rd Dynastyofkings(2649-2575BC) by
ArchitectImhotepandwasbuiltofstoneforKingDjoser(Zoser).
• It consistedofsixhuge,squaretiers(steps)ofdecreasingsize,placedoneontopofeachother
toaheightof60meters.
• Similaritiesshowthatthesteppyramidaltombisanelaborationoftheoriginalmastabatomb type.
• Themostmonumentaloftheroyalpyramidsare:theStepPyramidofDjoser,Saqqaraandthe Three
PyramidsofGiza.
26. THETHREEGREATPYRAMIDSOFGIZA
C. HowwerethePyramidsBuilt?
• Theconstructionofthepyramidshasbeenapuzzletoscientistsfor centuries.
• Noclueshavegivenarchaeologistsanswersabouttheconstructionofthepyramids.
• Evidencehave it thatthesite wasfirstprepared, andstoneblocksweretransportedandplaced.
• However,it is notknownhowthestoneblocksweretransportedandplaced.
• Builtbylabourersasakind oftaxthat hadtobepaidbyeveryone supervised byskilled artisans
• Constructiontookplaceduring3-4monthsoftheyearwhentheNile wasflooded.
• Several theories have beenproposedonhowthepyramidswereconstructed.
Theory1
o Themostcommontheoryformovingthelargestoneblockswastoslidelogsunderthemto
makemobilityeasier.
o Strongropeswereusedtopullthestoneblockswithseveralpeoplepushingtheblock forward,
whileseveralmenwouldremovethelastloguncoveredbythestone.
o Theendlogremovedwasthentransferredtothefrontwhereit wouldcompletethecycle under
thestone,untilit wenttothebackagain.
o Movingtheblockwasonechallenge,pacingit intopositionwasagreaterone.
Theory2
o Themostcommontheoryforplacementofeachstoneistohavearamp(straightorspiral) that
wentrightaroundthepyramid‟ssidesthatwasraisedastheconstructionproceeded.
o Therampisbelievedtohavebeencoatedwithmudandwatertoeasethemovementofthe
stoneblocksastheywerepushedorpulled(orboth). 26
28. THETHREEGREATPYRAMIDSOFGIZA
.
D. ThePyramids Interior
i. King‟sChamber
o Thechamberisabout5.25mx10.5mx6mtall,andwasbuilt
withsolidstoneblocksofgranitethatweighsabout 50,000kg.
o Consistsofasarcophagus(2.1mx900mm)withsmoothwalls
andpolishedceiling.
o Floorisabout60sqm,madewithblocksofpinkAswangranite
transportedfromAswanfromthe south.
o Archaeologistsconcludedthatthesarcophaguswasbuilt
insidethepyramidbecauseit wouldhavebeenalmost
impossibletotransportsuchaheavystonestructureinsuch
aconfinedandnarrowpassage.
VerticalSectionofKing‟sChamber
28
29. THETHREEGREATPYRAMIDSOFGIZA
ii. GrandGallery
o It risesgraduallytotheking‟schamberwithasteppedhall.
o Thehallis 48mlong,3mwideand11mhighand26degreestothehorizontal.
o Thewallsweremadeofpolishedstonewithroofingthatoverlapsstoneblockstocreatea stepped
effect.
o Thesewerethoughttobearampforlargegiantblockstosealthepyramidforeternity.
o ThebottomofthegalleryhallasanentrancetotheQueen‟schamber;andatthetopofthehall is
anentrancetotheking‟schamber.
29
30. 30
THETHREEGREATPYRAMIDSOFGIZA
ii. Queen‟sChamber
o Locatedundertheking‟schamberandthesmallestofthethree.
o Itsnamehasfalselyledpeopleintobelievingthatthisroomheldthemummyofaqueen.
o Thetruepurposeofthechamber,however,remains uncertain.
o Thechamberisclosedtopublicandcannotbeaccessedbytouristsforviewing.
o It measuresapproximately5.74by5.23meters,and4.57metersinheight.
iii. UndergroundChamber
o Theoldestchamberinthepyramid.
o Thelargest ofthethree, never fully completedandhasvery littleoxygen.
o Thelowoxygenlevel makesit impossible toburnlanternsandmakeit very difficulttobreathe.
iv. Shafts
o Theyarebelievedtoallowairtoproceedintotheking‟schamber.
o Alsobelievedtoleadtothepathofthestar,whichallowsthepharaoh‟ssoultoescapetothe
after life.
o Extendsabout145moutwardandtravelinaslopingpath.
33. THETHREEGREATPYRAMIDSOFGIZA
PyramidsofGizaComplex
a. PyramidofKhufu (Cheops)
b. Queens‟Pyramid
c. Westerncemetery
d. EasternCemetery
e. RemnantsoftheValleyTemple
of(Khufu)Cheops
f. PitsfortheSolar Ships
g. Pyramidof Khefre(Chepren)
h. MortuaryTempleofChepren
i. Causeway
j. Sphinx
k. ValleyTempleof Chepren
l. SphinxTemple
m. MonumentofQueenChentkaue
n. PyramidofMenkaure (Mykerinos)
o. MortuaryTempleof Mykerinos
p. Remnantsofthe Causeway
q. RemnantsoftheValley Temple
33
36. TheStepPyramidComplexofDjoser
• Builtduringthe3rdDynasty(c.2800B.C.)inSaqqara,Egyptby Djoserabout2737-2717BC,
necropolisofthecapital Memphis.
• Consideredthefirstmonumentalroyaltombandoneoftheoldeststonestructuresin Egypt.
• DesignedbyImhotep,thefirstknownEgyptianarchitectwhowaslaterdeifiedbytheEgyptians.
• Characterizedbyaflat-toppedrectangularsuper-structureofstonewithashaftdescendingto the
burialchamberfarbelowit.
• After completion, its height was increased by building additions of diminishing size
superimposedoneachother.
• ThusDjoser‟soriginalmastababecameaterracedstructurerisinginsixunequalstepstoa height
of60m,withbasemeasuring120x108m.
• Thesubstructurehasanintricatesystemofundergroundcorridorsandrooms.
• Itsmainfeatureis acentral shaft25x8mwideat thebottomofwhichis thesepulchral chamber.
36
SteppedPyramidandHeb-Sed Court
Schematicdrawingofsuccessive
StepPyramidConstruction stage
37. 37
b. PrivateTombsorTombsoftheElites(Mastabas)
• Lesselaboratethantheroyaltombs,neverthelessimpressive.
• ProbablygivenasrewardsbythePharaohsinceit wasaprivilegetobeburiednearthePharaoh.
• Courtiersandfamiliesofthemonarchwerealsoburiedinthese structures.
• Likethepyramids,theywerebuiltonthewestsideoftheNile(symbolofdeath).
• Thedeceasedwerelaidtorestinanundergroundchamberatthebottomofashaft,anda flat-
toppedtombwasplacedoverthem.
• 1st Dynasty (2920-2770BC) private tombs consisted of mud brick underground structures that
contained the burial site and a flat-topped rectangular, mud or stone superstructure built over it
knownasmastaba(Arabicfor “bench”).
o The mastaba tombs are so named because they resemble the benches outside
shops in the markets.
• 2ndand 3rd Dynasties private tombs, “stairway” mastaba was introduced with the tomb chamber
havingbeensunkmuchdeeperandcutintherockbelow.
o Steps and ramps led from the top of the mastaba to connect with a shaft which
descended to the level of the tomb chamber.
o After the burial, heavy stone portcullises were dropped across the approach from
slots built to receive them, and this was then filled in and all surfaces traces
removed.
• 4thDynastyprivate tombs(2575–2467BC), stonemastabasbegantoreplacethoseofmudbricks.
39. b. PrivateTombsorTombsoftheElites(Mastabas)
• 5thand6thDynasties(2465–2323BCand2323–2125BC)respectively,largermastabasofthe highest
officialshadseriesofincreasinglyelaboratedecoratedroomsforperformanceofrituals.
o Rituals focused on false doors on the west wall which was intended to connect the
worlds of the dead and the living.
o The door was solid and impassible to the living, but permitted the dead to pass
through and receive
offerings.
o In the offering room was a stelae on which the deceased was shown seated at a
table of offerings.
o The actual body of the dead was placed in a burial chamber at the bottom of a shaft
cut deep into the ground below the chapel.
o After the burial, the shaft was filled in and made inaccessible.
39
40. 40
c. Rock-cutTomb
• Rock-cuttombsaretombchapelswhichwereexcavatedintotherockycliffsoverlooking theNile.
• BecamethemostcommonprivatetombforthenoblesintheMiddleKingdom.
• Theywereeithersimplesinglechambersservingallthefunctionsofthemultiplicityofroomsina
mastabaorconsistingofhugehalls,oftenconnectingtoformalabyrinthinecomplexes (system
of intricate passageways and blind alleys that rendered egress difficult), with columns carefully
cutfromthe rock.
• Chapelswithfalsedoorswerecarvedoutwithinthehalls.
• Thecuttingisdonewithconsiderablearchitecturalprecisions.
• ThetombchapelswereexcavatedtotakeasimpleT-form,inwhichthecross-barofthe„
T
‟
representstheentrancehall,andtheuprightstrokeofthe„
T
‟isthechapel proper.
• ExampleistheT
ombsoftheKings,Thebes.
41. ii. TempleArchitecture
41
• Templeswereplaces wherethegodsand theirdivineenergycouldreside,separated from
everythingelseinthe world.
• Therearetwoprincipalkinds oftemples:
a. culttemples- for the popular worship of the ancient and mysterious gods; and
b. funerarytemples- shrines for the funerary cults of dead kings.
• Templearchitecturebeganintheworshipofmultifariouslocal deities.
• Theoldormiddlekingdomtempleswerebuiltofperishablemudbrick;onlyfewhavesurvived.
• Inthe18thDynasty, majortempleswerebuiltofstonesandformbulkofmostsurviving temples.
• TheEgyptiansbelievedthatthegodsoccupiedadifferentpartoftheuniverse.
• Templeswerethusbuiltashousesforthegods,wherethegodsappear onearth.
• FocalpointofanyEgyptiantemplewasasanctuaryareathatcontainedacultstatueofthe god.
• Thestatue,sanctuaryandthetempleweremadeasbeautifulaspossiblesothatthegodwould
wanttoreside there.
• MostEgyptiansneverwentinsidethetemplesbelievingthatthegodsweredifferentfromhuman
beingsandthatit wasdangerousforhumanstointeractwithgodsunprotected.
• Thespaceswithinthetemplewerebelievedtobesacredandbecamemoresacredattheinner
parts,restrictedforkingsandofficiating priests.
43. ii. TempleArchitecture (contd)
Examples
TempleatAbuSimbel
Four colossal seated statues of Ramses II flank the entrance to the larger of the two
temples carved into a sandstone cliff at Abu Simbel, Egypt, in about 1250 BC. Such
large-scale projects as the construction of temples and pyramids were carried out by
the general populace, and their work was treated as a form of taxation.
43
44. ii. TempleArchitecture (contd)
Templeat Luxor
The ancient Egyptian temple at Luxor, on the east bank of the River Nile, was begun in the
1200s BC and was added to by each succeeding dynasty. It was connected to the temple at
Karnak by a causeway about 3.5 km (2 mi) long, lined with hundreds of sphinxes. Once a
year the image of the god Amon was transported by barge from Karnak to Luxor, as part of
a huge festival.
HypostyleHall,Luxor Temple
Pylon&StatueofRamesesII
StatueofRamesesII withPillarsofLuxor Temple 44
45. ii. TempleArchitecture (contd)
Templeat Karnak
The temple of Karnak was built on the Nile at Luxor by a succession of Egyptian rulers.
It comprises a series of courts, monumental gateways, obelisks, and high perimeter
walls.
Templeat Karnakshowingthe closerelationshipbetweenEgyptiancivilizationandthe Nile.
45
48. 48
iii. DomesticArchitecture
• Includeshousesandpalaces.
• Mudbrickandwoodwerethestandardmaterialsforhousesandpalacesexceptinrarecasesin
whichstonewasused.
• AccordingtoDiodorusSiculus'Egyptiandwellingswereconstructedofreeds,abuilding
techniquenotcompletelyabandonedbythefirstcenturyBCE:
Traces thereof remain among the herdsmen of Egypt who, to these days, do not
have
habitations but they are made of reeds, which they consider to be sufficient.
Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library
After a German translation by Julius Friedrich Wurm,
Chapter 46
• Heexplained thefact thatEgyptian housingwasmadeofperishable materials inhisHistorical
Libraryas follows:
The inhabitants think little of life on earth; while they put greatest value
on the continued existence in glorious memory after death. They call the
dwellings of the living 'hostels' given that we dwell in them for a short
time only. The tombs of the dead they call 'eternal homes' as they
assume their eternal continuation in the underworld. This is the reason
they invest little effort in the building of houses; but are eager to furnish
unsurpassable
equipment.
Diodorus Siculus, Historical Library
After a German translation by Julius Friedrich Wurm,
Chapter 46
49. 49
iii. DomesticArchitecture
a.Houses
• Commonersdwellingwereofcrudebrick,oneortwostoreyhigh.
• Mansionsofthepowerfulthoupalatial,werebuiltofthesamematerials.
• Foundationsweregenerallynonexistent;virginsoilabovegroundwaterlevelwasbakedrock hard
bythesunandneededjustsome levelling.
• Inordertobuildontopofcollapseddwellings,theclayrubblewaswellwateredandlettosetand
harden.
• Wallwidthwasabout400mmforonestoreyandupto1.25mformulti-storeybuildings.Beams were
letintothewallstoreinforce them.
• Insubstantialhouses,roomswerearrangedaroundaninnercourtyardoroneithersideofa
corridor.
• Wallfacing the street often hadonlyoneopening, the door,thoughwindowsmightbelet into the
upperstorey walls.
• Windowsweresmall,coveredwithshuttersormatsinordertokeepouttheflies,dust,andheat.
• Windowswereplacedhightoreducesunlight.
• Typicalworker'shousehad2- 4roomsonthegroundfloor,anenclosedyard,whichactedasa
kitchen,and2cellars forstorage. Nichesinthewallsheldreligious objects.
• Theroofreachedbyanopenstaircase served asadditionalliving spaceandforstorage.
• Manypeoplesleptontheflatroofduringthesummertokeepcool.Cookingwasalsooftendone on
the roof.
• Finerhouseshadreceptionroomsandprivatequarters,whilesomeevenhadbathroomsand
toilets.
52. iii. DomesticArchitecture
b. Palaces
• Foradministrativefunctionsofgovernanceandreligiousdutiesofthe pharaoh.
• Mostwerebuiltofmudbricksandhence,havenotsurvivedwell.
• ThenatureoftheEgyptiankingwasverycomplexandsowerehis needs.
• Hisbodyhousedtheroyalka-spiritwhichtransmitteddivineaspectsofkingshipfromoneking to
thenext.
• ThekingalsorepresentstheearthlymanifestationofvariousdeitiessuchasRa(thesungod),or
Horus(thegodofthesky).
• Justlikeintemples,anentrancewayledintoanopencourtfollowedbyapillaredhall,followed by
thethrone room.
• Theking‟sthronewasonaraisedplatformatthecenteroftheback wall.
• Thethronesatwithinthekiosk thattooktheplaceofashrine inatemple‟ssanctuary.
• Theenthronedkingwasthereforeequivalenttothecultstatueofa god.
• InEgyptianbelief,foreignlandsandtheirinhabitantsrepresentedtheforcesof confusion.
• Imagesofboundforeignerswerepaintedonthestepsleadingtothethroneplatform andonthe
platformitself.
• Asthekingascendedtheplatform,hewalkedontheseimagesandsat onthem.
• Theforeignerslayunderhisfeetinsubjection,symbolizingthetriumphofthekingoverthe
forcesofconfusion. 52
53. GREEKARCHITECTURE(1050-30BC)
53
A.INTRODUCTION
• AncientGreecewasusedtodescribetheGreek-speakingworldinancient times.
• It refersnotonlytothegeographicalpeninsulaofmodernGreece,butcomprisesofHellenic culture
thatweresettledinancienttimesbyGreeks:Cyprus,theAegeancoastof Turkey(then
known as Ionia), Sicily and southern Italy (known as Magna Graecia), and the scattered Greek
settlements on the coasts of what is now Albania, Bulgaria, Egypt, southern France, Libya,
Romania,Catalonia,andUkraine.
• Involvespaintings,sculpture,buildingsanddecorativeartsproducedfromabout3000-30BC.
• ImportanceofGreekarchitecturetohistoryofwesterncivilizationcanhardlybe overstated.
• Greekartistswerethefirsttoestablishmimesis(imitationofnature)asaguidingprinciplefor art.
• ThedescriptionofthenudehumanfigureinGreekartreflectsGreekhumanism–abelieve that
‘Manisthemeasureofall things’.
• Itsprimarysubjectmatteroftheartisthehumanfigure,whichmayrepresentgodsormortals,
monsters,animalsandplants.
• Greek architecture is a legacy that the west has inherited, as they established many of the most
enduringthemes,attitudesandformsofwesternculture(e.g.structuralelements,decorative motifs
andbuildingtypesstillusedinarchitecturetoday).
54. 54
B.ARCHITECTURALINFLUENCES
1.Geographical
• Athousand years before Greek civilization reached its peak, flourished the Aegean culture of the
people of the Island of Crete (Cretans are also known as Minoans) who were the first great sea-
powerofthe Mediterranean.
• Thecivilization grewandexpanded,developing acommercialempireprotectedbynaval power.
• Crafts, pottery, communications and trade through coastal towns produced a unity of culture and
economicstability.
• Their trade route extended to Greece and her islands and along the whole eastern Mediterranean
seaports, which include Asia Minor, Cyprus, Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Libya extending to south
ItalyandSicily.
• After the collapse of the Aegean culture, the Greek colonist took over their trade routes, thus
establishingtheirdomainnotonlyintheGreece motherland.
• The ruggednatureofGreeceand itsislands,withmountainoushinterlandsrendered internal
communicationdifficultandmadetheseatheinevitablemeansof interrelationship.
• ThemountainsofinlandGreeceseparatedtheinhabitantsintogroupsorclans(city-states), leading
totherivalrywhichcharacterizedtheGreekstates,whetherinpeaceorwar.
55. 2. Geological
• Thesupremedeitywasthefertility–ormother-goddess(Hera).
55
• Littlesupplyofbuildingstone,butabundantsupplyof marble.
• The marble – the most beautiful and monumental building material – gave a great credence and
characteristicstoGreekarchitecturebecauseit facilitates exactnessofoutlinesandrefinementof
details.
• Even wherecoarse-grainedlimestoneswereused,theyoftencoatthesurfacewithalayerof marble
“stucco”inordertoachievethis effect.
3. Climatic
• Theclimateisbetweenrigorouscoldandrelaxing heat.
• Theclearatmosphereandintensityoflightwasconduciveforthedevelopmentofprecise,Greek
characteristicexact forms.
• TheGreekshavealoveforconversation;hencetheybuiltporticoesandcolonnadestoshelter
themfromthehotsunandsuddenshowers.
4. Religious
• Theirreligionwasbasedonworshipof nature.
• Divinitieswereconceivedinhumanform,andrepresentedbysmallidols,rocksandstonepillars;
andallsortsoftreesandanimalswerevenerated.
• Mysteriesofmasculineforcewererepresentedbythesacredbull,symbolizedbythe“hornsof
consecration”.
56. Demet goddess of earth & Cere
56
4. Religious
• Priestessesratherthanpriestsconductedthereligiousritessincetheirpuritycanbeconfirmed.
• Worshipcenteredonsacrificial altarsinopen-airenclosures,caves,smallchapelsorhousehold
shrines.
• Whentemplearchitecturebegan,theGreeksbegantorepresenttheirdeitiesbylargestatues.
• ThereligiousceremoniesofclassicalGreekincluded sacredgames,ritualdances, athletic
contestsand arts.
• TheGreekgodswerepersonificationsofparticularelements,orweredeifiedheroes,andeach town
ordistricthasitsownlocalpreferences,ceremoniesandtraditions.
• TheprincipalGreekdeities,withtheirattributesandRomannamesareasfollows;
Greek Attributes Roman
Zeus the supreme god & ruler of the sky Jupiter
Hera wife of Zeus & goddess of marriage Juno
Apollo god of law & reason, art, music &
poetry
Apollo
Athena goddess of wisdom & learning Minerv
a
Poseido
n
the sea god Neptun
e
Dionyso god of wine, feasting & revelry Bacch
57. • Greekhistorycouldbedividedintoseveral periods;
57
5. HistoricalandSocial
• TheAegeanculturebetween1800-1600BCachievedapowerco-equalwiththecivilization ofEgypt
andMesopotamia.
• TheAegeancultureembracedthecivilizationsofCrete.
• CretansarealsoknownasMinoansafterthelegendarykingMinosofKnossos.Theyareequally
knownasMycenaean,afteroneofthegreatcenters,Mycenae.
• The Mycenaean culture was also referred to as Hellenic (classical Greece) and the root of Greek
cultureliesinMycenaeanculture (1600-110BC).
• TheAegeancivilizationcenteredonCretewasinitiatedbyamovementofpeoplefromAsia Minor.
• They mingledwiththeancientMediterraneaninhabitants;thecivilization grewandexpanded,
developingacommercialempireprotectedbynavalpower.
• TheCretansuperiortradingcivilization affectedtheinhabitantsofwhatisnowGreeceexporting not
onlycommercebutalsocultural influences.
• AttheendoftheBronzeAge,warsbetweenkingdomsdestroyedmostMycenaeancentresof power
e.g.theTrojanWarof1200BC.
• ThegeographyofGreecedidnotpromoteunitybecauseofitsruggedmountains,valleys anda
jaggedcoastline.
• AncientGreecewasadisunitedlandofscatteredcity-states;thus,Greeceenteredintoaperiodof
relativeimpoverishment,depopulationandculturalisolationknownastheDarkAge.
58. a. TheOrientalizingPeriods(DarkAge)c.1100-650BC
• TherewasincreasedwealthinGreeceinthe7thcenturyBCwhichwaspromotedbyoverseas trade
andbycolonizingactivityinItalyandSicilythathadopenednewmarketsandresources.
• Greece did not send out colonists and nor engaged in vigorous trade, andit declined as a cultural
andartisticcentre.
• City-states suchas Corinth, Sparta, the islands, the cities of eastern Greece andCrete cameto the
forewiththeirdiverseartisticinterestsandmeansofexpression.
• Thecity-states demonstrated their wealth andpowerparticularly in temple buildings, whichwasto
foster new architectural forms, manifested in the decoration of the temples and of the national
sanctuaries.
• In early Greek arts, the main role of the architect was to design cult buildings (temples), until the
Classical period.
• However, regular visit of the Greeks to Egypt from about 650BC exposed them to Egyptian
monumental stone buildings which were the genesis of the ultimate development of monumental
architectureandsculptureinGreece.
• Wooden pillars were replaced with stone ones and the translation of the carpentry and brick
structuralformsintostone equivalents.
• This provided an opportunity for the expression of proportion and pattern, which led to the
invention orevolution ofthestone“ordersofarchitecture”.
• These orders or arrangements of specific types of columns supporting an upper section called an
entablature,definedthepatternofthecolumnarfacadesandupperworksthatformedthe basic
decorativeshelloftheGreektemple building. 58
60. 60
c. TheClassicalPeriod (475-323BC)
• The Persian Wars between Persia and Greece around 480-479BC, ended in victory for
Athensandthe Greeks.
• Considered as the culmination of Greek arts and architecture, with its highest
achievementsbeingtheTempleofZeusatOlympiaandtheParthenoninAthens.
• People form every city-state came to Olympia to dedicate offerings to the gods and to
competeintheOlympicGameswhichbeganin 776BC.
• The 4th and 5thcentury despite the political and military excesses, witnessed the great
flowering of Greek philosophers of thinking, represented by Plato and Aristotle,
particularly Socrateswhowerenot onlyconcernedwith the nature of knowledgeandthe
humansoul,buttherewasalsoprodigiousstudyinphysics,mathematics,astronomy and
music.
• However,Greekcity-statesstillengagedinconstantwarfareuntil338BC,whenPhillipII
ofMacedoniaandhisson AlexanderdefeatedtheGreeks, thusendingtheera of
powerfulindependentcity-states.
• Between 334-323BC, Alexander the Great extended his father‟s empire into Asia Minor
(Turkey),Syria,Egypt,Persia(Iraq), AfghanistanandasfarasIndia.
61. d. TheHellenisticPeriod (323-30BC)
• AfterAlexandertheGreatconqueredtheGreekcity-states,hisarmiesextendedGreekcivilization
farbeyondtheGreekmainlandintotheMiddle East.
• The4thcenturywitnessedvariousattemptsbycity-statestodominate Greece.
• Theconfusedsituationwasresolvedintoafederalsystem imposed by thesupremacy of
Macedonia.
• TheunificationofGreecewasaccomplishedunderPhillip(359-335BC),andfirmlyestablished
underhissonAlexandertheGreat (336-323BC).
• TheearlydeathofAlexander attheageof32wasfollowedbythedivisionoftheempireamonghis
armygenerals.
• Theempirewasdividedintothreemonarchies:AntigoniusinGreece,SeleucisinAsiaMinorand
Ptolemyin Egypt.
• ThesewerecalledHellenistic(Greek-like)kingdoms,becausetherulingclassesspokeGreekand
theofficialculturewasGreek.
• Thecity-statesfailedtomaintainunity;therewasmutualanimosityandeconomicdeclineduring
the3rdcentury.
• Thedisorder created affordedopportunity for intrusion bythe centralized, expandingpowerofthe
Romans,bringingwiththemlaw,orderandunifiedgovernment,andadoptingmuch ofthe
Hellenistic world.
• Inthe2ndcenturyBC,Romedominatedpoliticsandbegantoexertitsinfluence.
• GreecebecameaRomanprovince in 146BC,andRomedefeatedthe other Hellenistic kingdomsof
AsiaMinorandEgyptin 30BC. 61
62. 62
C. ARCHITECTURALTYPOLOGY
• Greekarchitectureconsistsofessentiallybuildingtypesthatwereenrichedandrefinedovertime,
butrarelyabandonedorreplaced.
• It beganwithsimplehousesoftheDarkAgeandculminatedinthemonumentaltemplesofthe
Classical Periodandtheelaboratelyplannedcities andsanctuaries oftheHellenistic Period.
• Thus, the raw materials available and the technologies developed to utilize them largely
determinedthenatureoftheirarchitecture.
a. PrincipalBuilding Materials
Wood –used for supports and roof beams.
Unbaked bricks –for walls, especially of private houses.
Limestone and marble –for columns, walls and upper portions of temples and other
public buildings. Terracotta (baked clay) –for roof tiles and architectural ornaments.
Metals (especially bronze) –for some decorative details.
b. ReligiousArchitecture
Open-air altars –served as the focus of prayer and sacrifices.
Temples –housed the statue of a god or goddess to whom the sanctuary was
dedicated.
Treasury – a small-temple like building, in which offerings to gods and goddesses
are made by city-
states and citizens at sanctuaries such as Olympics and Delphi.
c. FuneraryArchitecture
Circular earthen mounds covering built
tombs. Rectangular earthen mounds with
63. 63
d. PublicBuildings
Council House –venue where a governing council meet.
The law court.
The fountain house –a building where women filled their vases with water from a
community fountain. Stoa –a roofed colonnade or porticoes open and having column
on one side, and often with rooms set along the rear wall.
Agora –an open assembly area or market place. It is the principal public gathering
place of the city in which all other structures are lined.
e. Private Houses
They took many forms. They are:
Early dwellings had just one room in the shape of a rectangle, oval or a rectangle with
a curved back wall (an apse).
The multiple rooms’houses had airy and pleasant interiors, as they were generally
organized around a small courtyard.
The houses were never impressive from outside because their walls were of flimsy
mud-brick or small stones.
f. EntertainmentandRecreationBuildings
Open-air theatre
Roofed concert
hall.
Gymnasium –an open field surrounded by rows of columns, where youths met
for exercise and intellectual discussions.
Stadium/Wrestling
ground. Public
64. GreekTemples
• ThemostcharacteristicGreekbuildingisthecolonnadedstonetemplebuilttohouse acult statue
ofagodorgoddess;astatuetowhompeopleprayedanddedicated gifts.
• Thetemplewasdevelopedinthearchaicandclassical periods.
• Typicaltemplehadarectangularinnerstructureknownasacella,whichwasnormallydividedby
twointeriorrowsof columns.
• Thecult statue ofthegodorgoddessusually stayed attherear ofthis room.
• Most templeswereorientatedtowardstheeast,andvisitorsenteredonthatsidethrougha
colonnadedfrontporch.
• Completely surrounding the inner core of the temple was a continuous line of columns called a
peristyle.
• Peripteraltemplesaretemplessurroundedbycolumns onallsides thouthereoriginwere
debatable.
• TheexteriorcolonnadebecametheprincipaldistinguishingfeatureofmostGreektemples.
• IntheDarkAge,therewasnoobviousdistinctionbetweenatempleandahouse.
• Thefirstmonumental templesofstonewerebuiltinthe7thcenturyBCinemulationof the
massivebuildingsinEgyptthattheGreekswouldhaveseenorheardabout.
• EgyptianinfluencealsoledtheGreekstobegintocarvemonumentalstonestatuesatthis time.
• Anotherfactorwhichledtothegreatuseofstonewastheinventionofheavyterracottarooftiles,
whichneededmoresupportthanwoodandmudbrickcould offer.
• ClassicalexamplesofGreektemplesare:TempleofZeusatOlympia,Erechtheion,Partehnon and
TempleofAthenaNikeatAthens. 64
65. C2. ArchitecturalOrders
• An order is a logical or methodical arrangement of components parts such that proper
functioning,appearanceorharmonyisachieved.
C2.1 Introduction
• Theyarepillarsusedinarchitecturetosupportthesuperstructureofabuilding,andoccasionally as
afreestandingmonument.
• Theytakedifferentshapes,whichmaybecircularorpolygonalincross-section,andareatleast
four(4)times tallerthantheyarewide.
• Thefirstcolumnsconstructedtookshapefromnatureintheformoftreetrunksorbundled reeds.
• ThisinfluencecanbeseeninthestyleofthestonecolumnsusedbytheancientEgyptianandin
ancientMediterraneancityofMycenae.
65
66. 66
C2. ArchitecturalOrders
C2.2 ArchitecturalOrdersandMajorfeaturesofaGreekTemple
• Bytheendofthe7thcenturyBC,theancientGreeksdevelopedthree(3)majorarchitectural orders
i.e.Doric,IonicandCorinthian order.
• TheDoricistheoldestand simplest.
• TheIonicandCorinthianordersweremoredevelopedwithelaborateschemesforthecolumn‟s
capitalandtheentablaturealsodiffersineachcase.
• ThearchitecturalordersdeterminedthemajorfeaturesofanancientGreektemplefaçade.
• Atemplefaçadewasmadeupofthree(3)mainparts;
1. Thesteps
2. Columns
3. Entablature(thehorizontalpartthatrestedonthecolumns)
• Eachofthesethreemainpartsalsohadthree(3)distinguishingparts;
a. Thesteps–it hasthreemajorstepsleadingintothetemple,thetopmostiscalledthe stylobate.
b. Thecolumns–eachcolumnconsisted of:
i. Base
ii. Shaftand
iii. Capital.
c. Theentablature–it consisted of:
i. Architrave–plainhorizontalbeamrestingonthe column
ii. Frieze–it correspondstothebeamssupportingtheceilings and
iii. Cornice–asetofdecorativemouldingsthatoverhungtheparts below.
68. a. DoricOrder
• Usedforthefirsttimeinthe7thcentury BC.
• It hasnobase, andtheheavyshaftistaperedupwardtothecapital.
• Thesurface oftheshafthasaslightconvexcurve,andisindentedwith shallow, vertical
channellingor flutings.
• ThesefeaturesarealsofoundintheionicandCorinthian orders.
• TheDoric capital consists of anundecorated, square slab resting ona rounded disc of stone that
tapersdowntothetopofthe shaft.
• ExamplesofDorictemplesare:Templeofhera,Paestum;TempleofPoseidon,Paestum;Temple of
AthenaParthenos,Athens;theParthenon,Athens;theHephaisteion, Athens.
68
69. b.IonicOrder
• Ionic order was introduced into Greece from
Asiainthe6thcenturyBC.
• The ionic column is more tapered than the
Doric column and it rises from a richly
mouldedcircularbase.
• Projecting stone spirals known as volutes
distinguishesitscapitalfromtherest.
Erechteion, Athens; archaic T
emple
• Examples of Ionic temples are: the
of
Artemis, Ephesus; T
emple of Athena Nike,
Athens;TempleofIlissus,Athens.
c. CorinthianOrder
• Introducedinthe4th centuryBCasavariant
oftheIonic column.
• It ischaracterizedbyaslendershaft.
• Thecapitalisintheshapeofaninvertedbell,
whichisornatelydecoratedwithvolutesand
acanthusleaves.
• ExamplesofCorinthiantemplesare:Temple of
Zeus,Athens.
69
70. 70
• TheRomansaddedtwo(2)typesofcolumnstotheclassical orders;
d. TuscanOrder
• It isanunflutedmodificationoftheDoric column.
e. CompositeOrder
• It hadtheIonicshaftandamoreornateCorinthiancapital.
f.
Othertypesoforders include;
HonorificColumn
• Usuallyasinglepillarwhichwassometimeserectedtocommemorateaneventortohonoura
person.e.g.Trojan‟sColumn,Rome.
g.
h.
ColossalOrder
• Anorderthatrisesfromthegroundaboveonestoreytosupportthe entablature.
SuperimposedOrder
• Asystemofarrangementofdifferenttypesofordersstartingfromtheheaviestonthe ground
followedbysuccessivelighterorders.
• AnexampleofthesuperimposedorderisfoundontheAmphitheatreinRome.
71. 71
C3. TheAcropolis
• Acropolisis derived fromtwoGreekwords;akros–highestandpolis –city.
• It isafortifiednaturalstrongholdorthe“SacredRock”ofAthens,inancientGreece,andit isthe
mostimportantsiteofthetown.
• It providedaplaceofrefugeforthepopulaceduringtimesofwarandalsosanctuaryfortheruler of
the town.
• It servedasthetown‟sreligiouscentreandthefocalpointofitspubliclife.
• Thebest-knownacropolisoftheancientGreeceistheAcropolisofAthens.
• It wasbuiltonalimestone hillthatrises about150metersabovesealevel.
• In480BCthePersiansdestroyedtheArchaictemplesandmonumentsontheAcropolis, andfor
decadestherewasnomajorconstructionthere.
• After the Persian Wars ended in 479 BC, Athenian democracy blossomed, its power expanded
abroad, andAthensentered aperiodofgreat prosperity undertheleadership ofPericles.
• Determined to make Athens the cultural leader of Greece, Pericles undertook one of the more
remarkablebuildingcampaignsinhistory.
• ThecampaigncenteredontheAcropolisandbeganwiththeParthenon(447-432BC).
• It houses the remains of the Parthenon; a magnificent temple dedicated to the goddess Athena
(Greek goddess of Wisdom), the Erechtheion, the temple of Athena Nike and the Propylaea (the
monumentalgatewayoftheAcropolis).
75. 75
C3.1 TheParthenon (447-432 BC)
• It isthe mostimportant andcharacteristicmonumentof the ancientGreekandstill
remainsits international symbol.
• Dedicatedto AthenaParthenos,the patron goddessof Athens.
• Built about 447-432BCunderthe leadershipof Pericles,bythe architects Ictinus
andCallicrates.
• Pheidias,a Greeksculptorin conjunctionwith other sculptors supervisedthe
designof its sculptures.
• Thetemple isbuilt in the Doricorder andalmostexclusivelyof marble.
• It is arectangular(31x70m) peripteral-octastyle temple with eightcolumnson
eachof the narrow sidesandseventeen columnsonthe long sides.
• The central part of the temple called the cella, housed the famous cult statue if
Athena.
• It stands on a crepidoma of three steps; each of the steps is 508mm high and
711mm wide and as these were too steep to ascend with comfort, intermediate
stepswere provided at the centerof the east
77. 77
C3.2 TheErechtheion(421-405 BC)
• It was built around 420 BCin the Ionic order with the famous entrance porch on
the south.
• It wasdesignedbyMnesikleswith anunusualandirregular plan.
• The main temple was divided into two sections dedicated to the worship of the
two principalgodsofAthens–AthenaandPoseidon.
• It islaid out in anunusualasymmetricalplan.
• A six-columned porch on the eastern facade is mirrored by six engaged Ionic
columnsonthe westernfacade,whichhasno porch.
• Columned porches on the north and south sides are not centered, but are placed
toward the western end of the building. The northern porch is larger than that on
the south,andawkwardlyextendsbeyond the westsideof the building.
• The southern porch, sometimes called the Porch of the Maidens, has six marble
maidenscalledcaryatids that supportthe entablature in placeof columns.
• Theirregular planof the Erechtheumcanprobably beexplained bya needfor it to
incorporateseveralsacredplacesof worshipalreadyonthe site.
• It was characterized by three porches and was constructed at two different levels
(one sidebeing3.2meters below the rest).
• Aflight of stepsjoined the two splitlevels.
80. C3.3 TheTempleof Athena Nike
• It wasconstructedaround420BCbythe architect Callicrates.
• It wasbuilt in the Ionicorder,andit isamphiprostyle (buildingwith columnsat
eachends)with a row of columnsin front of eachof itsnarrow sides.
80
81. C3.4 ThePropylaea (437-432BC)
• It isthe monumentalgatewayof the Acropolisonitssteepwestern approach.
• It wasdesignedbythe architectMnesiklesandconstructedin 437-432BC.
• It comprisesof a centralbuildingandtwo lateralwings.
• Thecolonnadesalongthe westandeastsideshadarow of Doriccolumnswhile
two rowsof Ioniccolumnsdivided the centralcorridorinto three parts.
81
82. 82
Zeusthe Protector,wherethe masterof the houseoffers sacrifice.
C4. CITYPLANNING
• In the early 5th centuryBC,citieswere laid out in agrid-likeplanwith streets
intersectingat rightangles.
• In the 4th centuryBC,carefullyplanned citiesandcivicspacesbecamethe rule in
ancientGreece.
• Symmetry andgeometricdesignplayed animportant role in city planning.
• Cityplannersdesigneddistinctresidential,marketing,recreationandreligious
areasandinterspersedthem evenlythroughoutthe city.
C5. HOUSES
• Theyvaried accordingto the sizeof the land, the sizeof the owner’sfamily, his
taste andwealth.
• Twostandardplansemergedin the 5th and4th centuriesBC.
• Thefirst hadsmallroomsarrangedin a rectangularplanarounda colonnaded
interior courtyard.
• Thesecondtypes are largerhouseswhichalsofocussedoninterior courtyards.
• Theyarewith two courts,onebehindthe other andeachwith itsowndependent
chambers(rooms).
• Theentrancecourtisthe Courtof the Men (Andronitis).
• Womenof the houseretire promptlyonthe appearanceof a male stranger.
• Thereisa smallstonealtar at the centerof the colonnadedcourtwith a statue of
83. 83
awell-to-do family, agarden.
C4. HOUSES(CONTD)
• Andronitisisthe true living roomof the housewherethe masterreceives visitors.
• The chambers in the andronitis (12 in all) open to the colonnaded courtyard on all
four sides.
• The chambers are small and usually lighted only by their doors; used for
storerooms and for sleeping for male slaves and for the grown-up boys of the
house.
• Because the room are poorly lit and ill ventilated, the average Athenian loves the
agorabetter than hischamber.
• Directlybehindthe andronitisisthe dininghall of the house(Andron).
• Atonecornerof the andronisalittle roundaltar sacredto Hestia,the hearth
goddess.
• The andron also contains the great bedroom of the master and mistress (the
thalmos), and another of such bedroom for the grown-up girls of the hoiuse (anti-
thalmos).
• Behindthe andronisthe Courtof the Women(Gynaeconitis) – the holyof the
holies.
• Greek women are forbidden to participate in so much of public life; to enter into
the gynaeconitis of even an intimate friend isan insult at Athens and may lead to a
ruinouslegalprosecutionor bodily chastisement.
• The gynaeconitis consistsof the kitchen, rooms for slave women, and in a home of
85. ROMANARTSANDARCHITECTURE
A. INTRODUCTION
• Distinctive Roman manner of building, sculpting and painting emerged in 2ndcentury
BC.
• They became more exposed to other artistic cultures, notably that of Greece as they
begantoexpandthroughoutItalyandtheMediterranean.
• Patronsarenotjusttheemperors,senators,andthearistocrats,butofallthepeoples of
Rome‟s vast empire including middle-class businessmen, freedmen, slaves and
soldiers.
• Roman Architecture was eclectic because of the extraordinary geographic extent of
patrons.
• CohesivefactorthroughallthedifferenceswastheRomancharacteri.e.theabilityto
organizeinlargeandcomplex terms,politically,architecturally,orotherwise.
• ModernknowledgeofRomanarchitecturederivesprimarilyfromstudiesof architectural
remainsscatteredthroughoutthe empire.
• Anothersourceofinformationisavaststoreofrecords,includingdedicatoryand
otherinscriptiononpublic works.
• The end of Roman arts and the beginning of Medieval architecture is usually said to
occur with the conversion of the Emperor Constantine the Great to Christianity on
AD330.
• RomanstylescontinuedhoweverinChristianguiseontolater civilization. 85
86. 86
B.ARCHITECTURALINFLUENCES
i. Geographical
• Muchofthecountryismountainousbutnotbrokenupintoisolatedcity-statesasinGreece.
• RomehasacentralandcommandingpositionintheMediterranean Sea.
• While the Greeks were seafaring people, Romans extended their influences by conquest or
annexation
• Roman Empire was not confined geographically to Italy but included all those parts of north-
westernEurope,NorthAfricaandWesternAsia.(Spain,Britain,Germany,Syria,Romaniaand North
Africa).
ii. Geological
• Romans had iron , copper, and tin, terracotta and brick in addition to stone and marble of the
Greeks.
• they had various building stones such as tufa (with varying degree of hardness); peperino;
travertine(hardlimestonefromTivoli);besidesexcellentsandandgravel.
• the building material which led to great structural innovations was concrete formed of stone or
brickrubbleandamortarofwhichthemost importantingredientwaspozzolana(avolcanic earth).
• whiteandcoloredmarblesimportedfromallpartsoftheempirewerealsousedextensively.
• Despite abundance of varying building materials in regions under its control, concrete, in
conjunctionwith itsbrickorstonefacingswasthefavouritematerial,whichhelpedgive uniformity
ofstylethroughouttheempire.
87. 87
iii. Climatic
• Duetothewideexpanseoftheempire,therewerevarietiesofclimaticconditions.
• NorthItalyhastheclimateofthetemperateregionofEurope;centralItalyisgenialandsunny, while
thesouthisalmosttropical.
• Thisvarietyofclimaticconditionsaccountfordiversityofarchitecturalfeaturesandtreatment, and
producedlocalmodificationsindetails,yettheRomanarchitecturalcharacterwasso pronounced
andassertiveastoleavelittlechoiceingeneraldesign.
iv.Religious
• Theyhadapolytheistreligionwhichwasafusionofseveral gods.
• romangodsacquiredsimilarattributestothoseoftheGreeks,butretainedtheirLatinnamesand
rites.
• ThereligionofancientRomeunderthepriestclassactingasapparatusofthestate,soon became
partoftheconstitutionofthe state.
• Theemperorultimatelyreceiveddivinehonoursandwasdescribedastheheadofallvarieties of
deitiesunderthewidespreadRomanrule.
• Dissatisfactionwithstatereligionshoweditselffrom timetotime.
• Everyfamilyhadanaltartothefamilygods(Lares)andancestorworshipwasarecognizedartof
religiousrites.
• Despite periodic persecution, Christianity increased in its appeal, and it became sufficiently
widespread to be recognized by the Emperor (Pontifex Maximus) Constantine in 313AD as equal
withother religions.
88. 88
architecturalformsbytheRomans.
C.ARCHITECTURALCHARACTER
C1. Buildingmaterials
i. Volcanicstoneseg.tufa,peperino,albaniandtravertine.Usedfortheexteriorwallsandinterior
decorationsonpublicbuildings.e.g.Colosseumin Rome.
ii. Marble:usedmainlyfor decorative purposes.It wasset in cementandapplied in slabs to bricks
and concrete walls. Also used for pavements either by cutting it into slabs and arranged in
patternsorasmosaic.e.g.FlavianPalaceinRomeandHadrian‟sVillaat Tivoli.
iii. Unburntbricks(facedwithstucco):usedespeciallyforprivatehouses(veryfew remains).
iv. Kiln-bakedbricks andtiles: usedasthemostcommonfacing forconcrete asaprotective skin.
v. Stucco:used asafacingoverunbaked bricks,coarsestoneandconcrete.Servedasa protection
against weather andalso as a finish. Takesa high polish or fine moulding; henceit becamethe
voguefordecorationespeciallyintheinteriorofhouses.
vi. Bronze:usedinadecorativemannerondoors,grilles,panelsofceilings,andotherdetails.
vii. Pozzolana:afine,chocolate-redvolcanicearth,whichwhenmixedwithhydratedlime forms
excellent cement that will set even under water. When mixed with aggregates, it forms concrete
which lightens the weight of structures. Concrete was used in all great imperial buildings (e.g.
bathsofCaracallaandBasilicaofMaxentiusinRome).It enabledthedevelopmentofnew
89. 89
C2. BuildingConstruction
• Donebystateagenciesor private contractors,employingslaveor free labour.
• Techniques and crafts were highly developed; machines were simple and powered
bymenor animal.
i. Masonry or concrete walls (faced or unfaced): early stonewalling were without
courses (continuous horizontal layers). Concrete walls, except below ground,
were alwaysfaced.
ii. Columnsandpiers:usuallyof stoneand monolithic.
iii. Arches:usedin gates,bridges,andaqueducts,aswell asin colonnadesand doors.
iv. Vaults:Romanvaultswere simplegeometricforms.Theyare usuallycomposed of
stone, concrete, or brick and are heavy structures that exert downward and
outward pressureonto their supports.
• Barrel vault: it is semicircular in shape and the simplest form of vault. It is a
continuousseriesof archesdeep enoughto covera three-dimensionalspace.It the
same kind of thrust as the circular arch and must be buttressed along its entire
lengthbyheavywallswith limited openings.
• Groin (intersecting) vault: it is formed when two barrel vaults intersect at right
angles, which when repeated on series, could span rectangular areas of unlimited
length.
• Ribvaults:it isa groinvault that hadribsaddedalongthe groins.
90. Archesand Vaults
The construction of an arch (A) requires a temporary wooden structure to hold the voussoirs (wedge-shaped bricks
or stones) until the keystone, or central voussoir, can be put into place. Arches are connected with the aid of an
impost (B), a piece of moulding located where the arch begins. Imposts are also used at the point between an
arch and the capital of a column. Arches can be connected (C) to form a barrel, or tunnel vault. A series of barrel
vaults (D) is used to create an arched ceiling or roof. A variation on this is the cross, or groin, vault
(E), in which two barrel vaults
intersect.
90
92. 92
C4. PublicBuildings
• Variousbuildingtypeswere built to suittheir statusandto meet their socialand
private needs.
i. RomanTemples
Differencesbetween GreekandRoman temples
• Bestpreservedexampleof a Romantemple isthe Maison-Carreeat Nimes,
France.
Greek Roman
a. Three steps all around the structure Flight of steps on the entrancefaçade.
b. Oriented to faceeast-west Oriented to all points ofthe compassin
relationship to otherbuildings.
c. Sacredhence isolated from other buildings Situated in the earth of thecities.
d. Simple entrance portico Entrance façade emphasized and the entrance
portico was deepened for easyidentification
e. Smaller cella Wider cella
93. Maison-Carree, Nimes,France(c. 4AD)
• Built by Marcus Vispanius Agrippa (63-12 BC), son-in-law of Emperor Augustus
(originally knownasOctavian, heir of JuliusCaesar).
• Dedicated to GaiusandLuciusCaesar,adoptedsonsofAugustus.
• Rectangularin plan;25 mlongby12 m wide.
• Gable roofed, deepentrance porchandafrontal staircasegivingaccessto its high
platform or plinth.
• Built with 6 Corinthiancolumns:a stronginfluence of Greektemple style.
• TheRomansalsobuiltmanycirculartemples.
• Greatestsurvivingcirculartemple andthe mostimportant Romanbuildingisthe
Pantheon,Rome. 93
94. 94
Pantheon,Rome.
• Most preserved buildings of ancient Rome and one of the most significant
buildingsin architecturalhistory.
• Begunin 27BCbythe RomangeneralandstatesmanMarcusVispaniusAgrippa.
• Built to commemoratehisvictoryovercombinedforcesof the Romangeneral Mark
Anthony and Cleopatra, queen of Egypt in the battle of Actium in 31BC by which
Octavian became the first Roman emperor in 27BC and assumed the name
Augustus.
• Begun as a rectangular temple measuring 44m wide and 22m deep with a gabled
roof supportedbyacolonnade onall sides.
• Completely rebuilt by emperor Hadrian (Latin, Publius Aelius Hadrianus) (76-
138AD), Emperor of Rome (117-138), between 118-128AD when it was converted
to a rotunda of concretefacedwith brick.
• Some alterations were made in the early 3rd century AD by the Emperors Lucius
SeptimiusSeverus(146-211), RomanEmperor(193-211) andhisson,Caracalla (188-
217)- original name is Bassianus and ruled as an Emperor with the name Marcus
AureliusAntoninus.
• It hasa greatconcretedomerisingfrom the walls.
95. 95
Pantheon,Rome.
• Has a front porch of eight (8) Corinthian columns supporting a gabled roof with
triangular pediment.
• Entrance porch is characterized by huge bronze double doors, 7m high (the earliest
largestexampleof its kind).
• The dome was the largest built until the advent of modern architecture, measuring
about 43m in diameter and rising to a height of 22m above its base and 43m from
the ground.
• No external evidence of brick arch support inside the dome; exact method of
constructionnot known.
• 2 major factorscontributed to itssuccess:
i. excellentquality of mortar usedin the concrete
ii. carefulselectionandgradingof the aggregates.
• Thetemple’simmensecircularspacewaslit solelybythe 8m‘eye’or oculus;a
revolutionary concept.
• Exteriorisplain while the interior islined with colouredmarbles.
• ThePantheonwasdedicatedin 609ADasthe churchof the SantaMaria Rotunda.
100. ii. RomanTomb
• Consistedof anearth mound(tumulus),surroundedbya ringof masonryrising
usuallyto a considerable height.
• Most notable examplesare the Tombof CaeciliaMetella onthe ViaAppiaand
Hadrian’sTomb.
Hadrian’sTomb(CastelSant’ Angelo)
• Originallythe mausoleumof EmperorHadrianand,until Caracalla,the burial place
of the AntonineEmperors.
• AntonineEmperoristhe nameof adynastyof the five goodemperorswhoreigned
between 138-180 markedbyaperiod of greatinternal peaceand prosperity.
• Built 135–139ADandconverted into a fortressin the 5th century.
• Thefort isa circlein plansurroundedbya square.
• Eachcornerof the squareisprotectedbyanindividually designedbarbican,or
outwork.
• Thecentralcirclecontainshalls,chapels,apartments,courtyard,andprison cells.
• Thecastleservedasarefugein timesof trouble in the Middle Ages,especiallyfor
the popes,whocouldreachit from the Lateranthrougha protected passage.
• Usedasa prisonuntil 1901, whenitsrestorationwasbegun.Part of it isnow a
museumof military history. 100
103. iii. Basilica
• Abasilica in its earliest usage was a large covered public hall in ancient Rome and pre-
Christian Italy used as a meeting hall, courthouse, banking, and for other commercial
purposes.
• Usuallyflanked bysideaislessetoff bycolonnadesandwith a raisedplatform at one or
both ends.
• Used for judicialpurposesin the 1stcentury, hencethe raisedplatform became
enclosedbyanapseto accommodatethe magistrate.
• EarlyChristiansadoptedit for their churches.
• Emperor Constantine commissioned the construction of three enormous Christian
basilicas in Rome: St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome; S. Paulo fuori le Mura, and S. Giovanni,
Laterano.
• Thetransept (a lateral aisle crossingthe nave justbefore the apse)wasadded,thus
creatingthe cross-shapedplan that becamestandard for churchesin Western Europe
throughout the Middle Ages.
• Thecolumnsseparatingthe nave from the aislesin early Christianbasilicacarried
either archesor entablature whichin turn, carriesa blankwall supportingthe timber
roof of the nave.
• The nave rose higher than the side aisles, hence the wall that supports the nave roof
stood above the level of the side aisle roof and could thus be pierced at the top with
windowsto light the center of the church.
• Thehighnavewall iscalled the clerestorywall andthe windowspierced in them are
called clerestory windows. 103
105. St.Peter’sBasilica, Rome.
• Constantine,the first Christianemperorof Rome,built the OldSt.Peter’s Basilica
in 326ADonthe VaticanHill; thisgaveofficial recognitionto the hill.
• VaticanCitycomesfromthe nameof the Vaticanhill onwhichit islocated.
• Thiswasthe placewhere St.Peter,the chiefapostleof JesusChristwas crucified
andburied around64AD.
• Gradually, houses and palaces were built on the hill and from the 13th century,
popesmadethe Vaticantheir officialresidence.
• In the mid-15th century, the Old St. Peter’s started falling into ruins and Pope
Nicholas V ordered the reconstruction and the enlargement of the church after
plansbyarchitectBernado Rossellino.
• After the death of Pope Nicolas V, Donato Bramante was appointed by Pope Julius
II in 1506 asthe chiefarchitectof the newbasilica.
• Bramante initiated the basilica design asa Greek crossplan with a massive central
dome.
• At the death of Bramante in 1514, artists such as Raphael, Fra Giacondo de
Verona,andGiulianodaSangallo,modifiedthe originalGreekcrossplanto a Latin
crosswith three aislesseparatedby pillars. 105
106. 106
St.Peter’sBasilica, Rome.
• In 1546/7, PopePaul III commissioned Michelangelo who designedthe imposing
domeandreverted the planbackto the Greekcrossplan.
• Michelangelodied in 1624, two yearsbefore the completionof thedome.
• Carlo Maderno under order from Pope Paul V, again exchanged the Greek cross
for the Latin crossbyextending the nave to the east, thus completing the 187m
longmain structure.
• Thebasilicawasfinally dedicatedbyPopeUrbanVIII in 1626.
• Thebasilicaincludes45 altarsdecoratedbymanyfamousartistsandisnow a
touristattraction.
• Theinterior canbevisiteddaily free although astrict dresscodeis applied.
• Thedomecanalsobe visitedalthough entranceisnot free but worth it.
• Thereisanoption of takingthe elevator or the stairs,the stairsbeing cheaper.
• Fromthe top of the dome,there isamagnificentview of Romeandof St.Peter’s
Squarein particular.
• It wasthe largestchurchin the Christiandomuntil surpassedin 1989 bythe newly
built basilicainYamoussoukro,Côted’Ivoire.
111. 111
iv. PublicBaths
• Built to providefacilities for communalor private washingandbathing.
• Made upof alargeopengardensurroundedbysuiteof dressingroomsanda
blockof bath chamberswith apodyterium (changingroom), laconium(steam
bath), hot room(caldarium),warmroom(tepidarium), andcoldroom
(frigidarium).
• Servicewasfurnishedbymeansof undergroundpassageways,throughwhich
slavescouldmoveswiftlywithout being seen.
• Clerestorywindowswere usedfor lightingthe roofingof the enormous rooms.
• Imperial bathswere built for the pleasureof the leisureclassesandbecame a
recognizedfeature of Romanlife.
• Facilitiesincludegymnasticexercisehallsandhallsfor philosophers,poetsand
thosewhowishto hear them gathered.
• Bestpreservedare the Bathsof Caracallaandthoseof Diocletian(c.298-306AD),
with accommodationfor 3200bathers.
115. v. RomanTheatre
• Romantheatre differed in several respectfrom thoseof the Greeks.
Conceptsbehindthe evolution of the Romanfree standing theatre;
• Etruscans dancers and musicians in 364BC brought temporary wooden stands for the
spectators, and the stands later developed into the Roman auditorium, built up entirely
from the levelground.
• They also brought to perfection the principles of barrel and cross vaulting, penetrating the
seat bankat regularintervals with vomitoria (exitcorridors).
• The theatre was roofed and the number of entrances to it was increased to five; three, as
before, in the wall at the rear of the stageandoneat eachside.
• Asevery seat had to have a view of the stage, the area occupied by the seating (cavea) was
limited to asemicircle.
• Duringthe RomanEmpire,civicpride demandedthat all-important citieshave theatres,
amphitheatres, anda small,permanently roofed theatre aswell.
GreekTheater RomanTheater
1. Situatedonnatural slopesthuslocatedaround
mountainoussites
Supportedbytheir ownframeworkof piersandvaults, thus
couldbeconstructedinthe heartsofcities.
2. Greekaudiencewent for deep religiousconvictions Romanaudiencewent to the theatre forentertainment.
3. Auditorium wasexcavatedfrom thesurrounding
hill.
Auditorium wasnot excavatedandthe wallssurroundingthe
stageandthe seatingarea werecontinuous.
4. Stagewasnot raised. Stagewasraised.
115
116. vi. Amphitheatres
• Free-standingbuildingof roundor ovalshapewith a centralarea (the arena), and
seatsconcentricallyplacedaround it.
• Amphitheatre isa Greekwordmeaning‘theatre with seatsonall sides’.
• Suitablefor the entertainment that thesepeoplecherished– gladiatorialgames
andvenationes.
• Most Romanamphitheatreswere constructedwith elaboratelabyrinth below the
arena.
• The passagesincluded media way for scenery, elevators spacesand machinery that
lifted the animals and stage sets, and rooms for the gladiators, were ingeniously
arrangedto connectbymeansof manytrap-doors,with the arena above.
• The spectators seats run around the arena, and its separated from it by high wall
topped bya metal screen.
• Spectatorseatsare divided bypassagewaysrunningaroundthe amphitheatres into
severalsections(maeniana).
• The lowest section or podium has a special box for the emperor and his retinue;
other distinguished guests, ambassadors, priests, consuls and vestal virgins are
seatedonthe oppositesideof the emperor.
• Therestof the first gallerycontainedseatsfor senatorsandthoseof the
equestrianrank. 116
117. vi. Amphitheatres
• Thesecondgallerywasreserved for patricians, the third for plebeians, andthe fourth
or uppermostgallery, for women.
• Anawning(velarium) wasmanipulated bysailorsto shelter the spectatorsfrom the
sun.
• Eachof thesegalleries wasdivided into wedged-shapedsections(cunei)byradial walks
that led to the manyexits(vormitoria).
• Thelargest andthe mostimportant amphitheatre of Romewasthe Colosseum.
Colosseum,Rome
• Originally called Flavian Amphitheatres because it was built under the Flavian
Emperors but later changed to Colosseum because of the colossal statue of Nero that
stoodbeside it.
• Builtbythe EmperorVespasian,andhissons- TitusandDomitian in about 70-80AD.
• Officially dedicatedin 80ADbyTitusin a ceremonythat included100 daysof games.
• It wasconsidereda great architecturalandengineeringfeat for the following reasons:
a. free-standing,multi-level structureof stoneand concrete.
b. grandeurin scaleand decoration
c.its layout facilitated both the productionof extravagant spectacles
d. crowdcontrolof the largenumbersof peopleattending the events 117
118. Colosseum,Rome
• External measurement is190m by155m andthe outer façade isroughly48.5 mhigh.
• It hasthree tiers of archesof superimposedcolumns—Tuscancapitals onthe first
level, Ioniconthe second,andCorinthian onthe third—and anupper level of
Corinthian pilastersandsmallsquare windows.
• Seatingcapacityfor 50 000 spectators
• 80 entrancessoarranged that the buildingcouldbecleared quickly.
• Builtof concreteandstone,the exterior facedwith travertine andthe interior with
preciousmarbles.
• Tieredseatingoffered abetter view of the gamesfor agreater numberof people.
• Sceneof thousandsof gladiatorial contests,contestsbetween menandanimals,and
mocknaval battles.
• Alsousedfor stagedbattles between wild beasts(lions)andChristiansamongother
spectacles.
• Stageof the arena wasmade of woodwhichwascoveredwith sandto absorbthe
bloodof woundedgladiatorsandwild beasts.
• TheColosseumwasdamagedbylightningandearthquakes in medieval times and,
even moreseverely, byvandalism; all the marble seatsanddecorative materials have
disappeared.
• Arestorationproject wasundertaken in the 1990s. 118
125. 125
TheCircus
• The circus was the Roman version of the Greek hippodrome
andconsistedof a longcircuitfor chariot races.
• It was essentially a racecourse lined with tiers of seats along
all sides of the arena except at one end where the stalls for
the horsesandchariotswere located.
• The opposite end is squared-off and provided with
arrangementsfor chariotsto enter anddraw upfor the start.
• There is a barrier in the middle on which judges and referees
might perform their functions.
• The circus was also used for spectacles other than racing
such as, traditionally, the burning of Christians by Emperor
Nero.
• The largest and doubtless the finest ever built was the Circus
Maximusin Rome.
126. CircusMaximus,Rome.
• It was the largest of the Roman hippodromes and one
of the largestsportarenaever built.
• A U-shaped structure with seats on three sides and a
low wall, the spina, running down the middle of the
arenaaroundwhichthe chariots raced.
• It was built around 600BC and rebuilt in the time of
Julius Caesar (1stcentury BC) to seat an estimated 150
000 spectators.
• It was enlarged by later Emperors until it reached a
maximum size under Emperor Constantine (4th century
BC) of external dimension of about 610m long and
190m wide, with a seating capacity of about 250000,
greater than that of any subsequent stadium ever
built. 126
127. 127
TriumphalArches
• They were erected to commemorate an important event or
campaign.
• They were often isolated rather than built to span a
roadway.
• The triumphal arch was usually decorated with columns and
bas-reliefs of the chief events it commemorated and was
frequently surmountedby sculpture.
• Its basic form consisted of two piers connected by an arch
and crowned by a superstructure, or attica, that served as a
basefor statuesandborecommemorative inscriptions.
• The function of the arch, therefore, seems to have been that
of anhonorary monument of unusual importance.
• The most important of these arches are the Arch of Titus
(Arco di Tito) c. 81AD, commemorating the capture of
Jerusalem, and the Arch of Septimus Severus (c. 203AD) and
the Archof Constantine(c. 315AD).
128. 128
Archof Titus, Rome
• Erected by Domitian in honour of his father Emperor
Vespasianandbrother, Titusaround 81AD.
• It was built to commemorate their victories in the
Judean War and the conquering of Jerusalem by Titus
in 70AD.
• Tradition says that not even one Jew ever passed
under the arch, unwilling to pay homage to those who
destroyedtheir temple.
• Relievesonit showsthe triumphal processionbringing
the spoilsfrom Jerusalem.
• In the centerof the vault isthe statue of Titus, who is
mountingthe eagle.
• Thearchis15m highand13.5m wide.
130. 130
Monumental CityGate
• Just like triumphal arches, they sometimes serve a
commemorativepurpose.
• However, they differ from triumphal arches
because they serve as part of the defenses of the
city.
• The most famous are the Porta Nigra at Trier in
Germanyandthe gatefrom Miletus in Turkey.
131. Bridges
• Thebridgesof the Romansrankedamongtheir greatest monuments.
• TheRomansbeganorganizedbridgebuildingto helptheir military campaigns.
• Thediscoveryof pozzolana, anatural cementaidedthe Romansin buildingpiersin
rivers.
• Romanbridgesare characterizedbythe useof the circulararchform.
• Thecirculararchallowed for spansmuchlongerthan stonebeams,andfor bridgesof
morepermanencethan wood.
• Forlongerbridgeswhichnecessitate the useof several arches,the buildingof stronger
pierswas critical.
• T
obuild a strong pier, it has to be built on bedrock, which is a problem in a wide river
with a softbed.
• The Romans developed the cofferdam – a temporary watertight enclosure made from
wooden piles driven into the river bed to make a sheath, which was often sealed with
clay, from which water is pumped to expose the bed of a body of water in order to
permit the construction of apier or other hydraulic work.
• Concretewasthen poured into the water within the ring piles.
• Most survivingRomanbridgeswere built onrock,but the Sant’AngeloBridgeinRome
standsoncofferdam foundations built in the TiberRiverabout 1800 years ago. 131
132. 132
Aqueducts
• Aqueducts (Latin aqua, ‘water’, and ducere, ‘to lead’) are man-
made
conduitfor carryingwater.
• They are artificial structures built to transport water across a hollow
or valley.
• In modern engineering, ‘aqueducts’ refers to a system of pipes,
ditches, canals, tunnels, and supporting structures used to convey
water from itssourceto itsmaindistribution point.
• The elaborate aqueducts system that served the capital of the
RomanEmpirehowever remainsamajor engineering achievement.
• From 312BC to 226 AD, eleven aqueducts were built to bring water
to Rome,somefrom asfar awayas92km.
• Only a portion of Rome’s aqueducts system actually crossed over
valleys on stone arches, the first being the Aqua Marcian in Rome,
whichisabout 90 kmlongandbuilt bythe praetor Marciusin 144BC.
133. 133
Aqueducts
• Majority of the systemconsistedof undergroundconduits made
mostlyof terracotta pipe, leather,lead and bronze.
• Water flowed to the city by force of gravity alone and usually went
througha seriesof distribution tankswithin the city.
• Rome’sfamousfountainswere alsosuppliedin this way.
• The surviving aqueduct monument is the Pont du Gard aqueduct
near Nimesin southernFrance,completedin 14 AD.
• The structure was built to channel water from from a spring 50km
from Nimes and have three tiers of semicircular arches, with the top
tier risingmore than 48m highabovethe Gard River.
• Roman aqueducts were built through out the Roman Empire in
Greece,Italy, France,Spain,NorthAfricaandAsia Minor.
• As central authority fell apart in the 4th and 5th centuries, the
systemsalso deteriorated.
134. Aqueducts
Arcaid/JustinPaul
PontduGard, Nîmes
Theaqueductknowntoday asthe PontduGardwasbuilt in the 1stcenturyBC.Water, tapped from a local
springto supplythe Romancity of Nîmes, flowed alongthe topmost tier of arches.It isconsideredto be
the greatestof all aqueducts,andin 1985 it wasinscribedonthe UNESCOWorld Heritage list. 134
136. 136
Aqueducts
• Majority of the systemconsistedof undergroundconduits made
mostlyof terracotta pipe, leather,lead and bronze.
• Water flowed to the city by force of gravity alone and usually went
througha seriesof distribution tankswithin the city.
• Rome’sfamousfountainswere alsosuppliedin this way.
• The surviving aqueduct monument is the Pont du Gard aqueduct
near Nimesin southernFrance,completedin 14 AD.
• The structure was built to channel water from from a spring 50km
from Nimes and have three tiers of semicircular arches, with the top
tier risingmore than 48m highabovethe Gard River.
• Roman aqueducts were built through out the Roman Empire in
Greece,Italy, France,Spain,NorthAfricaandAsia Minor.
• As central authority fell apart in the 4th and 5th centuries, the
systemsalso deteriorated.
