The psychology laboratory played a crucial role in establishing psychology as a scientific discipline separate from philosophy in the late 19th century. Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879, providing a model for experimental research and graduate training. By the 1880s, psychology laboratories had formed at American universities and were using experimental methods to study the mind. The laboratory helped change public perceptions of psychology, showing it was a science like other natural sciences with its use of instruments and experimental methods. Laboratories provided the infrastructure for a "community of scholars" to conduct research and train the next generation of psychologists.

1. 7-1
Macroeconomics
Instructor: Jen Dinsmore Hanson
Homework Assignment
Chapter 7
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Each of the following is an indirect tax except the _____ tax.
A. gasoline
B. telephone
C. corporate income
D. excise
2. The fastest growing source of federal tax revenue is the
_____ tax.
A. personal income
B. corporate income

2. C. payroll
D. excise
3. Which statement is false?
A. About seven percent of federal government spending goes
toward interest on the national
debt.
B. Over eighty percent of local taxes comes from property
taxes.
C. The federal government will spend over $3.8 trillion this
fiscal year.
D. None of these statements is false.
4. Which statement is true?
A. The Social Security tax is progressive.
B. An excise tax on cigarettes is regressive.
C. A sales tax is a direct tax.
D. None is true.
5. The sales tax is the most important source of _____
government revenue.
A. federal

3. B. state
C. local
6. Most sales taxes are ___________; most excise taxes are
_________.
A. progressive, progressive
B. regressive, regressive
C. progressive, regressive
D. regressive, progressive
7-2
7. According to Adam Smith, each of these was an economic
role of government except
A. protecting society from violence and invasion.
B. protecting individuals from oppression.
C. erecting public works which would not be in the interest of
private individuals to erect.
D. redistributing some income from the rich to the poor.
8. Compared to people earning $150,000 a year, people earning
$300,000 pay _________

4. Social Security taxes.
A. less
B. the same
C. slightly more
D. twice as much
9. Statement I: Social Security benefits are financed entirely by
taxes that workers pay.
Statement II: Social Security benefits are a government transfer
payment.
A. Statement I is true and statement II is false.
B. Statement II is true and statement I is false.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.
10. Excise taxes are
A. really income taxes in disguise.
B. profits taxes on major corporations.
C. per-unit taxes on specific goods.
D. percentage taxes on sales revenues.
E. the second most important source of federal revenue.

5. 11. Which of the following is NOT an example of a transfer
payment?
A. The salaries received by social workers employed by the
federal government.
B. Food stamps.
C. Unemployment compensation.
D. Social security payments.
E. Payments under the Aid to Families with Dependent Children
program.
12. If your taxable income rises from $27,000 to $47,000, and
the taxes you pay rise from
$15,000 to $20,000, your marginal tax rate is
A. 15 percent.
B. 25 percent.
C. 35 percent.
D. 45 percent.
13. An example of a tax that is generally regarded to be
progressive is
A. the federal income tax.
B. the excise tax on gasoline.
C. the state sales tax.

6. D. the payroll tax.
7-3
14. Statement I: A progressive tax places a heavier burden on
the rich than on the poor.
Statement II: The Social Security tax is more regressive than
the federal personal income tax.
A. Statement I is true and statement II is false.
B. Statement II is true and statement I is false.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.
15. Which of the following would not be a government transfer
expenditure?
A. Contribution of employers to support the Social Security
program
B. Social security payments to the aged
C. Unemployment compensation benefits
D. Payments to the widows of war veterans
16. A progressive tax is one where the percentage charged on
income ______________ as

7. income increases.
A. increases and then decreases
B. is constant
C. decreases
D. increases
17. Which of the following federal government expenditures is
the largest burden on the
budget?
A. Social security
B. Medicare and medicaid
C. Defense
D. Interest on national debt
18. Warren Buffett, the noted stock market investor, and world's
second richest man has
noted:
A. his average tax rate is lower than his secretary.
B. his world ranking would increase substantially if taxes were
lower $20,000
C. his taxes were so high that he was supporting the government
by himself.

8. D. his wealth was very high because of the low tax rates
enjoyed by the rich.
19. If Mr. Perot faces a 90 percent marginal tax rate,
A. his average tax rate must be falling.
B. the next dollar he earns nets him 90 cents.
C. his total tax payments equal 90 percent of his income.
D. he has a strong incentive to work harder.
E. he has a strong incentive to work less.
7-4
20. Sales and excise taxes tend to be ___________ because low
income people tend to spend
a _________ fraction of their income than high income people.
A. progressive; larger
B. regressive; larger
C. progressive; smaller
D. regressive; smaller
21. Statement I: Most taxes are proportional in effect.
Statement II: A tax that is nominally regressive will be
regressive in effect.

9. A. Statement I is true and statement II is false.
B. Statement II is true and statement I is false.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.
22. The Jones family has an average tax rate of 15 percent. Its
marginal tax rate is
A. less than 15 percent.
B. 15 percent.
C. more than 15 percent.
D. impossible to find.
23. In 2007, the richest 400 U. S. households earned an average
income of $345 million. What
was their average income tax rate?
A. 34 percent.
B. 25 percent.
C. About 17 percent.
D. Less than 12 percent.
24. Which of the following is the best example of a government
expenditure for goods or

10. services?
A. Salaries of Supreme Court justices
B. Social security pensions paid to the elderly
C. Welfare payments
D. Unemployment compensation
E. The progressive income tax
25. Social Security benefits are funded by
A. special taxes on corporate profits.
B. property taxes and user taxes.
C. a payroll tax with equal contributions from employer and
employees and by self-
employment taxes.
D. a special tax on corporate profits and approximately 10
percent of general sales taxes.
E. a combination of sales taxes, property taxes, corporate profit
taxes and user fees.
7-5
26. Statement I: The economic role of government has been
growing over the last eight

11. decades.
Statement II: The economic role of government will definitely
be reduced in the coming
years.
A. Statement I is true and statement II is false.
B. Statement II is true and statement I is false.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.
27. "Taxable income" is
A. total income less deductions and exemptions.
B. earned income less property income.
C. all income other than wages and salaries.
D. wage and salary income only.
28. Statement I: The two largest categories of federal spending
are Social Security and
defense.
Statement II: The payroll tax is a more important source of
revenue for the federal
government than the corporate income tax.
A. Statement I is true and statement II is false.

12. B. Statement II is true and statement I is false.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.
29. The marginal tax rate is calculated by dividing
A. taxes paid by taxable income.
B. taxable income by taxes paid.
C. additional taxes paid by additional taxable income.
D. additional taxable income by additional taxes paid.
30. Which of the following schedules represent(s) a progressive
tax?
A. I and III
B. I
C. II
D. I and II
E. III
7-6
31. Under a proportional income tax, the average tax rate

13. A. decreases as income increases.
B. increases as income increases.
C. remains constant at all levels of income.
D. initially decreases, then increases, as income increases.
32. The tax represented here is
A. progressive.
B. proportional.
C. regressive.
D. none of the choices.
33. If your taxable income increases from $30,000 to $40,000,
your marginal tax rate is
A. 10 percent
B. 20 percent
C. 30 percent
D. 40 percent
E. 50 percent
34. Statement I: A tax on cigarettes is regressive.
Statement II: The federal personal income tax is more

14. progressive today than it was in 1980.
A. Statement I is true and statement II is false.
B. Statement II is true and statement I is false.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.
35. A progressive tax is such that
A. tax rates are higher the smaller one's income.
B. the same tax rate applies to all income receivers, so that the
rich pay a greater amount of
taxes than the poor.
C. the greatest burden is on low-income workers.
D. none of the above holds true.
7-7
36. Most U.S. government spending is financed by
A. an expansion of the money supply.
B. taxes.
C. government securities.
D. transfer payments.

15. E. loans from foreign countries.
37. According to the IRS, the average large corporation in the
United States paid just less than
_______ percent in 2006.
A. 34
B. 27
C. 24
D. 13
38. In 2010 the highest marginal tax rate for the federal
personal income tax was _____
percent.
A. 28
B. 33
C. 35
D. 50
E. 70
39. Groucho earns $5 million and pays $2 million in taxes;
Harpo earns $300,000 and pays
$80,000 in taxes; Chico earns $25,000 and pays $1,000 in taxes.
The tax they pay would be

16. considered
A. progressive.
B. proportional.
C. regressive.
40. Who, from among the following, said this "In this world
nothing can be said to be certain,
except death and taxes."
A. Thomas Jefferson
B. Adam Smith
C. Benjamin Franklin
D. Sir William Petty
E. John Stuart Mill
41. K - 12 public education in the U.S. is paid for mainly by the
_____ tax.
A. income
B. sales
C. excise
D. property

17. 7-8
42. Statement I: The most important source of state tax revenue
is the property tax while the
most important source of local tax revenue is the sales tax.
Statement II: As a share of federal spending, Social Security
and Medicare will continue to
grow.
A. Statement I is true and Statement II is false.
B. Statement II is true and Statement I is false.
C. Both statements are true.
D. Both statements are false.
43. Statement 1: The first President George Bush and President
Bill Clinton will go down in
history as two of our greatest tax cutters.
Statement 2: Presidents Ronald Reagan and the second President
Bush will go down in
history as two of our greatest tax cutters.
A. Statement 1 is true and Statement 2 is false.
B. Statement 2 is true and Statement 1 is false.
C. Both statements are true.

18. D. Both statements are false.
44. Which of the following statements about the Social Security
tax is not true?
A. It is imposed on employees only.
B. It is a regressive tax.
C. It is a payroll tax.
D. It came into existence in 1935.
45. The Social Security
A. tax is capped at $43,000.
B. system is currently accumulating surpluses.
C. trust fund, by current estimates, will be empty by 2099.
D. is a progressive tax.
46. Which of the following years was there NOT a federal
income tax cut?
A. 1981
B. 1986
C. 1993
D. 2001
E. 2003

19. 47. Which of the following tax cuts lowered the top marginal
tax rate to 28 percent?
A. The Kemp-Roth Tax Cut of 1981
B. The Tax Reform Act of 1986
C. The Tax Cut of 1993
D. The Tax Cut of 2001
E. The Tax Cut of 2003
7-9
48. Critics of the tax cut of 2001 made all of the following
arguments EXCEPT
A. It would push up the federal budget deficit.
B. Most of the benefits would go to the rich.
C. The last time massive tax cuts were enacted in the 1980s,
budget deficits increased
dramatically.
D. The tax cut will discourage people from working.
49. The Tax Cut of 2003 includes all of the following
provisions EXCEPT
A. The child income tax credit was raised from $600 to $1,000.

20. B. The lowest minimum tax rate was lowered from 15 percent to
10 percent.
C. The highest income tax bracket was reduced from 38.6
percent to 35 percent.
D. The top personal income tax rate paid by stockholders on
corporate dividends and on
capital gains was lowered to 15 percent.
50. Which of the following could be called an unfunded
mandate imposed by the federal
government to be carried out by state and local governments,
without enough funds to cover
the cost of the program?
A. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.
B. The requirement that states and localities hire new police
officers by the Department of
Homeland Security.
C. The requirement that states carry out election reform, as a
result of voting irregularities in
the 2000 election.
D. All the choices.

21. The Psychology Laboratory at the Turn of
the 20th Century
Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr.
Texas A &M University
The author provides a brief history o f the psychology
laboratory from 1879 to 1900, discusses its crucial role in
the founding o f scientific psychology, and describes how it
enabled psychology ' s separation from philosophy. The lab-
oratory model is described as a research and graduate
training enterprise that operated with K. Danziger's (1990)
concept o f a "community of scholars" and was eventually
extended to the training o f undergraduate students.
T he dating o f modern psychology begins not with the sensory
physiology o f Hermann von Helmholtz or Johannes Mtiller,
nor with Gustav Fechner s crucial
insight on October 22, 1850, about how the physical and
psychological worlds could be compared quantitatively,
nor with the 1874 publication o f Wilhelm Wundt' s Grund-
ziige der Physiologischen Psychologie, the book that of-
fered the first compendium o f the 19th-century work that
was the basis for the science o f psychology. Instead, we
date the new psychology from the establishment of the
research laboratory at the University of Leipzig. It is the
establishment o f the laboratory that marks the transition of
psychology from philosophy to science.
The middle of the 19th century witnessed the birth of
American science laboratories--initially in chemistry--and
the start of a 100-year American love affair with science and
technology (Bruce, 1987). American psychology laboratories
joined their natural science counterparts in the 1880s, bringing
the experimental method to the investigation of mind, an event

22. that E. G. Boring (1929) declared had no equal in the history
of the study of the mind. Indeed, both editions o f Boring's
classic textbook defined the history o f psychology almost
exclusively in terms of the laboratory. One could argue that
such an emphasis could be expected because his textbook
was, as the title indicated, a history of experimental psychol-
ogy; yet for Boring that was psychology.
By the 1880s, the laboratory was, arguably, the pub-
lic's icon for natural science, but the same cannot be said o f
p s y c h o l o g y ' s version. Psychologists were aware o f the
c o m m o n public perceptions that associated psychology
with spiritism, the occult, and other paranormal subjects.
They sought to change those views with articles in news-
papers and popular magazines, public exhibitions, and pop-
ular speeches, all touting the new science o f psychology.
Shortly after Hugo Mtinsterberg arrived at Harvard Uni-
versity in 1892 to direct the psychology laboratory there,
his assistant announced in McClure's Magazine that the
psychology laboratory resembled any other science labo-
ratory. "Around the rooms run glass-cases filled with fine
instruments. Shelves line up, row after row, o f specimen
jars and bottles. Charts cover the remainder o f the walls.
The tables and floors are crowded with working apparatus"
(Nichols, 1893, p. 399). However, he continued, the labo-
ratory is more than jars, charts, and apparatus: "the spirit
that reigns in these rooms is the same that is found in other
laboratories of exact science" (Nichols, 1893, p. 399),
The importance of the laboratory for the beginnings o f
the new psychology would be difficult to overstate. Histo-
rian James Capshew (1992) has written that "the enduring
motif in the story o f m o d e m psychology is neither a person
nor an event but a p l a c e - - t h e experimental laboratory" (p.
132). As such, this snapshot in the history o f psychology

23. begins in Leipzig, Germany, where in 1879 Wundt and his
graduate students began conducting original research as a
"community o f investigators" (Danziger, 1990, p. 18).
Danziger (1990) has argued that "the strongest grounds for
locating the beginnings o f experimental psychology in
Wundt's l a b o r a t o r y . . . [were that it was in this
laboratory]
that scientific psychology was first practiced as the orga-
nized and self-conscious activity o f a community o f inves-
tigators" (p. 18).
Thus, the laboratory was more than specimen bottles,
charts, and apparatus, and it was more than the presence of
a scientific spirit; it was, in addition, and perhaps of great-
est importance, a community of scholars who conducted
collaborative research in pursuit o f scientific explanations
E d i t o r ' s note. Almost two dozen of the leading historians
of psychology
agreed to write "snapshots" of various aspects of psychology
circa 1900.
The articles appear in serial form throughout Volume 55. The
series was
edited by Donald A. Dewsbnry.
A u t h o r ' s note. I gratefully acknowledge assistance from
Richard A.
Littman and Laurence D. Smith.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Ludy
T. Benjamin, Jr., Department of Psychology, Texas A&M
University,
College Station, TX 77483. Electronic mail may be sent to
[email protected]
tamu.edu.

24. 318 March 2000 • American Psychologist
Copyright 2000 by the American Psychological Association,
Inc. 0003-066X/00/$5.00
Voh 55, No. 3, 318-321 DOI: 10.1037//0003-066X.55.3.318
o f mind. They shared not only the physical space of the
laboratory but an interest in c o m m o n questions. As stu-
dents graduated, others came to the laboratory to work on
the same questions or to extend the research to new ques-
tions. This community approach stood in stark contrast to
the solitary investigations of Wundt's predecessors, such as
Helmholtz and Fechner, and even some of his contempo-
raries, for example, Hermann Ebbinghaus.
Wundt's laboratory attracted many American stu-
dents, particularly as fame of the laboratory spread in the
United States. G. Stanley Hall arrived in Leipzig in the fall
of 1879 for postdoctoral study, having just finished his
doctoral degree with William James at Harvard. Hall spent
some time with Wundt but worked principally in the phys-
iological laboratory o f Carl Ludwig. In 1883, Hall founded
what is usually recognized as the first psychology labora-
tory in America at Johns Hopkins University. Many o f the
American laboratories that followed in the last two decades
o f the 19th century were founded by individuals who had
studied with Wundt or Hall (Table 1 lists the 41 psychology
laboratories founded in the United States by 1900 and their
founders, and indicates which ones studied with Wundt or
Table 1
The Founding of American Psychology Laboratories: 1883-1900

25. Year Laboratory Founder
1883 Johns Hopkins University Granville Stanley Hall
1887 Indiana University William Lowe Bryan"
1887 University of Pennsylvania James McKeen Cattell b
1888 University of Wisconsin Joseph Jastrow °
1889 Clark University Edmund Clark Sanford a
1889 University of Kansas Olin Templin
1889 University of Nebraska Harry Kirke Wolfe b
1890 Columbia University James McKeen Cattell b
1890 University of Iowa George T. W. Patrick °
1890 University of Michigan James Hayden Tufts
1891 Catholic University Edward Aloyius Pace b
1891 Cornell University Frank Angel1 b
1891 Wellesley College Mary Whiton Calkins
1892 Brown University Edmund Burke Delabarre
1892 Harvard University Hugo M/.insterberg b
1892 University of Illinois William Otterbein Krohn
1892 Trenton State Normal College Lillie A. Williams
1892 Yale University Edward Wheeler Scripture b
1893 University of Chicago Charles Augustus Strong
1893 Princeton University James Mark Baldwin
1893 Randolph-Macon College Celestia S. Parrish
1893 Stanford University Frank Angell b
1894 Amherst College Charles Edward Garman
1894 Denison University Clarence Luther Herrick
1894 University of Minnesota Harlow Stearns Gale
1894 University of the City of New York Charles Bemis Bliss
1894 Pennsylvania State University Erwin W. Runkle
1894 Wesleyan University Andrew C. Armstrong, Jr.
1894 Western Reserve University Herbert Austin Aikins
1895 Smith College William George Smith
1896 University of California George Malcolm Stratton b
1896 Wilson College Anna Jane McKeag
1897 Ohio State University Clark Wissler

26. 1898 Bryn Mawr College James Henry Leuba a
1898 University of Texas Not identified
1899 University of Oregon Benjamin J. Hawthorne
1900 University of Maine M . C . Fernald
1900 University of Missouri Max Frederick Meyer
1900 New York University Charles Hubbard Judd b
1900 Northwestern University Walter Dill Scott b
1900 University of Wyoming June Etta Downey
Note. This information was compiled principally from Garvey
(1929) and Murray and Rowe {1979).
a B Studied with G. Stanley Hall. Studied with Wilhelm Wundt.
March 2000 • American Psychologist 319
Hall). P o p p l e s t o n e a n d M c P h e r s o n (1984) h a v
e o b s e r v e d
that t h e r e w e r e f e w e r than 50 p s y c h o l o g y l a b o
r a t o r i e s
w o r l d w i d e b y 1900, m a k i n g the U n i t e d S t a t e
s h o m e to the
g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f them.
J a m e s M c K e e n C a t t e l l was the f o u n d e r o f t w
o o f those
e a r l y A m e r i c a n l a b o r a t o r i e s , t h o s e at the U
n i v e r s i t y o f
P e n n s y l v a n i a and C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y . H
e was the first
A m e r i c a n student to e a r n his d o c t o r a t e w i t h W
u n d t in the
n e w e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y , finishing in
1886. A s a
2 4 - y e a r - o l d g r a d u a t e student, Cattell w r o t e to

27. his parents,
g i v i n g t h e m a n d us an i m a g e o f w h a t life was l i
k e in the
initial l a b o r a t o r y o f this n e w s c i e n c e :
I spend four mornings and two afternoon's [sic] working in
Wundt's laboratory . . . . Our work is interesting. If I should
ex-
plain it to you you might not find it of vast importance, but we
discover new facts and must ourselves invent the methods we
use.
We work in a new field, where others will follow us, who must
use or correct our results. We are trying to measure the time it
takes to perform the simplest mental a c t s - - a s for example
to
distinguish whether a color is blue or red. As this time seems to
be not more than one hundredth of a second, you can imagine
this
is no easy task. (Sokal, 1981, p. 89)
T h e e a r l y p s y c h o l o g i s t s , l i k e C a t t e l l , r e
c e i v e d their
t r a i n i n g in p h i l o s o p h y d e p a r t m e n t s o f w h i
c h the n e w ex-
p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y was a part. W h e n t h e y
l o o k e d for
a c a d e m i c j o b s , those j o b s w e r e in p h i l o s o p h
y , a d i s c i p l i n e
that was, o f course, not a l a b o r a t o r y d i s c i p l i n e .
It is not
s u r p r i s i n g that m a n y u n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r
a t o r s w e r e reluc-
tant to p r o v i d e the financial r e s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y
to e s t a b -
lish, e q u i p , and m a i n t a i n t h e s e l a b o r a t o r i e s

28. . N o d o u b t m a n y
a g r e e d w i t h p h i l o s o p h e r A u g u s t C o m t e
that a s c i e n c e o f
m i n d was not p o s s i b l e . Thus, the n e w p s y c h o l o g
i s t s f o u n d
t h e m s e l v e s d e f e n d i n g the scientific nature o f t h e
i r d i s c i -
p l i n e and a r g u i n g that their l a b o r a t o r i e s n e e d
e d m o r e s p a c e
a n d e q u i p m e n t . T h e s e activities, sadly, m a y s e e
m m o r e
t r a d i t i o n a l than h i s t o r i c a l to m a n y p s y c h o l
o g i s t s t o d a y .
T y p i c a l o f t h e s e a c a d e m i c s t r u g g l e s was
the e f f o r t o f
H a r r y K i r k e W o l f e to e s t a b l i s h his l a b o r a t o
r y at the U n i -
versity o f N e b r a s k a in 1889 (see B e n j a m i n , 1991).
W o l f e ,
l i k e Cattell, had r e c e i v e d his d o c t o r a t e w i t h W
u n d t in 1886.
H e b e g a n l a b o r a t o r y w o r k at N e b r a s k a w i t
h his students
u s i n g m i n i m a l e q u i p m e n t that he built, b o r r o w
e d f r o m
o t h e r d e p a r t m e n t s , or p u r c h a s e d u s i n g
funds f r o m his li-
b r a r y b o o k b u d g e t (see F i g u r e 1). In his first
annual r e p o r t
to the regents, W o l f e a s k e d for $500 to e q u i p the l a b
o r a t o r y
at a m i n i m a l level. F i r s t he s t r e s s e d the l o w
start-up costs,
"I c a n n o t e m p h a s i z e too s t r o n g l y the n e c e s s i
t y o f p r o v i d i n g

29. s o m e f a c i l i t i e s for e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k . . . .
It is p o s s i b l e to
Figure I
Laboratory of H. K. Wolfe at the University of Nebraska Circa
1896
320 M a r c h 2000 • A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t
build up an experimental dept. in Psychology with little
outlay" (Benjamin, 1993, p. 58). Then he argued for the
promise o f the discipline, "No field o f scientific research
offers such excellent opportunities for original work;
chiefly because the soil is new" (Benjamin, 1993, p. 58).
Wolfe didn't get any money for his laboratory, so he
spent even more of his book budget for equipment and then
appealed to the regents once more in his second annual report:
The scientific nature of Psychology is not so generally recog-
nized . . . . The advantages offered by experimental
Psychology, as a
discipline in scientific methods, are not inferior to those offered
by
other experimental sciences. The measurement of the Quality,
Quan-
tity, and Time Relations of mental states is as inspiring and as
good
discipline as the determination of, say the percent of sugar in a
beet
or the variation of an electric current. (Benjamin, 1993, p. 59)
You may have noticed that W o l f e ' s appeals used agricul-
tural metaphors and examples, devices that he perhaps

30. believed would influence the administrators o f a largely
agricultural university. He should have tried some other
strategy; the university gave him no more money for his
laboratory, and he received a written warning about spend-
ing book money for other purposes.
Not all laboratory founders faced the resistance expe-
rienced by Wolfe. By the 1890s, the founding pace accel-
erated (see Table 1), and many of the new laboratories
touted the excellence of their facilities in the pages of
journals such as the American Journal o f Psychology and
Science. It even became commonplace for the psychology
laboratories to be described in the university catalogs, as
was the case for the natural science laboratories. These
brief published accounts usually named the person in
charge o f the laboratory and included descriptions of the
physical facilities, the apparatus, and sometimes the type o f
work done in the laboratory. For psychologists, this mar-
keting of the laboratory was important for student recruit-
ment, but it was also a public statement o f the scientific
legitimacy of the discipline. Psychologists could be said to
be engaged in "the flaunting o f the laboratory as evidence
of worthy membership in the fraternity of science"
(Popplestone & McPherson, 1984, p. 197).
The proliferation o f American laboratories at the turn
of the century changed the nature o f graduate education for
American psychology students. Whereas before 1900 the
majority had journeyed to one o f the European universities
for their doctoral degrees, in the 25 years after 1904 less
than 15% o f American psychologists had earned degrees
from foreign universities. These new American laborato-
ries, however, did not long remain the exclusive province
o f graduate student training and research.
In a practice that spawned some controversy (see

31. French, 1898; Wolfe, 1895), laboratory training was ex-
tended to undergraduate students in psychology. By the
first decade o f the 20th century, a year-long laboratory
course in experimental psychology had become a standard
part o f the curriculum for undergraduates studying psychol-
ogy. To meet the needs o f undergraduate laboratory work,
a number o f prominent psychologists, such as Carl Sea-
shore, Edmund Sanford, Lightner Witmer, and most nota-
bly Edward B. Titchener, published textbooks for labora-
tory training o f undergraduates. Titchener's four volumes
(1901-1905)--two for the instructor and two for the stu-
d e n t - d e s c r i b e d nearly 100 qualitative and quantitative
ex-
periments that could be conducted by undergraduate students
in a laboratory setting. Thus, the psychology laboratory, in its
first 25 years, became fully integrated into the university,
housing its community of investigators for original research
and serving as a training ground for students at all levels.
In the course of the 20th century, psychology depart-
ments have changed much, and the discipline of psychology
has changed in ways psychologists 100 years ago could never
have imagined. The psychology laboratory is still a fixture in
most colleges and universities (and in many nonacademic
settings), although the diverse brass instruments and specimen
jars that filled the laboratory shelves have been replaced
largely by a single instrument, the computer. Psychology
faculty and students (both graduate and undergraduate) con-
tinue to be involved in laboratory training, and laboratory
investigators remain plentiful in psychology today.
Still, among psychologists at the beginning o f the new
millennium, the laboratory no longer serves as an enduring
motif. Within the discipline, the icon o f the laboratory and
its attendant community o f scholars has been replaced by

32. an image of clinical psychologist and client, an image,
ironically, that has been the public's perception of psychol-
ogy since the rise o f psychoanalysis in America in the
1920s (Hornstein, 1992).
REFERENCES
Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (199t). Harry Kirke Wolfe: Pioneer in
psychology.
Lincoln: University o f Nebraska Press.
Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (1993). A history, o f psychology in
letters. Dubuque,
IA: Brown & Benchmark.
Boring, E. G. /1929). A history o f experimental psychology.
New York:
Century Company.
Bruce, R. V. (1987). The launching o f modern American
science, 1846-
1876. lthaca, NY: Comell University Press.
Capshew, J. H. (1992). Psychologists on site: A reconnaissance
o f the
historiography of the laboratory. American Psychologist, 47,
132-142.
Danziger, K. (1990). Constructing the subject: Historical
origins o f psy-
chological research. New York: Cambridge University Press.
French, F. C. (1898). The place o f experimental psychology in
the
undergraduate course. Psychological Review, 5, 5 1 0 - 5 1 2 .

33. Garvey, C. R. (1929). List o f American psychology
laboratories. Psycho-
logical Bulletin, 26, 6 5 2 - 6 6 0 .
Hornstein, G. A. (1992). The return of the repressed: P s y c h o
l o g y ' s prob-
lematic relations with psychoanalysis, 1909-1960. American
Psychol-
ogist. 47. 2 5 4 - 2 6 3 .
Murray, F. S., & Rowe, F. B. (1979). Psychology laboratories in
the
United States prior to 1900. Teaching o f Psychology, 6, 1 9 - 2
1 .
Nichols, H. (1893, October). The psychological laboratory at
Harvard.
McClure's Magazine, 1, 3 9 9 - 4 0 9 .
Popplestone, J. A., & McPherson, M. W. (1984). Pioneer
psychology
laboratories in clinical settings. In J. Brozek lEd.), Explorations
in the
history ~f psychology in the United States (pp. 196-272).
Lewisburg,
PA: Bucknell University Press.
Sokal, M. M. (1981). An education in psychology: James
McKeen Cat-
tell's journal and letters from Germany and England, 1880-1888.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Titchener, E. B. (1901-1905). Experimental psychology: A
manual oJ
laboratory practice (Vols. l - 4 ) . New York: Macmillan.

34. Wolfe, H. K. (1895). The new psychology in undergraduate
work. Psy-
chological Review, 2, 382-387.
March 2000 • American Psychologist 321
Body of the Text (new page)
Research Question or Problem
Ask yourself, “Is the question or problem clearly stated?” State
the question or problem in your own words.
Introduction
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“How many references are cited?” Review and summarize the
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own words.
Methodology
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enough to permit another researcher to attempt to replicate the
study. Ask yourself, “Does the researcher explain the methods
used in the study?” “Who or what is the population studied?”
“How were they selected?” “What did the participants do for the
study?” “What instruments were used to gather data?”
Paraphrase the methodology in your own words and cite from
the article using APA format.
Results

35. The results section of a research article reports the raw data and
statistical analysis obtained in the study. Ask yourself, “Are the
results clearly stated and understandable?” “Did the results
answer the question or clarify the hypothesis?” “Are there
tables or graphs?” Paraphrase the results in your own words and
cite from the article using APA format.
Discussion
The discussion section of a research article includes the
conclusions drawn by the author(s). Ask yourself, “Are the
results discussed?” “Are there suggestions for practical
implications?” “Are there recommendations for further
research?” Write your answers to these questions in your own
words and cite from the article using APA format.
List of References
The reference section of a research article lists the
bibliographic references for any studies cited. Ask yourself,
“Were the references selected related to the author's research?”
“Were the references cited within the body of the text?” “Were
the references from the same source or were there a variety of
sources?” “Were the references current or out-dated?”
Personal Reaction
The personal reaction section is included here to enable you to
analyse critically the knowledge you gained about the topic
researched, about methodology, about APA style, and about the
meaningfulness of the research. Ask yourself, “Was it well
written and organized?” “What did I learn from reading the
study?” “What further questions did it generate?” State your
reactions in your own words.
Running Head: PSYCHOLOGY LABORATORY OF 20TH

36. CENTURY 1
PSYCHOLOGY LABORATORY OF 20TH CENTURY
3
Article:
The Psychology Laboratory at the Turn of the 20th Century
By Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr.
Alice Chan (Student)
AU ID 2750777
PSYCH 290
Journal Article Critique 1
Shelley Sikora (tutor)
November 03, 2011
Body of the Text
1. Research Question or Problem
The purpose of the article is to outline the influence that
psychology laboratories have had on modern psychology, and
how experimental laboratory has changed psychology into a
discipline of science.
2. Introduction
During the 1800s, psychologists made great efforts to change
psychology to a discipline of science instead of being a part of
philosophy or a mystical subject. They believed that psychology
is testable like many other science curriculums. According to
the article, by 1880 the experimental laboratory was the “public

37. icon for natural science” (Ludy, 2000, p.318). The first
experimental laboratory was founded by Wundt in 1879 and this
marks the beginning of modern psychology as science. Many
great psychologists, stated in the article, have shown great
support and attraction towards the idea of the experimental
laboratory. Although the laboratory is no longer viewed as an
icon for psychology, it is still an important training place for all
undergraduate psychology students.
3. Methodology
In this article, the author uses history to support his argument
that the psychology laboratory was instrumental in transforming
psychology from philosophy to science. References of famous
psychologists were used and cited to support the author’s
historical approach for the article. Table 1 (Ludy, 2000, p319)
is a list of laboratories that have been built from 1883 to 1900
in the United States. Figure 1 (Ludy, 2000, p.320) is an example
of how the early psychology experimental laboratories looked
like.
4. Results
The experimental laboratory does mark the beginning of
psychology and the emergence from philosophy. Ludy uses
reference, dated back from 1800, and cited phrases from famous
psychologists to explain how the first Wundt Laboratory aided
the growth and spread of Psychology worldwide. A list of
laboratories from table 1 (Ludy, 2000, p.320) demonstrates how
rapidly Psychology spread after the beginning of the Wundt
Laboratory in the United States. Cattell’s letter to his parents,
cited in the article, gives an example of what was tested in the
early laboratory. In addition, the author cites Wolfe’s second
annual report to demonstrate how psychologists of the time
believed that psychology was a science like any other. Figure 1
(Ludy, 2000, p.320) is a psychology laboratory that shows the

38. similarity with other natural science laboratories. In addition
important psychologists, like Harry Kirke Wolfe, Wundt, and
Hall are mentioned for their contribution and support of the
psychology lab. The “American Journal of Psychology and
Science”, mention by Ludy, shows that the public believed that
psychology laboratories were no different from other natural
science laboratories. At the end of the article Ludy uses
references, dated after the 1900, from various sources to show
how the use of psychology laboratories changed in the 20th
century. According to the cited work, the psychology
laboratory is no longer viewed as an icon but a training ground
which all undergraduate psychology students must go through.
5. Discussion
Ludy (2000) concluded that the psychology laboratory “no
longer serves as an enduring motif.” (Ludy, 2000, p.321) After
the 20th century, psychology has become a discipline of science
and the laboratory is no longer an icon; it is just a standard
training ground for all psychology students. After Wundt’s first
laboratory, “proliferation of American laboratories at the turn of
the century changed the nature of graduate education.” (Ludy,
2000, p.321) The laboratory is no longer a place for scholars
and psychologists; it has become part of a curriculum that all
undergrad psychology students must enrol in to graduate.
6. List of Reference
The references selected by the author support the article’s
purpose and are cited within the body of the text. Because the
method used in this article was an historical approach, therefore
the references date all the way back from the 1800s to the
1990s. The author used a variety of sources to prove his work
and reasoning.
7. Personal Reaction

39. I found this to be an interesting article. I have always wondered
where psychology emerged from and how it has been
scientifically accepted. Contrary to my expectations, the
experimental laboratory is the key to all the answers. I was
impressed with early psychologists’ determination and diligence
in using the scientific method to test their hypotheses, thereby
changing public opinion towards an acceptance of psychology
as a new science.
After reading the article I have a few questions in mind. The
author did not mention the view from the other natural science
curriculum, do they support psychology as a counterpart to
science or are they against it? Also, are there any psychologists
against the experimental laboratory during that time? If so why
or why not?
Reference
Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. (2000). The Psychology Laboratory at the
Turn of the 20th Century. Texax A&M Universit, 55(3), 318-
321. Doi:10.1037//0003-066X.55.3.318