Leadershiptext1 2

党議袈盤整翠盟鶴霊碑盟忽寝室袋持続拠点===同-~~~-ー一一一一一
LeadershipandManagement
AnAppliedBehavioralSciencesApproa仁h
THELEADERSHIPDIFFERENCE
Everycoun甘yhasmanyexamples，pastandpresent，ofcourageousmenandwomenwhohave
steppedforwardandaccomplishedgreatthingsunderextremelychallengingconditions.Some紅 e
widelyknown，likeNelsonMandela， whofoughtap紅 theidinSouthAfrica，orAungSanSuuKyi，
whocontinuestostruggleforhumanrightsinBurma.MarkZuckerberg，founderofFacebook，
harnessedtheIntemetsothatmillionscan“friend"eachother目 LuisUrzua，theshiftcommander，
organizedandcalmedtheChileanminerstrappedundergroundfor69daysuntiltheywereres-
cued.Stillothersmayliveinyourneighborhoodorworkinanearbyschoolbuthaven回 ermade
headlines目 Allthesemenandwomensawtheneedforaction，believedinwhattheyweredoing，
inspiredothersand，withthem，changedtheirworlds.Thisistheessenceofleadership-recogniz-
ingtheneedforaction，motivatingandinspiringothers，andmakingthingshappen
Effectiveleadershiprarelyhappensbyaccident.NorisitpassedalongthroughDNA.Rather，
itistheresultofrelevant，provens泌1Is出atcanbele紅 nedandappliedbyalmostanyoneinanyorga-
nizationwhoistryingtoinfluenceothers.Wecanreadilyseewhatadifferenceleadershipmakesin
thebusinessworldfromresearchaboutretention.羽市at1s血enumberonereasonpeoplestaywithan
organization?Theyworkwithagoodleader.Thisisthegoodnews.Bu川ltthesource0ぱfthebadnews
1路sthes釘ne.Thenumbe釘ronereaおsonpeopleleaveanor，砲ga副ll1za'吐onis出a拭.ttheyworkforabadleader.
Datashowcle註鼠r‘匂血a拭t“、m羽anager凶s釘umpc∞ompa叩m均esピ.，，1Inotherwords，alluringbenefitpackagesand
pro宣tsharingcannotmakeupforth巴day-to-daydamage血atcanbedonebyamanagerwhoisinse-
cur巴 orunclear，overinvolvedorunavailable.High同，pelformingemployeeswillseekoutotheroppor-
tunitiesiftheirleadersinhibitthe汀 talents.Andwithaworkforceincreasinglypopulatedbyyounger
“GenX"and“GenY"employeeswhoaremoremobileandmoreloyaltotheirimmediateleader
thantoanorg釦辺倒00，出ecostsandconsequencesoflosingpeoplearehigh:teamdisruption，lower
productivity，andmanagerialtimedivertedtoselectionandhiring目Infact，itcosts10timesmoreto
recmitandtrainafollower吐lantoprovidetheleadershipenvironmenttoretainthem.Solearning
tobeaneffectiveleaderbenefitsyou，yourpeople，andyourorganization-nowandinthefuture.
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闘
Chapter1・LeadershipandManagement
THEIMPACτOFGLOBALlZATIONO NLEADERSHIP
ANDMANAGEMENT
Whetheryo盟 liveintheUnitedStatesorin出eUnitedKingdom，LaosorLatvia，weallknow
thatthepaceoftechnical，social，economic，andpotentialchangehasacceleratedexponentially
inthepastfewdecades.Notonlyhasthepaceofourlivesquickened，butsohavetheinterrelated
impactsofthesechanges.Forexample，theabilitytoinstantlymessageortweetapieceofinfor-
mationplayedanimportantcommunicationroleinthepoliticaluprisingsknownasthe“'Arab
spring"of2011.Technologytouchespolitics，whichthentransformsthesocialandeconomic
landscape，whichinacountrylikeEgypt，occurredwithintwoweeks.
1nthemidstofthisongoingturbulence，organizationsarebreathlesslytryingtobothkeep
upandanticipatewhatiscomingnext.Theyoutsource，downsize，andrebrand.Thetoolsand
technologyalone訂 edizzyingtokeepupwith.Todaywehavehigh-speedwireless1nternetser-
Vlce血atisaccessibletomillions.Wehavesm紅 tphonesfromwhichwecansende-mailtoour
customersandaccesssatellitemapstolocatetheirstores.Wecane-mailadigitaldesigntoan
overseassuppliertodaywhoc組 manufacture，ship，andhavethatproductontheshelvesofa
storeinlessthanaweek.
TechnologyIsMakingYourCompetitionOneClickAway
1tisafactthatinafewshortye紅 s，e-commercehastransformedtheglobalmarketplace.And
withthischange，perhapsthemostsignificantchallengefacingorganizationsisthatthepower
hasshiftedfromsellerstobuyers.Withjustoneclick，onlinebuyerscansearchforthebestqual-
ity，service，terms，flexibility，andinnovation.Ifyou訂 enotpleasedwithonefirm'sproductsor
services，another'sWebsiteisjustonemoreclickaway.Now白atover2billionofusacross血e
worlduse出e1nternet，2
itiseasierthaneverforpeopletobuygoodsandservicesthattheywant
ratherthanwhatsuppliersthinkthebuyersneed
MichaelHammer，coauthorwithJamesChampyoftheinfluentialbookReengineeringthe
Corporation，describesthisshift:
[P]owerfulmoderncustoll)ers-whetherconsumersorcorporations-wantonething:more.They
wantmoreproduc臼 for'lessmoney，morequalityandservice，moreflexibilityandconvenience，and
moreinnovation.Theguiltypartyiu出emoralityplaythatismodernbusinessisnottherapacious
capitalistorthemanipula臼vem叩 ager;itisyouand1，everyconsumerwholookscarefullyatprice
andquality，whoshopsaround，whoabandonsyesterday'sproductfortoday'sbetterone.Itisthe
powerfulcustomerwhohasforcedradicalchangesonthereluctantm加 agersoforganizationsin
everyindus廿y.'
1nfact，asAndrewS.Grove，cofounderofIntel，knows，adaptabilityis吐Jekeytobusinesssurvival
inthefaceofrunawaychange:
Therearetwooptions:Adaptordie.Theuewenvironmentdictatestworules:First，everythinghap-
pensfaster;second，anythingthatcanbedonewillbedone，ifnotbyyou，thenbysomeoneelse，
somewhere.Lettherebenomisunderstanding.Thesechangesleadtoalesskind，lessgentleandless
predictableworkplace4
Facedwitharadicalneedtocontinuallyadapt， successfulorganizationsrelyonadeep
senseofpurposetobothsteadythecourseandchartnewdirections.Thatpurposehelpsclarify
theirresponsibilitiestowardcustomers，employees，owners，society，andtheenviron白ent-allof
thekeystakeholderswho訂 eaffectedbytheirperformance.
TheDomainofLeadershipandManagementHasBecomeWorldwide
Giventhesharpimpactsofglobalization，whatsep紅 atestheleaderswhofeeloverwhelmedby
thetsunamiofchangefromthosewhocanridethewaves?1sitcreativityorconnections，moxie
oroptimismつMichaelPortersumsitupthisway:
Real...leadersbelieveinchange.Theypossessaninsightintohowtoaltercompetition，佃ddonotac-
ceptconstraintsinc田ryingitout.Leadersenergizetheirorganizationstomeetcompetitivechallenges，to
se四 edemandingneeds，andaboveall，tokeepprogressing....Leadersalso血inkinintemationalterms，
notonlyinmeasuringtheirtruecompetitiveadva胸部 butinsettingstrategytoe:油田ce叩 dextendit5
Butstrategycannolongertaketheformofafive-yearplan.E妊'ectiveleadersarethosewhocan
mobilizetheirpeopletoaccomplishresultswithstrategicspeed.Agility，change，execution，and
results:Thesearetheoperativewordsforleadersinthe担ewworldorder
Tec泊 ologyisenablingfasterperformanceofmanyprocesses;itisalsogivingorganiza-
tionsthesystemsandtoolstoberelentlesscostcutters.Traditionallayersofmanagement紅 e
beingstrippedawayasthe1nternetreducestheneedformiddlemen，brokers，anddis佐ibutors
Thesemanagers，whoarefewerinnumber，musthavesharperbusinessacumenandbetterpeople
skillstoget恥 jobdone.Theymustincreasinglyaccomplishth位 goals伽 oughvirtual回 ms
sincethegeographicdistancebetweenleaderandfollowerisincreasing.Managersneedem-
ployeestobecomeself-directedfasterthaneveranticipated，whichre弓uireshighlevelsofconfi-
dence，commitment，andmotivation.Theeraoftheknowledgeworkerishere，andithasalready
changedthewayorganizationsfunction，lead，hire，andpromote
PEOPLEPROVIDETHEADVANTAGE
Fromahistoricalperspective，wecansee吐Jat血esourcesof∞mpetitiveadvantagehavevariedover
time.AccordingtoEdLawler，organizationsoncefocusedprimmilyon白econ位。1ofnaturalre-
sources，butthenhadtoprogressivelycompetethrougheconomicandfinancialexpertise，improved
marketingability，con往01oftechnology，andnowtheimproveduseofhumanresources.oVincent
OmachonuandJoelRoss，authoritiesonqualitymanagement，supportLawler'sconclusion:
Historically，productivityimprovementhasfocusedontechnologyandcapitalequipmenttoreduce
theinputoflaborcost.Improvedoutputwasgenerallythoughttobesubjecttoobtainingmorepro-
ductioubyapplyingindustrialengineeringtechniquessuchasmethodsanalysis，workflow，etc.Both
oftheseapproachesarestillappropriate，buttheCUrlマnttrendistowaれdbetteruseofthepotential
availablethroughhuman阿 sources[emphasisadded]7
People紅 enowtheprim紅 ysourceofcompetitiveadvantage.Thatiswhycompaniesnow
viewretention，talentmanagement，andbeingseenasan“employerofchoice"askeyconcerns
intheageoftheknowledgeworker8
DISTINCTIONSBETWEENMANAGEMENTANDLEADERSHIP
ManagementDefined
AnyreviewoftheliteraturewillquicklyshowthattlJere紅 ealmostasmanydefinitionsofmanage-
mentasthere釘 ewritersintlJefield.Acommonthread白atappe紅 sinthesedefinitionsis白at吐Je
managerisrequiredtoaccomplishorganizationalgoalsorobjectives.Wedefinemanagementas
theprocessofworkingwitlJandthroughindividualsandgroupsandallocatingotlJerresources(such
asequipment，capital，andtechnology)toaccomplishorganizationalgoals.Thisdefinitionappliesto
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L
organizations，whetherthey紅 eむusinesses，educationalorreligiousinstitutions，hospitals，political
ormilitaryorganizations，orevenfamilies.Everyoneisamanagerinatleastcert包 nactivities.
LeadershipDefined
Inessence，leadershipisabroaderconceptthanmanagement.Managementisaspecialkind
ofleadershipinwhichtheachievementoforganizationalgoalsisparamount.Theimportant
distinctionbetweenthetwo，therefore，liesinthetermorganizationalgoals.Our・defini-
tionofleadershipisthatleadershipoccurswheneveronepersonattem凶 toinfluencethe
behaviorofanindividualorgroup，regardlessofthereason.Itmaybeforone'sOwngoals
orforthegoalsofothers，andthesegoalsmayormaynotbecongruentwiththoseofthe
orgamzatlOn.
WARRENBENNIS W紅白nBennis，ahighlyregardedleadershipscholar，hasdifferentiated出e
rolesoftheleaderfromthatofthemanagerthroughanumberofprovocativecontrasts:
Leadersconquerthecontext-thevolatile，turbulent，ambiguoussurroundingsthatsometimes
seemtoconspireagainstusandwil1surelysuffocateusifweletthem-whilemanagerssuト
rendertoit.Themanageradministrates;theleaderinnovates.Themanagerisacopy;theleader
isanoriginal.Themanagermaintains;theleaderdevelops.Themanagerfocusesonsystems
andstructure;theleaderfocusesonpeople.Themanagerreliesoncontrol;theleaderinspires
trust.Themanagerhasashort悶 rangeview;theleaderhasalong-rangeperspective.Themanager
askshowandwhen;theleaderaskswhatandwhy.Themanagerhasaneyeonthebottomline;
theleaderhashiseyeonthehorizon.Themanagerimitates;theleaderoriginates.Themanager
acceptsthestatusquo;theleaderchallengesit.Managersdothingsright;leadersdotheright
things9
Whilethesepolaritiespointtokeydifferencesintheroles，itisimportanttorealizethat
leadershipandmanagementarecomplementaryactivities.JohnKotter，anauthorityOnleader-
shipandchange，hasassertedthatleadersmustcopewithsettingdirection，aswellasaligning
andinspiringotherstofollow，whilemanagersneedtofocusOnthecomplexityofimplementa-
tion_lOBotharenecessaryforanorganizationtoachieveitsgoals.
TheImpactofManagementandLeadership-ForBetterorWorse
Letuslookatonestudyinwhich500respondentsinavarietyoforganizationswereaskedto
ranktheirconcerns‘TheresultsarelistedinTable1-1.
Everyconcernlistedistheresultofineffectiveleadershipandmanagementandcanbe
correctedbyenlightenedlead巴rshipandmanagement.Aswewi1lsee，theoriesabouteffective
leadershipandmanagementpracticesabound，butreliablemetrics紅 eofteninshortersupply.
ButthisisnotthecaseatthestatisticalpowerhouseknownasGoogle.Googlerecentlycon-
ductedanin-depthinvestigation，calledProjectOxygen，intowhatmakesitsownbestmanagers
巴ffective_11I臼 analysiswasbasedonover10，000obser、rationsaboutmanagersacrossmoretha担
100variablesandyieldedthefollowinglistofbehaviors，basedontheorderofimportance(see
Table1-2).
WhatmaybemostinterestingabouttheGooglefindingsisthatthere紅 esofewsurprises.
Itseemsthatwhilethecontextinwhichmanagersoperatetodayisfastandfluid，whatmakes
themeffectiveremainsfairlyconsistent.Asthelistreveals，effectivemanagementofp巴oplein
orga凶zationscomesdowntotheone-on-oneorone-on-a-groupinfluenceprocess.Perfor百 1初旬
圃置Concern
TopTenLeadershipand
ManagementConcerns
Ineffectivecommunication
Crisismanagementformostsituations
Lackoff巴巴dbackonperforma円ce
Noorinappropriategoalsetting
Notenoughtraining
Lackofopportu円ityforadvanceme円t
Rewardsnotrelatedtoperformance
U円reasonableworkloads
Bosswillnotletmedomyjob
Lackofchallengingwork
Rank
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.2
5.7
5.6
4.9
3.9
3.2
1.8
Source・TopTenLeadershipandManagementConcernsfrom
Richard1.Lester，Ph.D.，EducationalAdvisor，IraC.Eaker
田園
CollegeforPro免ssionalDevelopment，MaxwellAFB，AL，
January1995
Note:10=mostimportant:1=leastimportant
BestManagerBehaviors
Google'sproj巴ctOxygenfoundthefollowing8behaviorsmakemanage陪 mosteffec伽 e:
1.Beagoodcoach
Z Empoweryourteamanddon'tmicro-manage
3.Expressinterestinemployees'successandwell-bei円g
4Beproductiv巴 andresults-oriented
5Beagoodcommunicatorandlistentoyourteam
6Helpyouremployeeswithcareerdevelopment
7.Haveaclearvisionandstrat巴gyfortheteam
8.Havekeytechnicalskills，soyoucanhelpadvisetheteam
Source:AdamBryant，“Google'sQuesl10BuildaBetterBoss，"NewYorkηmes，March12，2011.
5

6 Chapter1・LeadershipandManagement
startswiththisessentialbuildingblock.PeterDrucker，oneofthemostinfluentialandrespected
observersofmanagement，confi日.msourview:
Thecenterofamodernsocietyisthemanagedinstitution.Themanagedinstitutionissociety'sway
ofgettingthingsdonethesedays.1naddition，managementisthespecifictoo1，thespeci日cfunctioll，
andthespecificinstrument，tomakeinstitutionscapab1eofproducingresults.Theinstitution，in
short，doesnotsimplyexistwithinandreacttosociety.Itexiststoproduceresultsonandinsociety.12
Chapter1・LeadershipandManagement 7
EmployeeAbility
THREECOMPETENCIESOFLEADERSHIP
bz-且，
q
百
B
E
H
ω
c
o
E
0
0
80to90percent
AreaAffected
byMotivation
Leadingorinfluencingrequiresthreecompete担cies:
1.Diagnosing-understandingthesituationyou釘 'etryingtoinfluence，
2.Adapting-alteringyourbehaviorandtheotherresourcesyouhaveavailabletomeetthe
contingenciesofthesituation，and
3.Commllnicating-interactingwithothersinawaythatpeoplecaneasilyunderstandandaccept.
Wewilldiscusseachofthesecompetenciesingreaterdetailinsubsequentchapters，butfor
nowhereisabriefsumm紅 Yofeachcompetency
.Diagnosingおacognitive-orcerebral-competency.Itisunderstandingwhatthesitua-
tionisnowandknowingwhatyoucanreasonablyexpecttoseeinthefuture.
• Ad，α!]Jtingお abehavioralcompetency.Itinvolveschangingbehaviors-yoursand
theirs-andredirectingotherresourcesinaway出athelpsclosethegapbetweenthecur-
rentsituationandwhatyouwanttoachieve.
• Commllnicatingおαprocesscompetency.Evenifyouareabletounderstandandadaptto
meetthesituation，youstillneedtoco江田mnicateeffectively.Ifyoucannotcommunicateina
waythatp巴oplecanunderstandandaccept，youwillbeunlikelytomeetyo町 goal.13
20to30percent
FIGURE唱-1 ThePotentiallnfluenceofMotivationonPerformance
motivatedemployeesworkatcloseto80to90percentoftheirability.15Figure1-1illustrates
thatifmotivationislow，employees'performancewillsufferasmuchasiftheirabilitywerelow.
Whiletoday'sworkenvironmentsundoubtedlyrequiremorefrompeoplewhowanttokeeptheir
jobs，thereisanareaofdiscretionaryperformanceaffectedbymotivationthatmanagerscanand
needtoinfluenceiftheywanttoachieveresultsandremaincompetitive.
Anotherfunctionofmanagementiscontrolling.Thisinvolvesfeedbackofresultsand
follow-uptocomparち accomplishmen包 withplansandtomakeappropriateadjustmentswhere
outcomeshavedeviatedfromexpectations.
Althoughthesemanagementfunctionsaredescribedseparatelyandasif血eyhaveaspe-
cificsequence，血ey紅 eactuallyinterrelated，asillustratedinFigure1-2.Atanyonetime，how-
ever，oneormorefunctionsmaybeofprimar'yimportance
KEYMANAGEMENTFUNCTIONS
Manyauthorsconsiderthefunctionsofplanning，organizing，motivating，andcontrollingtobecen-
甘alto叩 ydiscussionofmanagement.Thesefunctionsar'官 relevantregardlessofthetypeoforgani-
zationorlevelofmanagementbeingdiscussed.AsHaroldKoontzandCyril0'Donnellhavesaid:
Actingintheirmanagerialcapacity，presidents，departmentheads，foremen，supervisors，college
deans，bishops，andheadsofgovernmentalagenciesalldothesamething.Asmanagersthey町 eall
engaged，inpart，ingettingthingsdonewithandthroughpeople.Asamanager，eachmust，atone
timeoranother，C町 ryoutallthedutiescharacteristicofmanagers.14
Intoday'sworld，evenawell-runhouseholdusesthesemanagerialfunctions.
Planninginvolvessettinggoalsandobjectivesfortheorganization.Onceplanshavebeen
made，organizingbecomesmeaningful.Thisstepinvolvesbringingtogetherresources-people，
capital，andequipmentー inthemosteffectivewaytoaccomplishthegoals.Organizingisessen-
tiallyaboutintegratingofresources.
Alongwithplanningandorganizing，motivatingplaysalargepartindeterminingthelevel
ofperformanceofemployees，whichinturninfluenceshoweffectively血eorganizationalgoals
willbemet.Inhisresearchonmotivationmorethanacenturyago，psychologistWilliamJames
ofHarvardUniversityfoundthathourlyemployeescouldmaintaintheirjobs(i.e.，notbefired)
byworkingatapproximately20to30percentoftheirability.Hisstudyalsoshowedthathighly
SKILLSOFA MANAGER
Inaclassicana1ysis，RobertKatzwasamongthefirsttoconcludethateffectivemanagementde-
pendsmoreonusingskillsthatyoucanlearnanddevelopthanexhibitingpersonalitytraitsyouwere
bornwith.Heclassifiedtheseskillsinto白reemajorareas:technical，human，andconceptual.16
• Technicalskill.弘 These紅 etheskillsofdoingyourjob.Youmustbeabletousethespecific
knowledge，methods，techniques，andequipmentnecess紅 yinordertopetformkeytasks
andactivities.Forexample，inareseaτ'chlaboratory，youmightneedtohandlechemical
("1時九¥
Controllina.. l..Oraanizina
~. 1 )
、-Motivating~
FIGURE唱-2 InterrelatedManagementFunctions
一ι
一一一一

compoundssafely，whileinsalesyouneedtoknowanddescribeyourproduct'sbenefits.
Yourtechnicalski11scontributedirectlytocreatinganddeliveringtheproductsands町田
vicesyonrcompanydelivers.
• Humallskills.These紅 'etheski11sofrelatingtopeople.Youmustbeabletocommunicate
withyourcustomers，co11eagues，andemployees;manageconflict;demonstrateteamwork;
andlead0註lers.Unliketechnicalski11s，theseactivitiestakeplacebetweenpeople，which
requireslisteningtothem，understandingtheirperspectives，andmotivatingandinvolving
themindecisions.Forexample，amanagermayneedtoinspireateamtomeetastretch
tぽ get，gainconsensusonnextsteps，orbuildtrustwithanewemployee.
• COllceptualskills.Thesearetheski11sinvolvedinseeingthewhole.Conceptualski11sare
aboutnavigatingthewiderworldofideas，pattems，andtrends.Theyenableyoutounder-
standthedirectionandcomplexitiesoftheovera11organization，thecompetitiveorsocial
contextinwhichitoperates，andhowtheyfittogether.Forexample，asoftwareprogrammer
mightsee吐latanapplicationwillenableaproducttogotomarketfaster，amanagercould
recognizethedisconnectionbetweencustomerdemandandmanufacturingcapability，oran
executivecouldenvisionhownewgovemmentalregulationswillaffectpricing.Thissys-
temsknowledgepermitsanindividu叫 toactaccordingto血eobject討esofthetotalorgani-
zationrather出anonlyonthebasisofthegoalsandneedsofone'sownimmediategroupP
Theappropriatemixandtimespentusingtheseski11sv紅 yaspeopleadvancefromsuper-
visorytotopmanagementpositions，asillustratedinFigure1-3.
Technicalski11sbecomelessimportantasyonadvancefromlowertohigherlevelsin血e
organization，butmoreconceptualski11isnecess紅 y.Supervisorsatlowerlevelsneedconsider目
abletechnicalski11becausetheyareoftenrequiredtotrain飢 ddeveloptheiremployees.Atthe
otherextreme，executivesinabusinessorganizationdonotneedtoknowhowtoperforma11the
specifictasksattheoperationallevel.Theyshonld，however，beabletoseehowa11thesefunc-
tionsareinterrelatedinaccomplishingthegoalsofthetotalorganization.Theseconceptualski11s
紅 eparticulぽ lyimportantatthehigherorganizationallevelsbecauseexecutivesmustincreas-
inglyfocusonextemaltrendsandglobalcompetition.
Notice，though，thathumanski11s訂 ecrucialata111evels.Inrecentye紅 s，anumberofthese
ski11shavebecomep訂 tofwhatisnowwidelyknownas“emotionalintelligence"-awareness
Management
Level
Executive
Managerial
Supervisory
Nonsupervisory
SkillsNeeded
でι
<<吉国
ωづ
FIGURE1-3 ManagementSkillsNecessaryatVar旧 us
LevelsofanOrganization
ofyouremotionsandthoseofothers，andtheabilitytoreadandinfluenceotherpeopleinsocial
andworksettings.Inhispivotalworkonthetopic，DanielGolemanhasassertedthatemotional
intelligenceiscriticaltoleadershipeffectiveness，p紅 ticularlybuildingrelationships.18Itisso
critical，infact，thatc訂 eerderailment-beingfired，forcedout，orintentiona11ymarginalized-
couldoccurifyourelytooheavilyonasingleskillsetovertimeorlacktheinterpersonalski11s
necessarytoleadpeopleatdifferentlevels.
ORGANIZATIONSASSOCIALSYSTEMS
Althoughtheemphasisinthistextwillbeondevelopinghumanski11s，mostm釦 agersoperate
inorganizationsthatarecomplexsocialsystems.Thehuman/socialsubsystemisonlyoneof
severalsubsystems.Othersincludeanadministrative/structuralsubsystem，aninformationall
decision市 makingsubsystem，andaneconomic/technologicalsubsystem.19
Thefocusoftheadministrative/structuralsubsystemisonauthority，structure，andrespon-
sibilitywithintheorganization:“who，what，how，when，where，andwhy."Theinformationall
decision-makingsubsystememphasizeskeydecisionsandtheinformationneededtokeep也e
systemoperating.Themainconcernoftheeconomic/technologicalsubsystemistheworktobe
doneanditscost-effectivenesswithinthespecificgoalsoftheorganization.
Withinasystemsapproach，changesinonesubsystemaffectchangesinotherp紅 tsofthe
totalsystem.AsillustratedinFigure1-4， ifthetotalsystemishealthyandfunctioningwe11，each
Administrativel
Structural
Subsystem
Inforn、ationall
Decision-making
Subsystem
ExternalForces
Economicl
，TechnologicalSubsystem
Humanl
Social
Subsystem
FIGURE1-4 TheInterrelatedSubsystemsofanOrganization
9

ofitspartsorsubsystemsiseffectivelyinteractingwiththeothers.Therefore，anorganization
cannotoveremphasizetheimportanceofonesubsystemattheexpenseoftheothersoverasus-
tainedperiodoftimewithoutproblemsarising.Atthesametime，theinternalmanagementofthe
organizationcannotignoretheneedsandprωsuresfromtheexternalenvironment
INGREDIENTSFOREFFECTlVEHUMANSKILLS
Ifyouacceptthefactthathumanskilldevelopmentisimportant，youmayaskwhatkindof
expertisemanagersandleadersmusthav巴 inordertoinfluencethebehaviorofotherpeople.
Siri:J.plyput，theymustunderstandpastandcu町 entbehavior，thenuseittodirect，change，and
influencebehavior.
UnderstandingBehavior
First，togetthingsdonethroughotherpeople，managersneedtounderstandwhypeoplebehave
astheydo.Whatmotivatespeople?Whatproduc田 thepatternsofbehavior白at征 echaracteristic
ofanindividualorgroup?Motivationanditscauses紅 ethe紅 easonwhichmostoftheliterature
inthebehavioralsciencesfocuses.Inthisbook，wewillexploremotivationinconsiderabledepth，
p訂 ticularlyhowdi首erentlevelsofwillingness-whichincludesconfidence，commitment，and
motivation-a釘ectperformance
InfluencingBehavior
Thenextlevelof巴，xpe抗isethataneffectivemanagerorleaderneedsistheabilitytoinfluence
behavior.Notethatunderstandingisaperquisitebutpassiveskill，whereasinfluencingrequires
actioninvolvingotherpeople.
LearningtoApplyBehavioralScienceTheory
Learningtoapplybehavioralscienceth巴oryismuchlikelearninganything.Forexample，you
learntohitabaseballbysteppinguptotheplateandswinging-bydoingwhatyouareattempt-
ingtolearn.Thereisnowayyouaregoingtolearntohitabaseballbymerelyreadingbooks
(eventhosewrittenbypeopleconsideredtobeexpertsinthefield)orbywatchinggreathitters
(inpersonoronslow-motionfilm).Allthosemethodswilldoisgiveyouconceptualknowledge
ofhowtohitabaseball.
Psychologistsdefinelearningasachangeinbehavior-beingabletodosomethingdifferently
thanyoudidbefore.So，byreadingorwatchingothers，wecanperhapschangeourknowledgeor
ourattitude，butthatdoesnotnecessarilytranslateintoachangeinbehavior.Ifwewanttoactually
learnsomething，wehavetopracticenewbehaviorsandhopefullygaincompetenceindoingthem.
Anotherthingtokeepinmindintermsoflearningishowyoufeelaboutlearningsome-
thingnew.HowdidyoufeelthefirsttimeyouevertriedtohitabaseballワIfyouwerelikemost
people，youfeltanxious，nervous，anduncomfortable.Thisisthewaymostofusfeelanytime
weattempttodosomethingnew-somethingsignificantlydifferentfromthethingswe紅 eal-
readycomfortabledoing.
Itisthesamewithlearningtousebehavioralscience.Muchofwhatyoureadinthisbook
mayhaveanimpactonyourknowledgeandattitudes，butthisbookwillonlybecomerelevantif
you紅 ewillingtoriskthediscomfortof“tryingon"somenewbehaviors.Wehavetogothrough
aperiodof“unfreezing"ifwewanttole紅 n.
Chapter1・LeadershipandManagement 11
金 http:伽 ww.infed吋帥
Anothercautionistobepatientwithyourself-givethenewbehaviortimetowork.After
all，howlikelyisitthatyouwillgetabasehittheveryfirsttimeyoutrytohitabase討all?The
probabilityislow.Itisnodi妊'erentwhenyoutrytolearnandapplybehavioralsciencetheory.
Initiallyyouwillprobablybelesseffectivethanyouwouldhavebeenhadyouusedyourold
styleofbehavior.Peopl巴 whogothroughatrainingexperienceinwhichtheygainknowledge
andshiftattitudesoftenfindthatwhentheytryonanewbehaviorforthefirsttime，itmaynot
work.Asaresult，theybegintoquestionthevalueofthewholetrainingexperience，claiming
thatitdoesnotworkinthe“realworld."Itisthiskindofresponsethathashinderedmanagers
fromattemptingtomakebehavioralscience出eoryanintegralpぽ tofmanagingmoree妊ec“
tively.Allofushavetorecognizethat，justlikehittingabaseball，applyingbehavioralscience
theorytakespractice.Thefirstfewtimesup，theprobabilityofs百ccessisquitelow，butthe
morewepracticeandthemoreweattempttogetrelevantf，巴edback，出emoretheprobabilityof
successwillincrease.
Ourintentioninthisbookistohelpyouunderstandapplybehavioralscienceconcepts
thatc釦 haveanimpactonmakingyoumoreeffectiveasaleader-whetheryou紅 eanexecu-
tive，supervisor，teacher，orp紅 ent.Butremember血atappliedbehavioralscienceisnotanexact
sciencesuchasphysics，chemistry，andbiology.There訂 enouniversal佐uthswhenitcomesto
leadershipandmanagement.People紅 edifficulttopredict.Butbehavioralsciencescangiveyou
waystoincreaseyourbehavioralbattingaverage.
一Notes
1.MarcusBuckingham，FirstBreakAlltheRules:
Whatthe World's GreatestManagers Do
Differently(NewYork:Simon&Shuster，1999)，
34ー36.
2.“WorldlnternetUsageStatisticsNewsand
WorldPopulationStats，"lnternetWorldStats-
UsageandPopulationStatistics.AccessedJune
1，2011，www.internetworldstats.comJstats.htm
3. MichaelHammer，“IsWorkBadforYouワ"
AtlanticMonthly，August1999，87-93
4. AndrewS.Grove，“AHighτechCEOUpdates
HisViewsonManagingandCareers，"Fortune，
September18，1995
5.MichaelPorter，“NewStrategiesforCompetitive
Advantage，"PlanningReview，May/June1990，14.
6.EdLawlerIII，The UltimateAdvantage:
CreatingtheHighlnvolvementOrganization
(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass，1992)，3-24.
7.JoelE.Ross，TotalQualityManagement，3rded
(DelrayBeach，FL:St.LuciePress，1999)，335
8. SharonS.McGowan，“EngagedEmployees:
Going theExtraMile，"Hudson Critical
Thinking:ThoughtLeadershipSeries，3
9.WarrenBennis，quotedinCherieCarter-Scott，
“TheDifferencesbetweenLeadershipand
Management，"Manage，November1994，12.
AIsoseeTomPayner，“GoForthandManage
Wisely，"SupervisionMagazine，August1994，
andBernardM.BassandRalphM.Stogdill，
BassandStogdill'sHandbook01Leadership
(NewYork:TheFreePress，1990)
10. JohnKotter，“WhatLeadersReallyDo，"
HarvardBusinessReview，December2001，3
11. AdarnBryant，“Google'sQuesttoBuildaBetter
Boss，"New泌氏 Times，March12，2011.
12. Peter F. Drucker，“Management'sNew
Paradigms，"Forbes，October5，1998，176.
13.HaroldKoontza旧dCyrilO'Donnell，Principles
01Management，5thed.(NewYork:McGraw-
Hill，1972)，20.

14.WilliamJames，ThePI'U町 iplesofPsychology，1
(London:MacmillanandCo.，Ltd.，1890)
15.PaulHersey，SituationalSelling(Escondido，
CA:CenterforLeadershipStudies，1985)，8.
16. Thesedescriptionswereadaptedfromaclassi
ficationdevelopedbyRobertL.Katz，“Skillsof
anEffectiveAdministrator，"Hal'val'dBusiness
Review，January-February1955，33-42.Seealso
RobertS.Dreyer，“DoGoodBossesMakeLousy
Leaders?"Supervision，March1995，19-20
17.TimO.PetersonandDavidD.VanFleet，“The
OngoingLegacyofR.L.Katz:AnUpdated
Typo10gyofManagementSkills，"Management
Decision42，no.10(2004):1297-1308.
18. DanielGoleman，WorkingwithEmotional
Intelligence (NewYork: Bantam Books，
1998)，198-205.Seea1soDanie1Goleman，
RichardBoyatzis，andAnnieMcKee，“Primal
Leadership: TheHiddenDriverofGreat
Performance." HarvardBusinessReview，
December2001，42-51，andJenniferM
George，“EmotionsandLeadership:TheRoleof
EmotionalIntelligence，"HwnanResources53
(2000):1031.
19. Paul Hersey andDouglas Scott identify
thesecomponentsofaninternalsocialsys】
temm “ASystemsApproachtoEducational
Organizations:DoWeManageorAdminister?"
OCLEA(apublicationoftheOntarioCouncil
forLeadershipinEducationalAdministration，
Toronto，Canada)，September1974，3-5.Much
ofthematerialforthatarticlewasadaptedfrom
lecturesgivenbyBorisYavitz，Dean，Schoolof
BusinessAdministration，ColumbiaUnive四 ity
ζ トiム PτER
MotivationandBehavior
O……1…y…e出b… 伽吋g伊郎 I ω批批ω叩 e引刊吋1凶s
moωti町可v岨a瓜ted釘."Manage1'sfacingtoday'sglobalcompetitionarehighlypressu1'edtop1'o-
duce1'esults，andquickly.Itisnotenoughtojustsetambitiousgoalsandobjectives
andassumepeoplewillwanttoachievethem.百lIsiswhe1'eleade1'shipcomesin.Weneedto
influencepeopletop1'oducebyunde1'standingwhatmakesthemtick.Psychologistsandphiloso-
phe1's，b1'oke1'sandbusinessgumsalikehavetriedtounde1'standhowmotivationaffectsbehavio1'.
Resea.rche1'shaveconductedhundredsofstudiesino1'de1'todefineandmeasuremotivationalfac-
to1's.0¥ぽ11'goali鼠stωO直1's抗thelpyouunde釘1's針tandsωomeoぱfthemostsi喝gnificantc∞O自ceptsandt仕h碍eo位nたes
aboutthe
iおspa紅rtofdevelopingtheleade1'slぬhi甲pcompetencyofdiagnosi泊ngi泊nt甘rod¥自1cedinChapte1'1.Youcan
thenadaptyourleade1'shipstyletoharnesseachpe1'son'sindividualmotivationandd1'amatically
imp1'ovethelikelihoodof1'eachingo1'ganizationalgoals目
THEORIESOFMOTIVATION
MotivesDefined
Ou1'behavio1'isbasicallygoal-01'iented;thatis，motivatedbyadesi1'etoattainsomespecific
1'esult.Thebasicunitofbehavio1'isanactiνiか 1nfact，allbehavio1'isaseriesofactivities
Ashumanbeings，we訂 ealwaysdoingsomething:walking，talking，eating，sleeping，wo1'king，
thinking.1nmanyinstances，wearedoingmorethanoneactivityatatime，suchastalkingwith
someoneaswewalk01'drivetowo1'k.Atanygivenmoment，wemaydecidetochangef1'omone
activitytoanothe1'.Thisaspectofhumannatureraisessomeimportantquestions.Whydopeople
engageinoneactivityandnotanothe1'?WhydotheychangeactivitiesつHowcanweasmanage1's
unde1'stand，p1'edict，andinfluenceape1'sontoengageinahigh-valueactivity1'athe1'thanalowe1'
prio1'ityoneワTop1'edictbehavio1'， manage1'smustknowwhichindividualmotives01'needshave
出epotentialtoevokeap紅白cula1'actionataparticulartime
13

14
一一一一一
Chapter2・MotivationandBehavior
Motives紅 e出e“whys"ofbehavior.They紅 ouseourattention，determinethegeneraldi-
rectionofourbehavior，andthensustainordiminishourinterestincontinuinganactivity.In
essence，motivesorfeltneedsarethemainspringsofactioninhumanbehavior.Inourdiscus-
sions，weshallus巴 thesetwoterms-motivesandneeds~白interchangeably. In也iscontext，the
termneednotbeassociatedwithurg巴ncyoranypressingdesireforsomething.Itsimplymeans
somethingwithinthatpromptsapersontoaction.
SourcesofMotivation:Inside.Outside.orUnknown?
FREUDANDTHESUBCONSCIOUS Allofusatonetimeoranothermayhavewondered，“Why
did1dothat?"SigmundFreudwasoneofthefirsttorecognizethatthereasonsforouractions
紅 enotalwaysapp紅 enttotheconsciousmind.Hefurtherdescribedspecificdrivesthatmotivate
distinctiveindividualbehavioralpatterns(“personality")thataretoaconsiderabledegreesub-
consciousand， therefore，noteasilyaccessibleforexaminationandevaluation.
Freudcontendedthatananalogycanbedrawnbetweenthemotivationofmostpeopleand
血estructureofaniceberg.InFreud'sview，asignificantsegmentofhumanmotivationappears
belowthesurfaceoftheconsciousmind，asindicatedinFigure2-1.Therefore，oneusuallyis
awareofonlyasmallportionofone'sownmotivation.1
Someindividualsmaymakelittleorno
efforttogainself-insight.Eventhosewhoseekprofessionalhelp-forexample，psycho吐lerapy-
mayonlyendupgainingaslightunderstandingofwhattrulymotivates出eirownbehavior
τ'wofrequentpiecesofadviceforbeingagoodleaderare:Goodleadersareconsis旬以!andGoodleaders
areflexible!Howwouldtheseconcep岱 integrateintotheno世onofbeingSi回 ational?
"Althoughpeopleobjectwhenascientificanaゆeslraceslheirbehavior10exlernalcondilionsandlhus
depriveslhemofcredilandlhechance10beadmired，lheyseldomobjeclwhenlhesameana旬sesabsolves
lhemofblame，"
-B，F.Skinner
SurfaceNeeds
FIGURE2回 1 Freud'sIcebergAnalogy
IntrinsicversusExtrinsicMotivation
Intrinsicmotivationcomesfromwithinthep巴rson.Examplesincludemeaningfulwork，increas悶
ingresponsibility，professionalgrowth，orautonomy.Bycontrast，extrinsicmotivationcomes
fromoutsidetheperson，suchasmoney，theworkenvironment，orqualityofmanagement.In
DavidMcLelland'senduringinvestigationsofmotivation，heidentifiedthreeprimarymotiva-
tors:theneedforachievement，theneedforpower，andtheneedfora鉦iliation.Peoplewhose
intrinsicneedforachievementisstrongcanactuallyincreasetheirproductivityandcapacityif
thatneedismet，forexample，throughstr官tchgoalsandnewopportunities.2Wewilllookatthe
significanceofMcLelland'sworklaterinthischapterandthenextchapter
Organizationshavelongponderedwhetherthe“carrot"(rew紅 ds)orthe“stick"(punish-
ment)isthemostpowerfulwaytomotivateemployees.Thisdilemmaisbasedonthebeliefthat
ex住'Inslcmotivatorsmattermost.However，DanielPink，inhisrecentinvestigationofmotiva-
tionintheworkplace，assertsthatbusinessesrelyonshort-termincentivesandcompensation
practicesthatunderestimatewhatmanybehavioralscientistshaveconcludedfordecades-that
intrinsicmotivesarestrongerandlongerlastingthanextrinsicones.3
ItDependsontheSituation
Inarecentstudy，employeesexpressedtheneedforachievementinaway血atperhapsreflects
thepressuredpacewithintoday'sworkenvironments.Inananalysisofmorethan12，000diary
entriesmadebyknowledgeworkersoverthreeye訂 s，neitherrecognitionnorincentivestopped
thelistofmotivationalfactors.Instead，makingprogressintheirwork，anintrinsicmotivator，
provedtobenumberone.Giventhatknowledgeworkers紅 enavigatingbetweenapplications
ande-mailsontheircomputers37timesperhour，makingprogressmayindeedseemmoreand
moreelusive.However，thesatisfactionofmakingprogresswasaffectedbythemanagerrela-
tionship.Recognitionwithoutrealprogresswasexperiencedasshallowandcouldevenprompt
cynicism.Ontheotherhand，progresswithoutpraisefromthemanagerwasalsodemotivating.
Thecombinationoffeelingthattheyhadaccomplishedworkandgenuineappreciationfrom
managersprovidedthegrea包stmotivationforemployees4
Thisexampledemonstratesthecomplexinteractionbetweenintrinsicandextrinsicmo-
tivators目 ItalsovalidateswhatpsychologistKurtLewindescribedlongagoasafundamental
equationofhumanbehaviorコ:
B=f(P<0:>S)
whereBrepresentsindividualbehavior，frepresents“afunctionof'or“iscausedby，"Pisthe
person，andSisthesituation.Lewin'sequationimpliesthatBisafi.mctionofsom巴thingboth
insidethePersonandoutsidethePersonintheSituation.6Forinstruice，thewayindividualsfeel
aboutthingsoccursinsideapersoninthattheirmotivesandneeds紅 ereflectedintheirattitudes，
whereas_itisanindividual'spersonalitythatcanbeseenoutsidethatpersonbyvirtueoftheir
actions.'NotethatPandS訂 enotindependent，butrather紅 einterdependent.Persons紅 einflu-
encedbytheSituationsinwhichtheyfindthemselves，andSituationsareinfluencedbyPersons目
Theseareimportantideasinthecontextof“situational，"or“contingency，"leadership，inwhich
theappropriateleaderbehaviorisdeterminedbythesituation.Thissignificantpointliesatthe
heartofourSituationalLeadership岳 approach
HowMotiveStrengthChanges
Wehavesaidthatmotives，orneeds，訂ethereasons“why"underlyingourobservablebehav-
ior.Allofushavehundredsofneeds，manyofthemcompetingforaresponse:Thisbegsthe
15

17Chapter2・MotivationandBehavior
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日A
FIGURE2-3 CopingBehaviorwhenBlockageOccursin
AttemptingtoAccomplishaParticularGoal
COGNITIVEDISSONANCE Ifcontinuallyunsuccessfulrationalcopingbehaviordoesnotsat-
isfytbeneed，itmayleadtoformsofirrationalcopingbehavior.LeonFestingeranalyzedthis
phenomenon.9Histbeoryofcognitivedissonancedealsprim紅 ilywiththerelationshipsthat
existbetweenperceptionspeoplehaveaboutthemselvesandtbeirenvironment.Whenindividual
perceptionshavenothingtodowitheachother，tbey紅 econsideredirrelevanttoeachotber.If
onesupportstheother，theyaresaidtobeinaconsonantrelationship目 Dissonanceiscreated
whentwoperceptionsthat紅 erelevanttoeachotherareinconflict.Thissituationcreatesten-
sion，whichispsychologicallyuncomfortableandcausestheindividualtotrytomodifyoneof
tbeincompatibleperceptionssoastoreducethetensionordissonance.Inasense，thatperson
engagesincopingbehaviortoregainaconditionofconsonanceorequilibrium.Forexample，
Festinger'sre田町'Chshowed“heavysmokers紅 elesslikelytobelievethatthereisar巴lationship
betweensmokingandlungcancerthannonsmokers.，，10Inotherwords，iftheycannotgiveup
smoking，出eycanatleastremainskepticalaboutresearchせ1atrepOltsh且rmfuleffects.Thesame
phenomenonisatworkwhenaperson'ssuccessivepromotionattemptsresultinabelieftbattbe
organizationselectspeopleptimarilybasedonpoliticsratberthanjobqualifications.
question:WhichofthesecompetingmotiveswillyouattempttosatisfyワTheanswer:Theneed
withthegreateststrengthataparticularmomentleadstoactivity.AsillustratedinFigure2-2，
motiveBhastbehighestmotives位eng出， andtbereforeitistheneedthatdeterminesbehavior.A
motivetendstodecreaseinstrengthifitiseithersatisfiedorblockedfromsatisfaction.Satisfied
orblockedneedsnormallydonotmotivateindividualstofurtherimmediateaction.
NEEDSATISFACTION Whenaneedissatisfied，accordingtoAbrallamMaslow，itisnolonger
amotivatorofbehavior.8High皿 strengthneedsareconsidered“satisfied"whenacompetingneed
becomesmorepotent.Forinstance，ifahigh-s仕engthneedisthirst，dtinkingtendstolowerthe
strengthoftbisneed，andotherneedsmaynowbecomemorepotent.Orintheworkplace，ifan
employeehasastrongneedforrecognition，praisinghisorherresultspubliclyinateammeeting
willsatisfythatneedforthetimebeing
"Foreverypersonwho'samanagerandwant10knowhow10managepeople，lhereare10peoplewhoare
beingmanagedandwouldlike10figureouthow10makeilslop."
-ScottAdams，creatoroflheDilbertcartoon
FRUSTRATION Peopleexperiencetheblockingofgoalattainmentasfrustration.Itisanindi-
vidualandinternalcondition，ratbertbanaresultof出eexternalenvironment.Apersonmaybe
frustratedbyanimaginarybarrier-theimpactoforganizationalpolitics-yetf:必1tobefrus-
回 tedbyarealbartier-limitedpromotionalopportunities-dutinganeconomicdownturn
BlOCKEDNEEDSATISFACTION Thesatisfactionofaneedmaybeblocked.Ifso，areduction
inneedstreng吐1sometimesfollows，butitdoesnotalwaysoccurinitially.Insもead，theremaybea
tendencyfortbepersontoengageincopingbehavior.Thisisanattempttoovercometheobstacle
bytrial-and-errorproblemsolving.Thepersonmay佐yavarietyofbehaviorstofindonethatwill
accomplishthegoalorwillreducethetensioncreatedbyblockage，asillustratedinFigure2-3.
Initially，thiscopingbehaviormaybequiterational.Letusagainconsideranemployee
witbahighneedforrecognition，seeninthebehavioralformofseekingapromotion.Hemay
beginbytellinghismanagertbatheisinterestedinapromotionandwhyhebelievesheisquali目
白edforanext-levelpositionandaninterviewforanopening.Ifthatattemptdoesnotwork，he
mayundertakeadditional，relevantskillstrainingfortbeposition.Stilltbw副 ed，hemayeven
beginacampaignofnetworkingandhigh-visibilitystretchassignments.Individualsoftencon-
tinueoneattemptafteranotheruntilsomedegreeofperceivedsuccessandgoalattainmentis
finallyachieved
Ifpeoplecontinuetostriveforsomethingwithoutsuccess，theymaysubstitutegoalsthat
cansatisfytheneed.Forexample，ifMaryhasastrongdesiretobeaCPAbutcontinuallyre-
ceivesaveragegradesinaccounting，shemaybewillingeventuallytosettleforanotbertypeof
businessc紅 eer.

18 Chapter2・MotivationandBehavior
Asp1'eviouslydiscussed，1'ationalcopingbehavio1'canleadtoalternativegoalsetting01'a
dec1'easein白es仕engthofapa1'ticula1'ne巴d.Irrational01'defensivebehavior，ontheothe1'hand，
mayoccu1'inseve1'a1fo1'mswhenblockagetogoa1accomplishmentcontinuesandfrust1'ation
deve1ops.F1'ust1'atedbehavio1's-suchasagg1'ession，1'ationalization，1'eg1'ession，fixation，and
1'esignation-maydevelopifp1'essurescontinue01'inc1'ease.
叩rU5tration.althoughquitepainfulattime5，i5averyp05itiveande55entialpa同 ofsuccess.tI
-BoBennett
Strongfrustrationcan1eadtoagg1'ession，seenindestructivebehavio1'ssuchashostility
andstrikingout.F1'eudwasoneofthefi1'st1'esearche1'stodemonstratethathostility01'1'agecan
beexhibitedbyanindividua1inavarietyofways.l1Whenpossib1e，individua1swilldi1'ecttheir
hostilityagainstthe0句ect01'thepe1'sonthattheyfeelisthecauseoffrustration.Fo1'examp1e，
anang1'yemployeemayt1'Ytohurtherbossth1'oughgossipandothe1'maliciousbehavio1'.Often，
however，peoplecannotattackthecaus巴 ofthei1'frustrationdi1'ect1y，sotheymayengagein-
steadinpassiveagg1'essivebehavio1'.Oneexamplewou1dbes田 kingascapegoatasat紅 getfo1'
thei1'hosti1ity;scapegoatscou1dbeothe1'colleagues，fami1ymembe1's，01'eveninnocentpets.As
No1'manR.F.Maie1'said，agg1'essionisonlyonewayinwhichfrustrationcanbeshown.12
"Agg陀 55旧nunopp05edbecome5acontagiou5di5ea5e."
-JimmyCa吋er
"Thetendencytoagg陀 55旧ni5aninnate.independent，in5tinctualdi5p05ition01man
itcon5titute5thepowerfulob5tacletoculture."
-5i日mundFreud
"Thelate01ourtime5i5characterizedbyrationalizationandintellectualizationand.aboveall，
bythedi5enchantment01theworld."
-MaxWeber
Rationa1ization，whichsimplymeansmakingexcuses，canbeanothe1'exp1'essionoff1'us-
t1'ation.Forexamp1e，anindividua1mightb1amesomeoneelseforaninabilitytoaccomplisha
givengoa1:‘'Itwasmyboss'sfaultthat1didn'tgeta1'aise."01'， thepe1'sonmaydowng1'adethe
desirabilityofthatparticu1argoa1:“1didn'twanttodo血atanyway."
Regressionisessentiallynotactingone'sage.Roge1'G.Ba1'ke1'， TamaraDembo，andKu1't
Lewinshowedexperimentallythatwhenchildren紅 eexposedtomi1dfrust1'ation，thei1'p1aymay
1'esemb1ethatofachildtwo01'mo1'eyearsyounge1'.
13Maie1'foundthesamebehavio1'alpattern
inwo1'kingadu1ts，notingthat“frust1'atedpeop1etendtogiveupconstructiveattemptsatsolving
th巴i1'p1'oblemsand1'eg1'esstom01'ep1'imitiveandchildishbehavio1'田川4Bothape1'sonwhocannot
st紅 tthecarandp1'oceedstokickitandthemanage1'whoth1'owsatempe1'tantrumwhenannoyed
紅 'edemonstrating1'eg1'essivebehavior.
Chapte1'2・MotivationandBehavior
つ1youactlikeana55.don'tgetin5ultedilpeoplerideyou."
-Yiddi5hproverb
Fixationoccu1'swhenape1'soncontinuestoexhibitthesamebehavio1'patternove1'and
ove1'again，eventhoughexpe1'iencehasshownthatitcanaccomplishnothing.Unfo1'tunate1y，
“frust1'ationcan仕e巴zeoldandhabitua11'esponsesandp1'eventtheuseofnewandmo1'eeffectua1
ones.，，15Maie1'showedthatalthoughhabUsa1'eno1'miUyb1'okenwhentheybringnosatisfac-
tion01'1eadtopunishment，afixationactuallybecomess仕onge1'underthoseci1'cumstances.16
Infact，he訂 guedthatitispossib1etochangeahabitintoafixationbytoomuchpunishment
Thisphenomenonisseeninchild1'enwhoblind1ycontinuetobehaveinanobjectionab1eman-
nerafte1'beingsevere1ypunished.Maierconcludedthatpunishmentcouldhavetwoeffectson
behavio1':Itmayeithe1'eliminatetheundesirab1ebehavior01'leadtofixationandothe1'symptoms
offrustrationaswell.Itfollowsthatpunishm巴ntmaybeadangerousmanagementtoo1，sinceits
effects訂 edifficulttop1'edict.Acco1'dingtoJamesA.C.B1'own，commonsymptomsoffixation
ino1'ganizationa1settings紅 e“theinabilitytoacceptchange，theb1indandstubbornrefusaltoac田
ceptnewfactswhenexpe1'iencehasshowntheoldonestobeuntenable，andthetypeofbehavior
exemplifiedbythemanag~1' whocontinuestoinc1'easepenalties"evenwhendoingsoisonly
makingconditionswo1'se.17
"Welir5tmakeourhabit5.andthenourhabi也 makeUS."
-JohnDryden
"Habi也 arelormedbytherepeti甘on01pa仕icularact5.Theyare5trengthenedbyanincrea5ein
thenumber01repeatedact5."
Mo吋imerJ.Adler
Resignation01'apathyoccu1'safte1'pro1ongedfrustration，whenpeop1elosehopeofaccom-
p1ishingthei1'goalinap紅 ticu1紅 situation，andsowithd1'awf1'om1'ealityandthesou1'ceoftheir
frustration.Weseethisbehavio1'inp巴op1eperfo1'mingbo1'ing，1'outinejobs，wherethey0食en
resignthemselvestothefactthatthe1'eislittlehopefo1'imp1'ovementwithinthei1'envi1'onments.
"M05tmenleadlive501quietde5perationandgotothegravewiththe50ng5制Iinthem
Whati5calledre5ignationi5conlirmedde5peration."
-HenryDavidThoreau
Asamanage1'developingyou1'diagnosticskills，itisimportantto1'emembe1'thatagg1'es-
sion，1'ationalization，1'eg1'ession，fixation，andresignationareallsymptomsoffrust1'ationand
maybeindicationsthatproblemsexist.
INCREASINGMOTlVESTRENGTH Behavio1'maychangeifanexistingn句 dinc1'easestothe
pointthatitisnowthehighests位巴ng也 motive.Thes町'engthofsomeneedstendstoappearina
cyclica1pa抗ern.Fo1'examp1e，theneedfo1'foodtendsto1'ecu1'reg紅 d1essofhowwellithasbeen
p1'eviouslysatisfied.Weallgethungryagain.Youcaninc1'ease01'delaythespeedofthiscyclica1
19

嘗摩髭謹窒一山匂白ー~~~-ー』ー時一一
20
^_l~ …
patternbyaffectingtheenvironment.Forexample，yourneedforfoodmaynotbehigh-strength
unlesstheimmediateenvironmentischangedsothatyouseeandsmellaplateoftemptingfood.
Eventhen，youmaybejustfinewithhavingfruitfordessertuntilyousmellthecookiesbak
ing.Thepointis出atpeoplemayhaveavarietyofneedsatanygiventime.Youmaybehung1'Y，
thirsty，andti1'ed.Youmaywanttobepぽ tofateam，e紅 nthehighestindividualbonusfo1'sal巴s，
andbe1'eadyfo1'amo1'ep1'estigiousjob.Ineithe1'case，theneedwiththehighests位eng出 will
dete1'minewhatyoudo.18
Goals
"Whatwecallhappinessinthestrictestsensecomesfromthe(preferablysudden)satisfaction
ofneedswhichhavebeendamneduptoahighde日間e."
-SigmundFreud
"Amanissuccessfulifhegetsupinthemorning，getstobedatnight，andinbetween
hedoeswhathewantstodo!"
BobDylan
Goals紅 eoutsideanindividual;they紅 'esometimes1'efe1'τ'edtoas“hopedfo1'''1'ewardstoward
whichmotivesぽ edi1'ected.Thesegoals訂 eoftencalledincentivesbypsychologists.However，
weprefernottousethattermbecausemanypeopleinou1'societytendtoequateincentiveswith
tangiblefinancialrewards，suchasincreasedpay.There紅 e，however，manyintangiblerewards，
suchaspraiseωpower，that紅 ejustasimportantandeffi巴ctiveforuseasincentiveswhenen-
deavoringtoevokeap紅 ticul訂 behavior.Manage1'swho紅 esuccessfulinmotivatingemploy-
ees紅 'eoftenproviding釦 environmentinwhichappropriategoals(incentives)紅 eavailableto
satisfyneeds.
"Confusionofgoalsandperfectionofmeansseems，inmyopin旧 n，tocharacterizeourage."
-刈be代 Einstein
"Establishinggoalsisallrightifyoudon'tletthemdepriveyouofinterestingdetours."
ー-DougLarson
GOALS
Activitiesresultingf1'omhigh-strengthneedscangenerallybec1assifiedintotwocategories-
goal司 directedαctかtかandgoalαctiviり人 Theseconceptsareimportantinunderstandinghuman
behaviorbecausetheyinfluencethes甘eng也 ofourneedsdi百'erent1y.
Goal-directedactivity，inessence，ismotivatedbehaviorthatleadstoreachingagoal，while
goalactivityissatisfyingthegoalitself.Ifyours位ongestneedatagivenmomentishunger，food
isthegoal，yourgoal-directedactivitiesmightinc1udelookingforaplacetoeatorcooking，and
eatingisthegoalactivity
Animportantdistinctionbetweenthesetwoc1assesofactivitiesistheireffectonthe
s回 ug也 oftheneed.Ingoal-directedactivity，thestrengthoftheneedtendstoincreaseasyou
engageintheactivityuntilthegoalisreachedorfrust1'ationsetsin.Asdiscussedearlier，frustra-
tiondevelopswhenyou訂 econtinuallyblockedfromreachingagoal.Ifthefrustrationbecomes
intenseenough，thest1'eng吐1oftheneedmaydec1'easeuntilitisnolongerpotentenoughtoa妊ect
you1'behavior-yougiveup.
"Rowingharderdoesnothelpiftheboatisheadedinthewrongdirection."
-KenichiOhmae
Conve1'sely，oncegoalactivityb巴gins，thest1'engthoftheneedtendstodec1'easeasyou
engageinit.For巴xample，asyoueatmo1'eandmo1'e，thestrengthofthehunge1'needdec1inesat
thatp訂 ticul訂 time.Atthepointwhenanothe1'needbecomesmo1'epotentthanthep1'e喧entneed，
behaviorchanges.
Asanexample，thinkofaday-longst1'ategymeetingwithacate1'edlunch.Astheday
begins，eve1'yoneisfocusedontheagendaandenthusiasticallydiscussestopics.Asthec10ck
app1'oacheslunchtime，andthewaitsta百beginssettingupfoodinthebackofthe1'oom(goal
directedactivity)，thearomasofthefoodsta1'ttodistracteve1'yone.Theneedfo1'foodsoonin-
c1'easestothepointwhe1'eittakesaconsciouse首o1'tnotonlytostayontaskbutalsotowaituntil
thelunchiscompletelysetupbeforedevou1'ingwhatisoffered.Aseveryonebeginstoeat(goal
activity)，howeve1'， thest1'engthofthisneedforfooddiminishestothepointwhereothe1'needs
becomemo1'eimpo1'tant.Pa1'ticipantsarethenabletofocustheirene1'giesontheissuesp1'esented
atthemeeting，andthei1'activitychangesaccordingly.Inessence，thedesiretogetbacktothe
agendaandfinishdiscussions-theneedfo1'achievement一hasbecomemo1'epotentthanthe
previousneedfo1'food.Afte1'anhou1'01'so，howeve1'， itislikelythatanothe1'needmayinc1'ease
instrengthandbecomemorepotentthanthemeetingagenda.Pe1'hapsitisthephysicalneedfor
anap，ashortwalkfo1'freshai1'， oracookie.Notethatbeingfullf1'omlunchisa町anslto1'ystate
becauseitislikelythattheneedtohavesomethingtosnackonwillbecomest1'onge1'ove1'time.
Soneedsぽ eneve1'completelysatiated;wesimplysatisfythemfo1'alimitedpe1'iodoftime.
FROMMOTIVESTOGOALS
The1'elationshipbetweenmotives，goals，andbehavio1'canbeshowninasimplifiedfashion，as
illust1'atedinFigu1'e2-4.Thestrongestmotiveproducesbehavio1'thatiseitbe1'goal-directedor
goalactivity.Becausenotallgoalsa1'eattainable，individualsdonotalways1'eachgoalactivity，
竺~~---工-
FIGURE2-4 RelationshipamongMotives，Goals，andActivities
21

Behavior
FIGURE2-5 UseofaTangibleGoal
Goal-Directed
Activity
(preparingfood)
lGoalAcuvityl
i(eatingfood)￨
1'ega1'dlessofthest1'engthofthemotive.Thus，goalactivityisindicatedbyadashedline.Anex-
ampleoftheuseofatangiblegoaltoinfluencebehavio1'isillustratedinFigur巴 2-5.
Foodisabroadgoal，釦d出etypeoffoodthatwillsatisfy吐1ehungermo包vewillv紅 y企omsl旬 a-
tiontosi加 ationτbes回nels住民 fo1'anybroadgoal.Ifyouarest紅 ving，youmayeatany出ing;atother
剖mes，youmayrealignyourgoalsinsuchaway白atonlyasteakwillsatisかyou1'hunger.Thesame
holdstruefo1'intangiblegoals，suchastheneedfor1芭cognition.Ifitiss甘ongenough，p1'aisefroma
manage1'maybeaneffectiveincentiveininfluencingpeopletocontinuetodogoodwo1'k.Inothercir-
curns匂nces，onlyapromotionwilldo.Rememberthat，asamanageιifyouwanttoinfluenceanothe1'
person'sbehavio1'， youmust畳1'stunderstandwhatmotivesorneedsaremostinlpOltanttothatpersonat
血attme.Agoal，tobeetrmdvnmustbealignedwiththehighest-SEeIlgthaeedofthepersoninvolved
1sitbette1'toengageingoal-directedactivityoringoalactivityワActually，stayingateither
levelexclusivelycreatesproblems-Ifonestaysatgoal-dlrededactIV1tytoolong，f111StratiOIIWIll
occurtotheextentthatthepe1'sonmaygiveupormaydisplayotherpatternsofirrationalbehav-
ior.Ontheothe1'hand，ifoneengagesexclusivelyingoalactivityandthegoalisnotcha!lenging，
alackoflaterestandapathywilldevelop，WIthmotivationagaIntendingtodecreaseAmore
satisfyingandeff，巴ctivepatternmightbeacontinuouscyclingbetweengoal-di1'ectedactivityand
goa!activity，asshowninFigu1'e2-6.
Forinstance，agoalthatisapp1'op1'iateforasix-ye釘ーoldmaynotbeameaningfulgoal
加悦 samech出 atseven・Oncethechildbecomesproficientinattainingap帥 cul紅 goal，it
becomesapp1'opriatefo1'theparenttop1'ovideanopportunityfo1'thechildtoidentifyandsetnew
goals.1nthes紅 nelight，whatisanappropriategoalfo1'anewemployeemaynotbemeaningful
foranemployeewhohasbeenwithano1'ganizationfo1'ayea1'01'10nge1'.
Thiscyclingp1'ocessbetweengoal-di1'ectedactivityandgoalactivityisacontinuouscha:ト
lengefor吐1eparentormanager.Asemployeesinc1'easeinthei1'abilitytoaccomplishgoals，itis
Goal-Directed
Activity
GoalActivity
FIGURE2-6 仁yciingFunctionof
Goal-DirectedActivityandGoal
Activity
app1'opriatethatthemanager1'e-eva!uatethemandprovideanenvironment出ata!lowsforcon-
tinualrea!ignmentofgoalswiththeemployee'scurrenthighest-strengthneedsthroughappropri-
ateg1'owthanddevelopmentoppo1'tunities.Thelearninganddevelopingp1'ocessshouldnotbe
confinedtoonlyon巴stageofape1'son'slife.1nthisp1'ocess，the1'oleofmanagersisnotalways
thatofsettinggoa!sfo1'thei1'wo1'ke1's.1nstead，amanager'seffectivenessmaybeinc1'easedby
providinganenvi1'onmentinwhichthei1'di1'ectreportscanpぽ ticipateinsettingtheirowngoals.
Whenpeople訂 einvolvedinthei1'owngoalsetting，itnotonlyenhancesemployeeperformance
andproductivity，butalsoincreasesthei1'commitment.Why?Becausetheywilltendtoengagein
muchmo1'egoal-di1'ectedactivitybeforetheybecome仕ustratedandgiveup.Ontheothe1'hand，
iftheirm釦 agersetsthegoa!sforthem，they紅 'elikelytogiveupmo1'eeasilybecause也eype1'-
ceivethegoalstobethei1'manage1"sandnotthei1'own.
Goal5:HowHighIsHighEnough?
Goalsshouldbesethighenoughsothatape1'sonhastostretchto1'eachthem，butlowenoughso
thattheycanbeattained.AsJ.Sterling-Livingstonsoaptlystated:
Subordinateswi1lnotbemotivatedtoreachhighlevelsofproductivityunlesstheyconsiderthe
boss'shighexpectationsrealisticandachievable.Ifthey町 eencouragedtos甘iveforunattainable
goals，theyeventuallygiveup廿yingandsettleforresultsthat町 elowerthantheyarecapableof
achieving.Theexperienceofalargeelectricalmanufacturingcompanydemonstratesthis;thecom-
paIIydiscoveredthatproductionactuallydeclinedifproductionquotasweresettoohigh，because
出eworkerssimplystoppedtryingtomeetthem.Inotherwords，thepracticeof“danglingthec町四t
justbeyondthedonkey'sreach，"endorsedbymanymanagers，isnotagoodmotivationaldevice.19
DavidC.McClellandandJohnW.Atkinsondemonstratedintheir1'esearchthatthedegree
ofmotivationandeffortincreasesuntilthep1'obabilityofsuccess1'eaches50pe1'cent;thenitbe-
ginstofalleventhoughthep1'obabilityofsuccesscontinu田 toinc1'ease.20People訂 enothighly
motivatedifagoalisseenasa!mostimpossible01'virtuallycertaintoachieve.
Anothe1'issueregardinggoa!sisthatafinalgoa!isoftensetandthepe1'sonisjudgedonly
inte1'msofsuccessin1'eachingthatfinalgoa!.Fo1'example，supposeateamhasfou1'monthsto
finalizeanewmarketingplan.Afte1'thefi1'stmonth，theprojectisonly5pe1'centcompleted.1f
thevicep1'esidentfo1'marketingst訂 ts“mic1'omanaging"ーー thatis，watchingandc1'iticizingtheir
eve1'ymove-thereisahighprobabilitythat白eteamwillstoptrying.Prog阿部 onthemarket-
ingplanmayevengetwo1'seinsteadofaccele1'ating.Abette1'alternativewouldbefo1'thevice
p1'esidenttosetshorte1'， interimgoalsthat訂 e1'ealisticfo1'theteamtoaccomplish.Thismode1'ate
ch釦 geinbehavio1'woulda!lowtheteamtoreceivepositive1'einforcementthatbuildsconfidence
andcommitmenttoward1'eachingthefinalgoal
EXPECTANCYTHEORY
Whatadditionalfactorsaffect吐1estrengthofneeds?Victo1'V1'oom'sexpectancytheoryofmoti-
vationattemptstoanswer血atquestion.21Histheo1'Yisalsoconsistentwithou1'p1'eviousasser-
tionthatfeltneedscausehumanbehavio1'.
翁 http細川
23

24 Chapter2• MotivationandBehavior
60Hourwork
weekslor2
weeks
NewProject
CanIgetitdone?
ExecutedProject
Completed
WIIFM
Chances01getting
reward
FIGURE2-7 AnExpectancyModelforMotivation
EarlyPromotion
Promotionis
Impo吋anttome
Iseemysellclimbing
corporateladder
Insimplifiedform，Vroomsuggeststhatfeltneedscausebehavior，andthismotivatedbe-
haviorinaworksettingisincreasedifapersonperceivesapositiverelationshipbetweeneffort
andperformance.Moti、ratedbehaviorisfurtherincreasedifthereisapositiverelationshipbe-
tweengoodperformanceandoutcomesorrewards，p訂 ticul訂 Iyiftheoutcomesorrewardsare
valued.Infact，heidentifiedthreerelationshipsthathavethecapacitytoeitherenhancemoti-
vatedbehaviororhamperit
• Apositiverelationshipbetweeneffortandperformance
• Apositiverelationshipbetweengoodperformanceandrewards
• Theachievementofvaluedoutcomesorrewards-intrinsic，extrinsic，orboth.
Letuslookatanexample.Anewmanagerp紅白ivesthatshewillneedtoputinseveral
60-hourworkweeksonam吋ornewpr句ect.Fu巾 ermore，themanageralsopぽ ceivesthatgood
jobperformancewillprobablyresultinanearlypromotionthatcanieswithitabadlyneeded10
percentpayraise(seeFigure2-7).Ifthissequenceofeventshappens，boththemanager'swill-
ingnesstoworkhardandconfidenceinthebehaviorpatternwillbereinforced.However，should
oneormorestepsinthesequenceprovewrong-forexample，performancedoesnotimprove，
promotionisdenied，orpayraisefallsshortofexpectations-motivation，willingness，andcon-
fidencewilld巴cline
"Successbreedssuccess."
-MiaHamm，AmericanGoldMedalSoccerPlayer
Thislinkagebetweeneffortandperformanceandbetweenperformanceandvaluedout-
comesisimportantnotonlytoourunderstandingofmotivationbutalsotoourunderstandingof
anumberofleadershiptheories，especiallythePath-GoaltheorydiscussedinChapter5.22
AVAILABILlTYTHEORY
Anotherimportantfactorthataff，巴ctsneedstrengthisavailability.Althoughexpectancyand
availabilityarerelated，expectancytendstoaffectmotives，orneeds，andavailabilitytendsto
affecttheperceptionofgoals.
Expectancyistheperceivedprobabilityofsatisfyingaparticularneedofanindividual
onthebasisofexp巴rience.Althoughexpectancyis出etechnicaltermusedbypsychologists，it
児島rsdirectlytothesumofthepastexperience.Experiencecanbeeitheractualorvicarious.
Vicariousexperiencecomesfromsources出epersonconsiderslegitimate，suchasparents，peer
groups，teachers，andbooksorperiodicals.
つthasbeenmyexperiencethatlolkswhohavenoviceshaveveryfewvirtues."
AbrahamLincoln
Toillustratetheeffectthatexperiencecanhaveonbehavior，letuslookatanexample.
Supposeaboy'sfatherisabasketballstarandtheboywan臼 tofollowinhisfootsteps.Initially，
hisexpectancymaybehigh，and，therefore，thestrengthoftheneedishigh.Ifheiscutfrom
theeighth-gradetearn，theboymightcontinueto佐y.Asinglefailureusuallyisnotenoughto
discourageaperson(infact，itsometimesresultsinincreasedactivity)andwillnotsignific初 tly
affecthisexpectancy.Butifhecontinuestogetcutfromatearnye紅 afterye民 even旬 allythis
motivewillweakenordecreaseinpriority.Infact，afterenoughunsuccessfulexperiences，he
maygiveupcompletely.Alsosupposethatthissameboy'smotherisabrilliantsurgeonand
thattheboyattimesenvisionshimselffollowinginherfootstepsandsavinglivesonedaytoo.
Initially，bothhisexpect如 cyandneedmaybehigh.Whathappenswhenhegetshighmarksin
biologyandchemistry?Whathappenswhenyearafterye訂 hecontinuestoexcelandreceive
aw紅白 forhispelformance?Whenexpectancyandavailabilityarealigned，wetendnottospend
muchtimeonanalyzingthe“why"behindthosesuccessesbutratherbaskinthejoyofthe
matchbetweenwhatweexpectedandwhatwewereabletoattain.Asaleader，theabilityto
distinguishbetweenwhatisexpectedandwhatisactuallyavailableandachievablecanmeanthe
di妊'erencebetweenbeingabletomotivateothersorbeingthecauseoftheirfrustration目
Availabilityreflectstheperceivedlimitationsoftheenvironment.Itisdeterminedbyhow
accessiblethegoalsthatcansatisfyagivenneedareperceivedtobebyanindividual.Forex
ample，iftheelec仕icitygoesoffinastorm，youcannotwatchtelevision.Thatgoalactivityis
nolongerpossiblebecauseoftlIelimitationsof出eenvironment.Youmayhaveahighdesireto
watchtelevision，butsinceyoucannotsatisfythatdesire，youwillsettleforsomethingelse，such
assleeping.
Consequently，availabilityisanenvironmentalvariable.Yetitshouldbestressedthatitis
notimportantwhetherthegoalstosatisfyaneed紅 ereallyavailable.Itistheperceptionofavail-
ability，ortheinterpretationofreality，thataffectsone'sactualbehavior.Inotherwords，realityis
whatapersonperceives.
"Realityisme田 Iyanillusion，albeitaverypersistentone."
-刈beパEinstein
25

8ehavior
Availability
FIGURE2-8 ExpandedDiagramofaMotivatingSituation
Anexampleofhowperceptionandexpectationcanaffectbehaviorwasdramaticallyil目
lusむatedinanexperimentwitbafish.Apikewasplacedinanaquariumwithmanyminnows
swimmingaroundit.Afterthefishbecameaccustomedtotheplentifulsupplyoffood(expecta-
tion)，asheetofglasswasplacedbetweenthepikeandtheminnows.Whenthepikebecame
hungry，ittriedtoreachtheminnows，butitcontinuallyhititsheadontheglass(thwartedex-
pectation).Atfirst，tbes甘engtboftheneedforfoodincreased，andthepiketriedharderthan
evertogettheminnows.Butfinallyitsrepeatedfailureofgoalattainmentresultedinenough
frustrationtbattbefishnolongerattemptedtoeattheminnows.Infact，whentbeglassp但 tition
wasfinallyremoved，theminnowsagainswamallaroundthepike，butnofurthergoal四 directed
activitytookplace.Eventually，thepikediedofstarvationwhileinthemidstofplentyoffood.
Inbotbcases，thefishoperatedaccordingtothewayitperceivedrealityandnotonthebasisof
realityitself.
Anexpandeddiagramofamotivatingsituationincludingexpectancyandavailabilityis
presentedinFigure2-8.Motives，needswithinanindividual，aredirectedtowardgoalsthat
紅 easpirationsintheenvironment.These紅 einterpretedbytbeindividualasbeingavailableor
unavailable.Thisinterpretationaffectsexpectancy目Ifexpectancyishigh，motivestrengtbwi1l
increase.Thepatterntendstobecyclical，movinginthedirectionofthesolidarrows;buttosome
extent，theseareinteractingvariablesindicatedbytbedashedarrows.Forexample，experience
mayaffectthewayweperceiveavailability，andthepresenceofgoalsintheenvironmentmay
affect白es町巴ng出 ofmotives.Unlikesomeoftbeothermotivationaltheories，巴xpectancyand
availability紅 ebasedmoreonchoicesrelatedto出epresentandfuture，whichmaybemoreread-
ilysubjecttoinfluencetbandrivesrelatedprimarilytopastlearning.
HIERARCHYOFNEEDS
Fromtherangeofmotivationalth回 riespresentedsofar，youcanseewhymanagerswouldben-
efitfromhavingsomeunderstandingabouttheneedsthatareoftenmostimportanttopeople.A
classicframeworkthathelpsexplain出es佐eng出 ofc巴rtainneedswasdevelopedbyAbraham
Maslow.23Ac∞'rdingtoMaslow，humanneedsむ rangetbemselvesintoahierarchy，asi1lustrated
inFigure2-9.Aseachlevelofneedsissatisfied，tbenexthigherlevelofneedsbeginstomo-
tivateanddominatethebehavioroftbeindividual，ascendingupwardtbroughthehierarchyas
eachlevelgainsins位ength.
Thephysiologicalneedsareshownatthetopofthehierarchybecausetheytendto
havethehighests位engthuntiltheyaremetforthemomentorsatisfied.Thesearethebasics
Chapter2・MotivationandBehavior 27
(
広
田
正)ω
烹
E
Zち
五
回Z
O
品
目
(
言
。
一
)
Social
(affiliation)
Esteem
(recognition)
Self-Actualization
FIGU罰E2-9 Maslow'sHierarchyofNeeds
neededtosustainhumanlife-food，clothing，shelter.Themajorityofaperson'sactivitywi1l
probablybeatthisleveluntilyourbodycanfunction，andtheotherneedswi1lprovidelitt]e
motivatlOn
Oncephysiologicalneedsbecomesatisfied，thesafety，orsecurity，needsbecomepredomi
nant，asillustratedinFigure2-10.Theseneedscomprisetheneedtobefreeofthefearofphysi-
caldangeranddeprivationofthebasicphysiologicalneeds.1notherwords，thisisaneedfor
self-preservation.1nadditiontothehereandnow，thereisaconcernforthefuture.Willpeoplebe
abletokeep血eirjobsortbeirpropertiesワCantheyprovidefoodandsheltertomo立 owandthe
nextdayつIfanindividual'ssafetyorsecurityisindanger，othertbingsseemrelativelyunimport-
ant.Inaperiodwhenlayoffs釘'eoccurring，weoftenseesafetyneedsescalate.
Oncephysiologicalandsafetyneedsarefairlywellsatisfied，socialneedswillemergeas
dominant，asi1lustratedinFigure2-11.Becausepeoplear巴 socialbeings，theyhaveaneedto
belongtoandbeacceptedbyvariousgroups.Whensocialneedsbecomedominant，apersonwill
striveformeaningfulrelationswithothers.Thislevelco立'espondstowhatMcClellanddescribed
astheneedforaffiliation.24
Afterindividualsbegintosatisfytheirneedtobelong，theygenerallywanttobemore
thanjustamemberoftheirgroup.Theythenfeeltheneedforωteem-botbself-esteemand
Physiological Social
Esteem
Self白 Actualization
FIGURE2-10 SafetyNeedsDominantintheNeedStructure
Social
Safety Esteem
Physiological Self-Actualization
FIGURE2-1唱 SocialNeedsDominantintheNeedStructure

ロ
Esteem
Social Self-Actualization
Physiological
FIGURE2同官 2 EsteemNeedsDominantintheNeedStructure
recognitionfromothers，asseeninFigure2-12.Mostpeoplehaveaneedforahighevaluationof
themselvesthatisfmnlybasedinreality-recognitionandrespectfromothers.Satisfactionofes-
teemneedsproducesfeelingsofself-confidence，prestige，power，andcon位。，].Peoplebegintofeel
that仕leyareusefulandhavesomepositiveimpactontheirrelationshipsandenvironment.There
紅 eotheroccasions，though，whenpersonsareunabletosatisfytheirneedforesteem白roughcon-
structivebehavior.Anindividualmayresorttodisruptiveorimmatureb巴havior-irrationalcoping
responsesdescribedearlierin白ischapter-tosatisfythedesireforattention.Employeesmaywith-
holdtheirbestworkefforts，明日ewithotherteammembers，orunderminetheirmanager.1nfact，
someofthesocialproblemswehavetodaymayhavetheirrootsinthe合ustrationofesteemneeds.
Onceesteemneedsbegintobeadequatelysatisfied，theself-actualizationneedsemergeas
dominant， asshowninFigure2-13.Self-actualizationistheneedtomaximizeone'spotential，
whateveritmaybe.Amusicianmustplaymusic，apoetmustwrite，ageneralmustwinbattles，
andaprofessormustteach目 AsMaslowexpressedit，“Whatamancanbe，hemustbe."Thus，
self-actualizationistobecomewhatoneiscapableofbecoming.1ndividualssatisfythisneedin
differentways.1noneperson，itmaybeexpressedinthedesiretobeanidealmother;inanother，
itmaybeexpressedinmanaginganorganization;inanother，itmaybeexpressedathletically;in
stillanother，byplayingthepiano.
Thewayself司 actualizationisexpressedcanchangeoverthelifecyc]e.Forexample，aself-
actualizedathletemayeventua11ylookforotherareasinwhichtomaximizepotentialasphysical
atUibuteschangeovertimeorashorizonsbroaden目 1naddition，thehierarchydoesnotnecess紅ー
ilyfo11owthepatterndescribedbyMaslow.1twasnothisintenttosaythatthishierarchyapplies
universa11y.Maslowfeltthiswasatypicalpatternthatoperatesmostof吐letime.Herealized，
however，thatthereweren百merousexceptionstothisgeneraltendency.Forexample，the1ndian
leaderMahatmaGandhifrequentlysacrificedhisphysiologicalandsafetyneedsforthesatisfac-
tionofotherneedswhen1ndiawasstrivingforindependencefromGreatBritain.1nhishistoric
fasts，Gandhiwentweekswithoutnourishmenttoprotestgovernmentalinjustices.Hewasoper-
atingattheself.戸actualizationlevelwhilesomeofhisotherneedswentunsatisfied.
Maslow'shierarchyofneedsisnotintendedtobeana11-or-nothingframeworkinwhich
onelevelofneedshastobecompletelysatisfiedbeforethenextlevelemergesasthemost
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Safety
Physiological
FIGURE2同官 3 Self-ActualizationNeedsDominantintheNeedStructure
S.A
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
FIGURE2-14 NeedStructureWhen
PhysiologicalandSafetyAreHigh-Strength
Needs
S.A
Esteem
Social
Safety
Phys.
FIGURE2-15 NeedStructureWhen
SocialNeedsAreHigh-StrengthandSelf-
ActuallzationandPhysiologicalNeedsAre
MuchLessImportant
important.1tmaybemoreusefulinpredictingbehavioronthebasisofahighoralowprob-
ability.Forinstance，Figure2-14attemptstoportrayneedstr日ctureinanemergingnation.1n
contrast，Figure2-15showstheneeds町uctureinadevelopedsociety.
Manypeopleinoursocietytodaymightbecharacterizedbyverys佐ungsocialora百ilia-
tionneeds，relativelysむongesteemandsafetyneeds，Witllself-actualizationandphysiological
needsmuchlessimportant目 Somepeople，however，canbecharacterizedashavingsatisfiedtoa
largeextentthephysiological，safety，andsocialneeds，andtheirbehaviortendstobedominated
byesteemandself-actualizingactivities，asshowninFigure2-16.Thiss甘ucturewilltendtobe-
comemorecharacteristicifstandardsoflivingandlevelsofeducationcontinuetorise.These紅 e
intendedonlyasexamples.Fordifferentindividuals，varyingconfigurationsmaybeappropriate
1nreality，theywouldfluctuatetremendouslyfromoneindividualorgrouptoanother.
Alderfer'sERGTheory
Arevised，andrealignedver~ほ()nofMaslow's hierarchyofneeds，ERGlheory，wasdeveloped'byClayton
AlderferofYaleUniyersity."~ Alderfersuggestedthat 吐lere，are 白reecore，needs: .Existence"Relatednes~，
阻 dGroivlh.Alderfer'sexisiencegroutillggerierallycorresponds¥0!¥1aslo'，V'sbasic，physiological叩 d
safetyEleeds，rElatednesscOHespdudstosocialneeds，andEtoWthco町田pOfJdstoe~teem ""dself-actual'
ization.Table2-1'illustrat白血eserelatibnshlps， … いり v
WhatdoesAlderfer'sERGtheoryaddtoOUrund出回世時 of臨む?StephenRotbins，au吐lor
ofOrgartizaticmalBehavior，suggests，thatitisamore，Validdescriptionoftheneeclhierarc!Jytl1anis
Maslow'siheory.forfwoprincipalreasons:
1.Maslow's'st9P-hy:stepruer#chyassumes，that.(nIlyoneofthe畳間 9ategories.ofrieedswill
be， pre~omin!nt ，atagiveJltiine.
ERGtteory.allows，for，l11or8than
oneneed'7for， exainple，saMyand
soeial'---tob己operatingmore，0[.less
equallyat()l1etime.
2.Maslow.'stheoryasse抗edfhataper'
sonwillremainataneedkveluntil
itisadequatelysatisfied.ERG血eory
suggeststhataperson，frustrated，Or
blockedataneedlevelwillregressto
aJowerlevel目岬
園面 COmparisonofMaslClw'sand
Alderfer'sCategdriesofNeeds
ヲク二人三ふ λ 仏
、MaslOIN ん
-v
ご叫ん J二へ
Self-Ac:fu司lization/Esteem
5ocial
cSaf巴ty/physiologiG11
Alderfer
Growth
グャ Relatednessにや
Existence
29

30 Chapter2• MotivationandBehavior
Self-Actualization
Esteem
80ロal
8afety
Phys
FIGURE2-16 NeedStructureWhenEsteem
andSelf-ActualizationNeedsAreHigh-
StrengthNeeds
HavingdiscussedMas10w'shierarchyofneeds，wecannowexaminewhatresearcherssay
aboutsomeofourmotivesandtheincentivesthattendtosatisfythem
PhysiologicalNeeds
Thesatisfactionofphysi010gica1ne巴ds(she1ter，food，orclothing)isusuallyassociatedinour
societywithmoney.AccordingtoSau1W.Gellerman，authorofMotivation仰 dProductiviか"the
mostsubt1eyetmostimportantcharacteristicofmoneyisitspowerasasymbo1.Itsmostobvi-
oussymbolicpowerisitsmarketvalue.Itiswhatmoneycanbuy，notmoneyitse1f，thatgivesit
va1ue.Butmoney'ssymb01icpowerisnot1imitedtoitsmarketva1ue.Becaus(l_!Iloneyhasnoin-
甘insicmeaningofitsown，itcansymb01izewhateverpeop1ewantittomean.27Mostpeop1eare
notinterestedindoll紅 sassuch，buton1yasameanstobeusedtosatisfyothermotives.Itiswhat
moneycanbuy-forexample，groceries-notmoneyitself，whichcansatおか yourphysi010gical
needs.Ofcourse，moneycanp1ayar01einthesatisfactionofneedsatevery1ev巴1.
Extensivestudieshavefoundthatmoneyisaverycomp1icatedincentivethatisentangled
withallkindsofneedsbesidesphysi010gicalones，anditsimportanceisdifficu1ttoascertain.It
isclearthatmoney'sabilitytosatisfyseemstodiminishasyousurpassphysi010gicalandsafety
needs.Inmanycases，moneycanbuythesatisfactionofsocialneedsif，forexamp1e，itprovides
entryintoadesiredgroup，suchasacoun位Yclub.Butasyoubecomeconcernedaboutesteem
andeventuallyse1f-actua1ization，moneybecomesa1esseffectiveto01formeetingneeds.The
s甘ongeryouresteemandself四 actualizationneeds，themoreyouwillhavetofindothermeansof
satisfactionotherthanthroughmoney.
"Moneyisnotrequiredtobuyonenecessityofthesoul."
-HenryDavidThoreau
"Moneyhasnevermademanhappy，norwillit，thereisnothinginitsnaturetoproducehappiness
Themoreofitonehasthemoreonewants."
-BenjaminFranklin
SafetyNeeds
ThebiggestPonzischemeinhistory，devisedbyAmericaninvestmentadvisorBernieMadoff，
revealsacomp1excollisionofdiff，巴rentmotives.Madoffreliedonmoneytomeethisapp紅 ent
needsforpower，status，andesteemandu1timate1y10stitall-forhimse1fandmanyofthosehe
haddrawnin目 DianaB.Henriques，who1edtheNewYorkTimes'coverageoftheMadoffscandal，
recognizedtheuniquewaythatMadoffp1ayedontheneedsofhisinvestors:
AMadoffschemeisdifferent.Itexploitsnotinvestors'g担 edbutinvestors'fear-theirfearofvola-
tility，theirfearoflosingwhattheyhave.Infact，throughmanyoftheyearsofMadoff'sfraud，
investorscouldhavemadealotmoremoneyeveninsomeoftheveryprominentmutualfunds...
Buttheywerewillingtogiveupthosegreater胆 turnsinexchangefortheconsistencyofMadoff's
returns.Hemadethemfeelsafe.28
Madoffwasab1etoexp10ittheinvestors'needsforsafetyduringachaoticeconomicdown-
turn，allthewhi1efailingtorecognizethatnomatterhow1argehisfundbecameorhowoftenhe
dupedtheregu1ators，h企sneedforpowerwou1dneverbesatisfied.
WereMadoff'sinvestorsconsciouslyawareoftheirneedsforsafety?Asmentionedearlier，
somemolIvesappe紅 abovethesurface，whileothers紅 'e1arge1ysubconsciousandnotobvious
oreasytoidentify.AccordingtoGellerman，safety，orsecurity，needsappearinbothforms.29
Conscioussecurityneeds紅 equiteevidentandverycommonamongmostpeop1e
Weallhaveadesiretoremainfreefromthehazardsoflifewecannotcontr01-accidents，
W訂 s，diseases，andeconomicinstability.Manyofusseektominimizethepotentialimpactof
suchcatastrophesanddiminishthestrengthofours印刷tyneedsthroughpurchasinginsurance
Gellermansuggestedthatmanyorganizationstendtooveremphasizethesecuritymotivebypro
vidinge1aborateprogramsoffringebenefits，suchashea1th，accident，andlifeinsuranceand
retirementp1ans.Theemphasisonsecuritymaymakep凹 p1emoredoci1eandpredictab1e，butit
doesnotnecessari1ymakethemmoreproductive.Infact，ifcreativityorinitiativeisnecess紅 y m
theirjobs，anoveremphasisonsecuritycanthwartdesiredbehavior.
A1thoughconcernforsecuritycanaffectm句6rdecisions，suchasremaininginor1eav
inganorganization，Gellermanindicat巴ditisnotlike1ytobeanindividual'sdominantmotive.
Conscioussecurityneedsusuallyp1ayabackgroundro1e，ofteninhibitingorrestrainingimpu1ses
ratherthaninitiatingoutwardbehavior.Forexamp1e，ifaparticu1訂 courseofaction，suchas
disregardingaru1eorexpre回 nganunpopu1紅 opinion，mightendangerone'sjob，thensecurity
considerationsmotivateapersonnottot，氷:ethatcourseofaction.Organizationscaninfluence
securityneedseitherpositively-出roughpensionp1ans，insuranceprograms，andthe1ike-or
negative1ybyarousingfearsofbeingfiredor1aid0妊"demoted，orpassedover.Inbo吐1cases，the
effectcanbetomakebehaviortoocautiousandconservative.
PeterF.Druckersuggestedthatone'sattitudetow町 dsecurityis加portanttoconsiderwhenchoosinga
job.30Heraisedsomeinterestingquestions:
• Doyoubelonginajobcallingprimarilyforfaithfulnessintheperfonn印 ceofroutineworkand
promisingsecurity?
• Doyoufindrealsatisfactionintheprecision，order，andsystemofaclearlyde古田djob?
• Doyoupreferknowingwhatyourworkistodayandwhatitisgoingtobetomorrow，thatyourjob
issecure，andwhatyourrelationshipistothepeopleabove，below，andnexttoyouワ
• Doyoubelonginajob出atislesspredictable，whichoffersachallengetoimaginationand
ingenuity-withtheattendantp叩 altyforfailure?
• Doyoutendtogrowimpatientwithanythingthatlookslike，a“routine"jobワ
The叩 swerstothesequestio田町'enotalwayseasyeventhoughweallunderstandourselvesto
sOmedegree.Buttheanswers旺 einvolvedwithhowinlportantthesecuritymotiveisforap虹 ticul町
individuaL
31

Astrongsubconsciousorientationtow且rdsecurityisoftendevelopedearlyinchildhood.
Gellermandiscussedseveralwaysinwhichitcanbeimplanted.Acommonwayisthrough
identi日cationwithsecurity-mindedparen岱 whoぽ ewillingtoacceptwhateverfatecomesalong
Thismindsetoftendevelopsindepressedeconomicぽ easwheretheprospectsforimprovement
arepoor.31Theworldinwhichtheyinteractseemsuncertainanduncontrolla訓etopeopleraised
inasecurity-mindedhome.Asaresult，theymaynotfeelabletoinfluencetheirenvironment.
Thesecurity-mindedpeoplewehavebeendescribingareoftenverylikableandpleasantto
havearound.They訂 enotoverlycompetitiveandtendnottoputpeopleonthedefensive.Oth巴rs
tendtoexpectlittleofthemandthusareseldomcriticaloftheirwork.Suchpeopleoften訂 eable
toobtainsecure，non-threateningpositionsinanorganization.
Subconscioussecuritymotivesmayalsodevelopinchildrenthroughinteractionwithover-
protectiveparents.Suchparentsareconstantlytryingtoshieldtheirchildrenfromheartache，
disappointment，orfailure.Thesupportiveattitudeoftheseparentsinmanyinstancespermits
theirchildrentohavetheirownway.ConflictisavoidedatallcostS.Asaresult，thesechildren
紅-egivenadistortedpictureofrealityandgainlittleinsightintowhattheycanexpectofother
peopleandwhatotherswillexpectofthem.1nsomecases，theybecomeunrealisticintheirOp
timismaboutlife;thatis，theyhaveafalsesenseofsecurity.Eveninthefaceofdisaster，when
theyshouldfeelthreatened，theyseemtobelieve白紙 alliswelluntilitistoolate
Whensuchpeopleleavehomeafterhighschooltoseektheirwayintheworld，theyquick-
lywakeUptoreality.Oftentheyfindthemselvesunequippedtohandlethehardshipsoflifebe-
causetheyhavenotbeenp巴rmittedtheopportunitytodevelopthecapacitytohandlefrustration，
tension，andanxiety.Asaresult，evenaminorsetbackmaythrowthemforaloop.PeterDrucker
suggeststhatgettingfiredfromtheirfirstjobmightbethebestthingthatcouldhappentosuch
youngpeople.Thisexperience，whileupsetting，istheleastpainfulandleastdamagingwayto
learnhowtocopewithasetback，andthatisalessonworthlearning
叩回chahighlyeducatedpersonthatitisadisgracetofailandthathemustana防zeeveryfailuretofindits
cause.Hemustlearnhowtofailintelligentl弘forfailingisoneofthegreatesta巾 intheworld."
-CharlesKe社enng
Ifpeoplelearnhowtorecoverfromfailurewhentheyareyoung，theywillbebetter
equippedtohandleworseproblemsastheygetolder.
Manypeoplereg訂 dastrongneedforsecurityasaweaknessorfault，andfrownuponit
asifitwerelessrespectablethanothermotives.Thisattitudeseemsunjustified，sincenearly
everyonehassomeconsciousandsubconscioussecuritymotives.TomRathandBarryConchie，
usingdatagatheredover30yearsbytheGallupOrganization，foundthatinfactstability-which
ishighlyr官latedtosecurity-isoneoffourbasicneedsthatfollowershave.32Lifeisneverso
simpleorc!ear】 cutthateachofusdoesnotmaintainsomeconcernforsecurity
SocialNeeds
Afterthephysiologicalandsafetyneedshavebecomesomewhatsatisfied，thesocial，ora百ilia-
tion，needsmaybecomepredominant.Sincepeople紅-esocialanimaIs，mostindividualsliketo
interactwithothersinsituationswheretheyfeeltheybelongandareaccepted.Althoughthisis
acommonneed，ittendstobestrongerforsomepeoplethanforothersandstrongerincertain
situationsthanothers
Statistic
40%ofworkersfeeldisconnectedfromth巴iremployers
~The ConferenceBoard
1nworkingtowardabetterunderstandingofourcomplexneedtobelong，StanleySchachter
oftheUniversityofMinnesotamadeasignificantcontribution.33Hiseffortsweredirected，in
particular，towardstudyingthedesiretosocializeasanendinitself-thatis，whenpeopleinter-
actsimplybecausetheyenjoyit.1nsomeofthesesituations，noapp紅 'entrewardsuchasmoney
orprotectionwasgainedfromthisa妊iliation.
Schachterfoundthatitisnotalwayssimplygoodfellowshipthatmotivatesa妊iliation.
1nmanyinstances，peopleseekaffiliationbecausetheydesiretohavetheirbeliefscon五rmed.
Peoplewhohavesimilarbeliefstendtoseekeachotherout，especially汀as住onglyheldbelief
hasbeenshattered.1nthiscase，theytendtoassembleandtrytoreachsomecommonunder-
standingaboutwhathappenedandwhattheyshouldbelieve(evenifitisthesameasbefore).1n
thisinstance，theneedfora妊iliationispromptedbyadesiretomakeone'slifeseemmoreunder
control.WhenapersonfeelsaIone，theworldmayseem“outofwhack，"butfindingotherswho
holdthesamebeliefssomehowmakesorderoutofchaos.
1npursuingthisquesむonfurther，Schachterfoundthatwhenpeopleareexcited，confused，
orunhappy，theydonotseekoutjustanyone-theytendtowanttobewithothers“inthesame
boat."Miserydoesnotlovejustanycompany;itlovesothermiserablecompany.Theseconc!u-
sionssuggestthatthestronginformalworkgroupsthatEltonMayofoundduringhisexperi-
mentsonhumanbehaviorinthefactorysystem(seeChapter3)mighthavebeenareactionto
theboredom，insignificance，andlackofcompetencethattheworkersfelt34
Asaresult，workers
congregatedbecauseofmutualfeelingsofbeingbeatenbythesystem.
"Onlythemediocrea問 alwaysattheirbest."
-JeanGiraudoux
Ontheotherhand，informalgroupscanbeatremendousassettomanagementiftheirinter-
nalorganizationisunderstoodandfullyutilized.Theproductivityofaworkgroupseemstode-
pendonhowthegroupmembersseetheirowngoalsinrelationtothegoalsof仕leorganization.
Forexample，iftheyperceivetheirowngoalsasbeinginconflictwiththegoalsoftheorganiza田
tion，thenproductivitywilltendtobelow.However，iftheseworkersseetheirowngoalsasbeing
thesameasthegoaIsoftheorganizationorasbeingsatisfiedasadirectresultofaccomplishing
organizationalgoals，thenproductivitywilltendtobehigh.
Teamscanprovidethosewithastrongneedforaffiliationanorganizationallysanctioned
waytoconnectwithothersaroundacommonworkgoal.Organizationsareincreasinglyturning
toteamsaspartoftheircompetitivestrategy，buttherearemanyobstac!estobothleading
andparticipatingineffectiveteams.Wewilltalkaboutbothoftheseissuesinmoredetailin
Chapter13.
33

EsteemNeeds
Theneedforesteemorrecognitionappearsinallumberofforms.IIIthissectioll，wewilldiscuss
twomotivesrelatedtoesteem-prestigeandpower
PRESTIGE Whatexactlyisprestige?Gellermalldωcribeditas“asortofunwrittendefillitioll
ofthekilldsofconductthatotherpeople紅 eexpectedtoshowinone'spresellce;whatdegree
ofrespectordisrespect，formalityorinformality，reserveorfrallklless.，，35Prestigeincludesyour
image，yourreputation，andyourpersollalbrand.Itisthesumofimpressionsaboutyouridelltity
heldby0吐lers.
Peopleseekprestigethroughouttheirlivesillvariousways.Manytendtoseekolllythe
materialsymbolsofstatus，suchasabiggeroffice，whileotherss紅iveforpersollalachievement
orself-actualization，whichmaycommandprestigeillitself.Regardlessofthewayitisex-
pressed，thereseemstobeawidespreadneedforpeopletohavetheirimportallcevalidatedand，
infact，setatalevelthattheyfeelisdeserved.Asdiscussedearlier，peoplenormallywanttohave
ahighevaluatiollofthemselv巴sthatisfirmlybasedinrealityasShOWllbytherecognitionand
respectaccordedtothembyothers.
POWER Theresource'thatenablesapersolltoillfluellceorinducecompliancefromothersis
power，Itisapersoll'sillfluellcepotential，Theretelldstobetwokilldsofpower-position如 d
personal.Illdividualswhoareabletoinducecompliancefromothersbecauseoftheirpositiollin
出eorganizationhavepositiollpower;illdividualswhoderivetheirillfluellcefromtheirpersonal回
ityandbehaviorhavepersonalpower・SomepeopleareendowedwithbothPOSitiOllalldpersonal
power，O吐lersseemtohave110poweratall.
Whellitcomestopersonalpower，MaggieCraddockpointsoutthatwefirstlearllaboutthe
givealldtakeofpower合omourearlyexperiellcesillourfamilies，Afterall，thepeoplewhotook
C紅 eofusaschildrellareourfrrstmodelsforhowto司seau吐10rity，shapillgboththeemotional
andbehavioralstyleofpowerwelateruseilltheworkplace，36Wewillcliscusspowerillgreater
detailillChapter8.
Self-ActualizationNeeds
OfalltheneedsdiscussedbyMaslow，theOllethatsocialandbehavioralscielltistsknowleast
aboutisself-actualization.Perhapsbecausepeoplesatisfythislleedilldifferentways，self-ac旬司
alizationisadi筋肉ltlleedtopilldOWllalldidelltify，Althoughlittleresearchhasb巴巴ndoneon
吐lecOllceptofself-actualization，extensiveresearchhasbeelldoneOlltlrreemotivesthatwefeel
arerelatedtoit-competence，achievemellt，andpurpose，
COMPETENCE AccordingtoRobertW，White，oneofthemaillspringsofac世oninahuman
beillgisadesireforcompetence.37CompetenceimpliescOlltrolo~er ellvironmelltalfactors-
bothphysicalandsocial.Peoplewiththismotivedonotwishtowaitpassivelyforthingstohap-
pen，Theywanttobeabletocon仕01血eirenvironmelltandmakethingshappen
ThecompetellcemotivecallbeidelltifiedillyOUllgchildrenastheymovefromtheearly
stageofwalltingtotouchandhandleeverythinginreachtothelaterstageofwanting1l0tonly
totouchbuttotakethillgSapart組 dputthembacktogetheragaill，Thatishowchildrellbegillto
learntheirwayaroundtheirworld，Theybecomeaw紅 'eofwhattheycallalldcannotd仔一司notin
termsofwhatthey紅 eallowedorpermittedtodobutin旬，rmsofwhatthey紅 eabletodo.Durillg
theseearlyyears，childrelldevelopafeelingofcompetellce，
Thisfeelillgofcompetenceiscloselyrelatedtotheconceptofexpectallcydiscussedearlier
illthischapter，WhetherchildrenhaveaStrOllgorweaksenseofcompetellcyoftelldependsOll
theirpastsuccessesalldfailures，Iftheirsuccessesovershadowtheirfailures，thelltheirfeeling
ofcompetencewilltendtobehigh.Theywillhaveaposi臼veoutlooktowardlife，seeingalmost
everynewsituationasallinterestillgchallengethattheycallovercome.If，however，theirfail-
uresruletheday，theiroutlookwillbemorellegativealldtheirexpectallcyforsatisfyingvarious
needsmaybecomelow，Sinceexpectancytendstoinfluencemotives，peoplewithlowfeelillgs
ofcompetenceareoftelllessmotivatedtoseekllewchallellgesortakerisks，Thesepeoplewould
ratherlettheirellvironmelltcOlltrolthemthanattempttochangeit.AccordillgtoWhite，thecom-
petellcemotiverevealsitselfinadultsasadesireforjobmasteryalldprofessiollalgrowth，The
jobisOllearellainwhichpeoplecanusetheirabilityandskillswithinaworkellvirollmelltthat
ischallenging，but1l0toverwhelmillg，Inthebestorganizations，thecompetencemotiveinallill-
dividualcallbeexpressedfreely，alldsigllificalltpersollalrewardscanbegailled.Butillroutine，
closelysupervisedjobs，thisisoftenimpossible.SuchsituationsmaketheworkerdependentOll
thesystemalld，therefore，completelyfrustratepeoplewithhighcompetellcelleeds，38
ACHIEVEMENT Overtheye紅 s，behavioralscielltistshaveobservedthatsomepeoplehaveari
intellseneedtoachieve.InrecelltresearchconductedbySirota，Mischkind，alldMeltzer，the
threegoalsmostcommolllysoughtbyemployeeshavebeellidelltifiedas，Ollceagaill，achieve【
mellt(esteem)，camaraderie(social!belollgillg)，andequity(fairpayandjobsecurity)，39Asmell-
tionedearlier，DavidMcClellalldandhisassociatesatHarvardUniversityhavebeellstudyillg
theneedforachievementformorethall40years目 Theirresearchhasconcludedthatthelleedfor
achievementisadistillCthumallmotivethatcallbedistinguishedfromotherneeds，Ollethatcall
beisolatedalldassessedillallygroup，40
Statistic
25%ofemployeesarejustshowinguptoworktocoll巴ctapaycheck，
-TheConferenceBoard
McClellandillustratedsomeofthesecharacteristicsofpeoplewithahighneedforachieve-
mentindescribingalaboratoryexperiment.Participantswereaskedtothrowringsoverapeg
fromanydistancetheychose，Mostpeopletendedtothrowatrandom-nowclose，nowf:訂
away;butindividualswithahighneedforachievementseemedtomeasurecarefullywherethey
weremostlikelytogetasenseofmastery-nottooclosetomakethetaskridiculouslyeasy
ortoofarawaytomakeitimpossible，Theysetmoderatelydifficult，butpotentiallyachievable
goals.Inbiology，thisapproachisknownastheoverloadprinciple，Inweightlifting，forex-
ample，strengthcannotbeincreasedbytasksthatcanbeperformedeasilyorthatwillinj町 ethe
organism，Strengthcanonlybeincreasedbyliftingweightsthataredi妊icultenoughtostretch
themusclesbutnotenoughtoca百seinjury
Manypeopletendtobeextremeintheirattitudetowardrisksinthattheyeitherfavorwild
speculativegamblingorminimize血eirexposuretolosses目 Gamblersseemtochoosebigrisks
becausetheoutcomeisbeyondtheirpowerand，therefore，theycaneasilyrationalizeawaytheir
personalresponsibilityiftheylose.Theconservativeindividualchoosestinyriskswherethegain
issmallbutsecure，perhapsbecausethereislittledangerofanythinggoingwrongforwhichthat
personmightbeblamed，
35

Thehighneedforachievementsurfacesonlywhenpeoplebelievetheycaninfluencethe
outcome.Achievement-motivatedpeoplearenotgamblers.Theyprefertoworkonaproblem
thathasachallengingdegreeofriskratherthanleavetheoutcometochance.Inbusiness，this
aggressiverealismisthemarkofthesuccessfulentrepreneur.Asamanager，workingwithyour
employeestosetmoderatelydifficultbutpotentiallyachievablegoalscantranslateintoapositive
attitudetowardrisksthatcanbothleadtoprofessionalgrowthandcontributetoorganizational
success.
Anothercharacteristicofachievement同 motivatedpeopleisthattheyseemtobemorecon-
cernedwithpersonalachievementthanwiththerewardsofsucc巴ss.Theydonotr，吋ectrewards，
buttherewards紅 enotasessentialastheaccomplishmentitself.Theygetabiggerkickoutof
winningorsolvingadifficultproblemthantheygetfromanymoneyorpraisetheyreceive.To
achievement-motivatedpeople，moneyisvaluableprim紅 ilyasameasurementoftheirperfor
mance.Itprovidesthemwithameansofassessingtheirprogressandcomparingtheirachieve-
mentswiththoseofotherpeople.Theynormallydonotseekmoneyforstatusoreconomic
seωnty.
Adesirebypeoplewithahighneedforachievementtoseeksituationsinwhich血eyget
concretefeedbackonhowwelltheyaredoingiscloselyrelatedtothisconcernforp巴rsonalac-
complishment.Consequently，achievement-motivatedpeoplear耳 oftenfoundinsalesjobsoras
ownersandmanagersoftheirownbusinesses.Inadditiontoconcretefeedback，thenatureof
thefeedbackisimportanttoachievement-motivatedpeople.Theyrespondfavorablytoinforma-
tionabouttheirwork(i.e.，task同 relevantfeedback).Theyarenotinterestedincommentsabout
theirpersonalcharacteristics，suchashowcooperativeorhelpfulthey田'e.Affiliation-motivated
people，however，mightwantsocialorattitudinalfeedback
"Appre口at旧 nisawonderfulthing;itmakeswhatisexcellentinothersbelongtousaswell."
Voltaire
Achievement-motivatedpeoplebehaveastheydo，accordingtoMcClelland，becausethey
habituallyspendtimethinkingaboutdoingthingsbetter.Infact，hehasfoundthatwhenever
peoplest紅 ttothinkinachievementterms，thingsstarttohappen.Collegestudentswithahigh
needforachievementwillgenerallygetbettergradesthanequallybrightstudentswithweaker
achievementneeds.Achievement【 motivatedpeopletendtogetmoreraisesand訂 'epromoted
fasterbecausetheyareconstantly仕yingtothinkofbetterwaysofdoingthings.Companieswith
manysuchpeoplegrowfasterand訂 emoreprofitable.
NealGilbertandCharlesWhitingwarn，however，thatifprofessionals訂 enotaffordedthe
opportunitytoself目 actualize(increasetheircompetenceandachievement)intheirorganization，
“theironlyrecourse[willbeJtoleavetheorganization.，，41Employeeswhoarenotempowered
willlookelsewheretoempowerthemselves，perhapsplacingtheirconsiderabletalentinthe
handsofacompetitor.Thisisaformidablethreatinknowledge-basedorganizationswherethe
dep担 tureoftwoorthreekeyindividualsmaymeanthedeathofthecompany.
Achievement-motivatedpeoplecanbethebackboneofmostorganizations，butwhatabout
theirpotentialasmanagersワAsweknow，peoplewithahighneedforachievementgetahead
becauseasindividualstheyareproducers-theygetthingsdone.Butwhenthey訂 epromoted-
whentheirsuccessdependsnotonlyontheirownworkbutontheactivitiesofothers-theymay
belesseffective.Becausetheyarehighlytask-orientedandworktotheircapacity，theytendto
expectotherstodothesame.Asaresult，theysometimeslackthehumanskillsandpatience
necessaryforeffectivelymanagingpeoplewhoarecompetentbuthaveahigherneedforaf.回
filiationorsomeotherneedthantheydo.Inthissituation，theiroveremphasisonresultsoften
frus町atesotherpeopleandpreventsthem企ommaximizingtheirownpotential.
Interestingly，McLellandandBurnhamfound出atamongm釦 agers，thosemotivatedby
powerweremosteffective.Thesemanagersrecognizedt出ha低.(get悦ti泊ngresultsdependsonbui日Iding
bOWe釘r吋巾吐白伽1官lrOl∞日咽ゆgl偵hi加nf伽luencα1時I
motivatedpeopledono侃talwaysmakethebestmanagersur担l1es岱st白he句ydeveloptheirhumanskills
AswepointedoutinChapt巴r1，being agoodproducerisnotsufficienttobeinganeffective
manager
Sirota，Mischkind，andMeltzerfurtherpointout，importantly，thatwhilemanagersmust
recognizetheneedsoftheirpe泊'ple，theyfirstneedtostopdemotivating仕lem.How?Byinstilling
aninspiringpurpose，providingreg臼larrecognition，andactingasanexpediterforthem，among
otherpracticesρManagersmayneedtoshifttheirmindsetfromthinkingofmotivatingassome-
thingtheydotoemployees.Instead，workwiththemtodiscover，understand，andunleashtheir
keymotivationsthroughcommunicating，appreciating，listening，andremovingba汀 lers.
"BetterthanhalfoftheleadersIhavemetdon'tneedtolearnwhattodo-theyneed
tolearnwhattostop."
-PeterDrucker
PURPOSEANDVALUES AtthepinnacleofMaslow'shierarchy，self-actualizationalsocom同
prisesaprofoundsearchforandcommitmenttoyoursenseofpurpose，yourcorevalues，and
howwelltheyaligntothoseoftheorganization
InreflectingonhisexperiencesofsurvivingaWorldWarIIconcentrationcamp，Viktor
Frankl，anAustrianpsychiatrist，assertedinhisbookMαn'sSearchforMear;ingthat“thestriving
tofindameaninginone'slifeistheprimarymotivationalforceinman."判 Thiswasthesame
themeTomPetersandRobertWatermanusedintheirbest-sellingbookInSearchofExcellence.
Theyobserved，“Thedominatingneedofhumanbeingsistofindmeaning，• ..tocontrolone's
destiny，• • •tobeanexpertinthepromotionandprotectionofvalues."の
Havingaprofo百ndsenseofpurposeis，formany，theultimateneed.DanielPink'sresearch
hasshownthatoncetheneedforreasonablepayismet，peopleseekthreethings:autonomy，
mastery，andpur下ose.Henowseesariseinthepurposemotive，evidencedbythefactthatpeople
withsophisticatedtechnicalskillsarevolunteering.~ignificant amountsoftheirtimeoutsideof
worka~d givingawaywhattheydevelopforfree!46Consider，forexample，thatallLinuxpro-
grammersandconu'ibutorstoWikipediacontributetheirtimeandideassimplybecausetheybe-
lieveinthepurpos巴.-whetheritisopensourcecodeorcollaborativeinformationsharing
Intoday'spr'凶 suredworkenvironments，effectiveleadersrecognizethatpurposeisapow田
erful，motivatingforce，butonlywhenpeopleinternalizeit.JustinMenkesdescribesthatwhen
leaders紅 eabletoinfusepurposeintothework，todefineitinawaythatallowsemployeesto
understanditinalargercontext，peoplest紅 ttoseetheireffortsasmakingameaningfulpositive
differenceinth巴 world.47Forexample，HerbKelleher，founderofSouthwestAirlines，helped
reframetheworkofbaggagehandlers仕ommovingbagstoensuringthatapassengerhashis
insulin，oragrandmotherhasthegiftshechoseforherfirstgrandchilduponarrival.Inessence，
purposedrivespassion.
37

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