2. The story of the First Triumvirate
The triumvirate went to work
straight away. First up was to support
Caesar in his campaign for
consulship. With the support of
Crassus and Pompey, Caesar won the
election and was consul. His
colleague for the year was
Calpurnius Bibulus
Caesar got straight to business
attempting to pass his legislation to
support himself, Pompey and
Crassus. Unfortunately for Caesar the
senate was hostile and Bibulus was
prepared to block him at every
opportunity.
3. He tried to be nice to start
off with. He would ask the
Senate’s opinion and was
courteous to Bibulus.
He presented his bill to
provide for Pompey’s
veterans to the senate –
he was trying to
compromise – he stated
that he was willing to
make changes if
objections were
reasonable.
4. The Senate refused and continued to block
him time after time. Caesar was not willing to
be defeated so he presented the land bill to
the assembly to attempt to get around the
Senate. Unfortunately for Caesar Bibulus
vetoed the bill. Caesar demanded that he
withdraw the veto but he refused
Caesar realised that the only way available for
him to pass this bill was to use his real
strengths – his military force. He called on
Pompey and Crassus to express their approval.
Caesar asked Pompey publically whether he
would defend the people’s rights. Caesar
replied “if it is a question of swords, he could
produce a sword and a shield as well”. Plutarch
even says that Pompey “filled the city with his
soldiers and held everyone down by force”
(though he’s probably exaggerating a little –
more likely some of his veterans, who were
now private citizens, were brought into the
forum.
Coin of Marcus Licinius Crassus
5. As a result of this use of force some rioting
occurred. Bibulus, Cato and Lucullus were
threated. Bibulus even had a basket of dung
thrown over his head.
Bibulus wanted revenge. He realised that he
couldn’t do anything to block
Caesar in the normal way so he proclaimed
that the remaining days of the year
were to be regarded as a ‘sacred period’ –
meaning that it was legally impossible
for the people even to meet in an assembly.
Caesar ignored it and declared his land bill
passed. Bibulus saw that there was an
implicit threat in this and isolated himself in
his house for the rest of the year. He said
He would watch the sky for unfavourable
omens (taking the auspices) – with the
Intention of making the rest of Caesar’s
legislation technically invalid. What it really
did, however, was to give Caesar the
opportunity to govern alone and do what he
pleased.
Crassus -
Fun Fact: After Crassus’ death,
a story later surfaced that the
Parthians poured molten gold
into Crassus’ mouth as
punishment for his greed.
6. Caesar used the tribune Vatinius and the
popular Assembly to pass laws including
Pompey’s action in Asia, the Land bill to
give land to his veterans, The settlement of
Crassus’ tax rebates. Caesar also passed the
Lex Vatinius, giving him a command in Gaul
for 5 years, after his term as consul.
Caesar was concerned about loyalty. To
ensure that Pompey was on his side, he
arranged for his daughter Julia to marry
Pompey.
Pompey
7. Pompey had been making statements
saying that he did not approve of
Caesars’s use of force, but he couldn’t
afford to get Caesar offside by saying
no to the marriage.
Caesar continued to legislate
throughout 59 without any thought for
the constitution and used the threat of
force to suppress any opposition. The
initial alarm felt by the optimates
when they learned of the triumvirate’s
existence turned to fear. There were
even demonstrations against the three
at gladiatorial shows and the theatre.
Actors made fun of Pompey, no one
cheered Caesar when he entered the
theatre. Caesar was a little concerned.
Pompey was the main target of the
oppositions attack – he would have
been the most upset as he had always
wanted acceptance and respect.
8. Cicero had refused to join the
triumvirate in 60BC. He was
friends with Pompey though so
he did not fight what they were
doing even though he hoped
that they would break up.
Caesar realised that Cicero
might talk Pompey into leaving
the group so tried to buy his
loyalty by offering him a post
on his staff during his
governorship of Gaul. Cicero
refused again.
Caesar wanted to ensure that
Rome was in ‘safe hands’ in 58
before he left for his province –
he needed a tribune that could
keep an eye on Pompey to
make sure that Cicero and Cato
didn’t convince him to break
their allegiance.
9. In 59BC P. Clodius Pulcher changed his
status to that of a plebeian with the help of
Caesar so that he could be elected tribune
in 58 – he HATED Cicero and wanted
revenge (Clodius had been charged with
sacrilege and involved in the notorious
Bona Dea trial. Cicero had broken his alibi,
making his prosecution certain, but he was
acquitted after the blatant bribery of the
jury by Crassus)
Towards the end of 58 Cicero realised the
danger. Cicero hoped that Pompey would
prevent Clodius from attacking him but was
not convinced that Pompey would support
him.
During his tribunate Clodius proposed a
number of measures to gain popularity
with the urban masses – free corn, banning
the use of omens in order to stop public
business, and legalising clubs and
associations (which became the basis of
the gangs used to undermine law and order
used in Rome)
10. More importantly he introduced a
bill to banish any magistrate who
had put to death a citizen without
trial – this was aimed at Cicero as
he had put the Catilinarian
conspirators to death in 63)
Cicero was in trouble. He tried to
find friends but everywhere he
went he was accosted by Clodius
with a band of insolent ruffians
around him.
He asked for Pompey’s help, but
Pompey failed to support him. He
had no choice – he left Rome in
fear. Once he had left Clodius
passed a law officially exiling him
and preventing him from living
less than 650kms from Rome.
Clodius also managed to remove
Cato – by sending him on a
special mission to Cyprus.
AU, å , 8.17 gr.
Bare head of Sextus Pompey to
right. Legend MAG PIVS-IMP ITER
(Magnus Pius Imperator Iter). All in
oak wreath.
Confronted bare heads of Cnaeus
Pompey the Great and his son. On
sides, a lituus and a tripod . The
legend PRAEF/
CLAS.ET.ORAE/MARIT.EX.S.C
Minted in Sicily, around 42 BC
11. At this point Caesar left Rome for the
province. He felt that the Triumvirate was
safe from threat.
Pompey was having a relatively
successful year however Clodius was also
causing problems for him. He made
changings to Pompey’s eastern
arrangements, replaced Pompey’s
appointee to the high priesthood and
freed Pompey’s hostages. They attacked
Pompey verbally and instigated a plot to
make Pompey believe that his life was
threated. Clodius attacked and destroyed
Pompey’s house. AT this point Pompey
did not show himself in public for the
remainder of Clodius’ tribunate. There is
a question on whether Clodius was acting
on his own or whether Crassus was
behind these attacks.
The treatment of Pompey by Clodius,
together with the belief that his life was
in danger, caused Pompey to use his own
gang to cause trouble.
12. The gang warfare at this time
highlighted the conflict between
Pompey and Crassus.
Pompey needed supporters. He
wanted Cicero back. At the same
time, however, he did not want to
upset Caesar so he sent one of
the tribunes for 57 to ask
permission to bring him back.
Caesar grudgingly agreed.
This caused more problems for
Pompey because Clodius tried to
use violence and rioting to stop
Pompey’s bill to recall Cicero but
Pompey used his own men to
give support. The bill was passed
and Cicero returned to Rome.
Cicero
13. Cicero needed to ‘pay back’
Pompey for his support and
recall so he spoke in the Senate
claiming that Pompey should be
given a special command. There
had been many riots in Rome
due to food shortages. People
were hungry. There wasn’t much
corn available and the prices
were very high.
The people wanted Pompey in
charge of grain supplies and
Cicero spoke in favour of the
appointment of Pompey as
Curator of the Grain Supply.
According to Plutarch this ‘made
Pompey once again virtually the
master of all Roman possessions
by sea and land’. It would also
have made Crassus and Caesar
very jealous – remember though
that Caesar was off in Gaul with
his own problems.
14. Cicero, who was still trying to break
up the alliance and to repair his
friendship with Pompey and the
optimates, again brought up the
question of Caesar’s land bill (lex
Campania). Cicero wanted it repealed
and modified. He believed that
Pompey would benefit – Campania
was a valuable source of revenue
which could help Pompey with his job
as grain controller and because it
might win Pompey back some
senatorial support
There was a further threat to Caesar
when a candidate for consulship for
55, L. Domitius Ahenobarbus,
declared that if he were elected for
the following year he would
immediately initiate a move to have
Caesar recalled from Gaul.
15. So the triumvirate was on rocky ground.
All three had their own interests, but
needed each other. Other forces were out
to encourage their demise. Forces were
against them.
Despite this Crassus was not keen for the
alliance to end – he wanted to use the
triumvirate to gain an appointment which
would give him the same sort of prestige
as that enjoyed by Pompey and Caesar.
Caesar needed the triumvirate to continue
– if it didn’t he would be recalled to Rome.
He wasn’t finished his conquest of Gaul
and it would be a political disaster for him
to be recalled at this point. Pompey wasn’t
sure if the optimates would accept him if
he broke from the coalition – and he
would continue to be harassed by Clodius
and Crassus. He also knew that it was in
his best interest to maintain his friendship
with Caesar
Crassus from the
Series SPARTACUS
16. Caesar was in Cisalpine Gaul for the
winter so Crassus travelled out to tell
Caesar that the triumvirate was in
trouble – especially that Cicero was
meddling again. Caesar needed to sort
these problems out, especially before
he went back to Transalpine Gaul for
some more campaigning and before
Pompey went to Sardinia to do some
organising as Curator of the Grain
Supply.
Caesar had to take action. He had too
much at stake for the triumvirate to
collapse. He moved to Luca (a town in
his province nearest to Rome). The
three men met there and the decisions
that they made provided for a public
reconciliation between Crassus and
Pompey and strengthened the position
for all three.
Caesar from the
Series SPARTACUS
17. The three made plans for the
future. Pompey and Crassus
would stand for their second joint
consulship in the following year.
During this consulship they would
look after Caesar – he wanted an
extension for his command in
Gaul. They would also make sure
that they looked after their own
proconsular futures. They also
decided that they would impress
on Cicero that there was to be no
discussion of the lex Campania or
of Caesar’s recall. Crassus was told
to stop associating with Clodius.
He was also asked to try and
persuade Clodius to leave Pompey
alone.
18. It wasn’t so easy. Although they
decided to run for consulship, they had
to convince people to vote for them.
They had many powerful enemies
including rival candidate Domitius
Ahenobarbus. He was a big concern for
the triumvirate as he threatened to
recall Caesar if he won.
Pompey and Crassus knew it was going
to be difficult to win the election so
they manipulated the system. They
could not afford to risk standing at a
normal election so they decided to
delay submitting their nominations as
long as possible but more importantly
they worked hard to prevent the
current consuls (56BC) from holding an
election until the end of their term.
They even used violence.
19. This was sneaky… and smart. By the
end of the 56 consulship, no election
had been held – so there were no
consuls in office to actually hold an
election! This meant that an interrex
had to be appointed. An interrex was
an appointed official with patrician
status – he had five days in which to
hold an election. If he failed another
interrex would be appointed etc.)
So… an interrex who was friendly with
Pompey was appointed. He only
proposed two candidates for the
election – Pompey and Crassus! They
were elected of course. It wasn’t all so
nice and simple however – there was
much bribery, violence and fighting
during this process. Domitius
Ahenobarbus was badly injured.
RRC 458/1
Obverse: Head of Venus right,
wearing diadem. Border of dots.
Reverse: Aeneas left, carrying
palladium in right hand and
Anchises on left shoulder; on
right, CAESAR downwards. Border
of dots.
20. Once ‘elected’ they got to work
quickly. They used a tribune
(C.Trebonius) to get their proconsular
commands. Crassus was given the
province of Syria and he hoped it
would give him a chance to invade
Parthia and win him military glory.
Pompey was granted the two Spain's.
He was allowed to stay in Rome
though and use his legates to govern
his provinces. He used his role as
commander of the grain supply as his
excuse to stay in Rome – really he
wanted to stay to keep an eye on the
city and his opponents (and friends!)
These were important proconsular
commands – they were for 5 years and
allowed Pompey and Crassus to make
war and peace without prior reference
to the senate and the people. Crassus
didn’t even wait til the end of his
consulship before leaving!
Reverse: Trophy with oval shield
and carnyx in right hand and
oblong shield and carnyx in left
hand; on left, kneeling bearded
captive with hands tied behind
back; on right, seated female
captive resting head in right
hand; in exergue, CAESAR.
Border of dots.
21. Once Pompey and Crassus had what
they wanted they got to work in
helping Caesar. They secured a
passage of law extending Caesar’s
command in Gaul for a further five
years. It looked like everything was
back on track for the triumvirate.
Pompey remained in Italy, due to the
corn supply commission. This made
him the strongest. He was in Rome,
he wasn’t distracted by attacks or
fighting, and he had the ear of his
supporters. In the second half of 54BC
his wife died in childbirth. Julia was
Caesar’s daughter. Her death didn’t
immediately cause problems but it
gave Pompey the chance to move his
support away from Caesar and link
himself to another important family
Julia from Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum.
The inscription reads: "Julia Caesaris; Caesar's
daughter; Pompey's wife."
22. Things were getting very
bad in Rome. Anarchy and
violence were rife. The
elections of 54 were
delayed. Even worse, all the
candidates for 53 were
awaiting prosecution for
corruption. A political crisis
was developing and
Pompey was in a good
position to take advantage
of any situation which
might call for the
appointment of someone
with exceptional powers.
There were rumours of a
dictatorship but Pompey
did not want it
23. It appeared that there was much
resistance to the triumvirate. The
conservatives (the optimates) were
still hostile to Pompey and Caesar
and attacked their supporters
Vatinius and Gabinius in the courts.
Then things became even worse for
the relationship between Pompey
and Caesar – Crassus died! The
Roman Army had been defeated by
the Parthians and Crassus died at
Carrhae. It seriously split Pompey and
Caesar. There was no longer anyone
to mediate between them and bring
them together.
Caesar was worried. He even tried to
get Pompey to marry another of his
family members – his great niece
Octavia. He was even prepared to
divorce his own wife to marry
Pompey’s daughter. Pompey refused.
Roman statue of Pompey, at the Villa Arconati a Castellazzo
di Bollate (Milan, Italy). It was brought there from Rome in
1627 by Galeazzo Arconati.
24. The violence and anarchy in Rome was
getting worse. Pompey realised that he
could exploit the situation for his own
benefit
Pompey’s supporter Milo was a
candidate for consul in 53BC. Clodius,
Pompey’s foe, was standing for the
praetorship. These two men had been
enemies for a long time. Tensions were
high, and combined with the
atmosphere of anarchy and violence at
the time, armed conflict between the
two broke out. Clodius was wounded
and carried to a tavern where, on the
orders of Milo, he was killed. His body
was taken to Rome and placed in the
Curia (Senate House) to be cremated
The blaze of the funeral pyre burnt out
of control, perhaps at the hands of
Clodius’ supporters, and the Senate
House was burnt down.
25. Things didn’t end there and Rome
continued in it’s spiral to being out
of control. Clodius’ wife stirred up
the mob and they raided and
damaged the houses of Milo and the
interrex Lepidus.
There were no consuls in Rome. The
streets were in anarchy. Violence
had become normal. Both Patricians
and Plebeians feared for their safety.
In this critically desperate situation
the senate issued SENATUS
CONSULTUM ULTIMUM giving
Pompey the authority to raise troops
and restore order since he was the
only one with imperium.
Rome the Series
26. Over the next month a series of
interreges were appointed but failed to
hold any elections. People were
demanding that Pompey should be
appointed dictator to restore order and
control in Rome.
Still, the Optimates were not in favour
of a dictatorship. The experiences of
Sulla were still fresh in their minds. As a
compromise they suggested that
Pompey should be appointed as a
consul without a colleague (SOLE
CONSULSHIP). It was expected that
once Pompey had dealt with the
emergency he would arrange for the
election of a colleague, making the
return to normal government easier.
27. This was another extraordinary
command. It was only three years since
his last consulship – it should have been
ten. The most unusual thing, however,
was that it was proposed by the
conservatives and yet it was a very
unconstitutional position.
Once he took up the job (52BC), Pompey
went to work passing three important
pieces of legislation.
The first was a law against public
violence. It was under these that Milo
was prosecuted. This trial caused
disturbances in Rome and Pompey was
forced to bring troops into the Forum to
maintain order. Pompey probably saw
Milo as a rival and wanted him
convicted. His troops were a way of
ensuring this. Despite Cicero’s defence,
Milo was condemned for Clodius’ death
and sent into exile.
Pompey in the Temple of
Jerusalem, by Jean Fouquet.
28. The next two laws had an impact on
Caesar though Pompey was not
deliberately trying to undermine him.
Firstly Pompey passed a law stipulating
a five year interval between urban
magistracies and provincial commands.
The second law stated a candidate had
to stand in person. This meant that
Caesar had to return in 49BC. He
wanted a second consulship in 48BC
because this would allow him to leave
Rome again in 47BC and avoid
prosecution. Pompey arranged for
tribunes to pass a law that would
exclude Caesar from the laws and he
could stand in absentia. In this way he
could remain in Gaul as long as
possible. However, in a hope to keep
Pompey on their side, the senate
extended Pompey’s own command
over Spain for another five years..
Caesar from ROME HBO
29. At this stage (52) Pompey
maintained a position somewhere
between Caesar and the optimates.
Caesar had been made aware that
his political survival depended on
Pompey’s support and the senate
was aware that it needed Pompey to
preserve law and order. This was a
position of power for Pompey that
could not last. Caesars enemies
would not be stopped from their
efforts to have him recalled as soon
as possible, which would upset the
balance and force Pompey to
commit himself openly to one side
or the other.
