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1. Different polarity firing sequences for electrodes in the steam generator as found in Stan
Meyer's literature
Trialling the multifunctional square wave generator to be used to test circuitry and
components of the VIC and steam resonator
Detailed scientific explanations of the electrolysis of water, magnetic effects on water,
electromagnetic effects on water and the water redox process
Different tube set configurations, thicknesses and gaps between the anode and cathode
tubes found in Stan Meyer's literature
ESP32 microcontroller programming principles for operation of steam resonator
ESP32 microcontroller programming principles for pulse train to VIC
Paul Butcher

2. Steam resonator: the different polarity firing sequences across the parallel plates (or
could be concentric tubes) are as follows:
Polarity firing sequence 1 for a pair of plates: WFC Hydrogen Gas Management System Memo
WFC 422DA page 3-25 and diagram 3-46 on page 3-50 and also Steam Resonator Memo WFC 430
figure 11-7 on page 11-13. For a pair of plates the sequence is: -
B - B-
OFF OFF
B+ B+
OFF OFF
B- B-
OFF OFF
B+ B+
The above firing sequence will cause the water molecules to oscillate between the plates, collide
and heat up.
Polarity firing sequence 2 for two pairs of plates: Steam Resonator Memo WFC 430 third
paragraph on page 11-4, figure 11-1 on page 11-7, figure 11-3 on page 11-9 and figure 11-4 on
page 11-10.
Different polarity firing
sequences for electrodes in
the steam generator as
found in Stan Meyer's
literature

3. Left-hand pair of plates
B+ OFF
OFF B-
B+ OFF
OFF B-
Right-hand pair of plates
B- OFF
OFF B+
B- OFF
OFF B+
The above firing sequence for either pair of plates will also cause the water molecules to oscillate,
collide and heat up. Now, as noted on page 11-4 (last paragraph), the voltage wave will travel up /
along the surfaces of the plates. So polarity firing sequence 2 is probably better suited for use in a
home heating unit because of the vertical pumping action that it also causes to happen which is
mentioned in the second paragraph of page 11-5 and also shown in figure 11-6 on page 11-12.
Polarity firing sequence 3 for two pairs of plates
Unfortunately, in the first and third paragraphs on page 11-5 of Steam Resonator Memo WFC 430
there is a different firing sequence which is: -
Left-hand pair of plates
B+ 0FF
0FF B+
B+ 0FF
0FF B+
Right-hand pair of plates
B- 0FF
0FF B-
B- 0FF

4. 0FF B-
I don’t understand this sequence and how it is supposed to work on the water molecule dipoles. Is
this sequence perhaps a mistake because it does not match firing sequence 2 ?
Polarity firing sequence 4 for a pair of plates: Steam Resonator WFC 427 DA Figure 1-2: Dual
switchover circuit. The firing sequence for pair of plates is the same as the left-hand pair of plates
in polarity firing sequence 3 above because it is shown as: -
B+ OFF
OFF B+
B+ OFF
OFF B+
Again, I don’t understand how this sequence is supposed to act on the water molecule dipoles. Is
this sequence also a mistake because it does not match the sequence for the left-hand pair of
plates in firing sequence 2 ?
Polarity firing sequence 5 (applicable to spherical water heater) as described on page K3 and
figure 32 on page K4 of the Water Fuel Cell Dealership Sales Manual 1986. This firing sequence
consists of only positive voltage pulses being applied to a spherical water bath which from all
angles causes repulsion of the positive side of the water molecule dipoles. This is supposed to
result in constant collision of the water molecules as they are repeatedly driven towards the middle
of the sphere ? I don’t understand why nothing is said on pages K3 or K4 about the interaction of
the positive voltage pulses and the negative side of the water molecule dipoles?

5. https://www.youtube.com/embed/QXMpBZp0xZU
Trialling the multifunctional
square wave generator to be
used to test circuitry and
components of the VIC and
steam resonator

7. Detailed scientific explanations of the electrolysis of water is detailed below and the electric effects
on water, magnetic effects on water, electromagnetic effects on water and the water redox process
can all be accessed using the links immediately below: -
Electric effects on water
Magnetic effects on water
Electromagnetic effects on water
Water redox processes
Electrolysis of Water
Electrolysis of water is its decomposition to give hydrogen and oxygen gases due to an electric
current.
2 H2
O + electrical energy (+ heat energy) O2
+ 2 H2
'I propose to distinguish these bodies by calling those anions which go to the anode ....and those
passing to the cathode, cations '
Detailed scientific
explanations of the
electrolysis of water,
magnetic effects on water,
electromagnetic effects on
water and the water redox
process

8. Michael Faraday 1834
Introduction
Creating an electric potential through water causes positive ions, including the inherent hydrogen
ions (H3
O+), to move towards the negative electrode (cathode) and negative ions, including the
inherent hydroxide ions (OH−), to move towards the positive electrode (anode). With a sufficient
potential difference, this may cause electrolysis with oxygen gas being produced at the anode and
hydrogen gas produced at the cathode (see [1878] for current reviews). f The electrolysis g of water
usually involves dilute, or moderately concentrated, salt solutions to reduce the power loss driving
the current through the solution and catalyze the reaction (see below). However, the presence of
salt is not a requirement for electrolysis. h Although often taught as an uncomplicated topic, the
electrolysis of water does not involve easy to understand concepts; particularly if including the
necessary mass transport and kinetics [4168],
Thus,
Anode +ve i 6H2
O(l) O2
(g) + 4H3
O+(aq) + 4e−(to
anode) b
E° = +1.229 V,
pH 0 d
E°' = +0.815 V
Cathode −ve
4e−(from
cathode) + 4H2
O(l) 2H2
(g) +
4OH−(aq)
E° = −0.828 V,
pH 14
E°' = −0.414 V
Overall
2H2
O(l) 2H2
(g)
+ O2
(g)
ΔG°' = +474.3 kJ ˣ mol−1
where (l), (g), and (aq) show the states of the material as being a liquid, a gas, or an aqueous
solution. The electrical circuit passes the electrons back from the anode to the cathode. The
reactions are heterogeneous, taking place at the boundary between the electrode and the
electrolyte with the aqueous boundary layer subject to concentration and electrical potential
gradients, and with the presence of the generated gaseous nanobubbles and microbubbles. When
salts are present, enabling greater electron flow, the primary reaction may differ; for example, on
electrolysis of an aqueous solution of copper chloride, a deposit of metallic copper and chlorine gas
are produced, with no production of oxygen or hydrogen gases. Even when oxygen and hydrogen
gases are produced, their production may not be the primary reactions [4167],
primary action 2 Na2
SO4
(aq) 4 Na° (at cathode) + 2 SO4
° (at anode)
secondary action at cathode 4 Na° + 4 H2
O (l) 4 NaOH (aq) + 2 H2
(g)
secondary action at anode 2 H2
O (l) + 2 SO4
° O2
(g) + 2 H2
SO4
(aq)
secondary action in bulk 2 H2
SO4
(aq) + 4 NaOH (aq) 2 Na2
SO4
(aq) + 4 H2
O (l)
overall 2H2
O(l) 2H2
(g) + O2
(g)

9. with the (regenerated) Na2
SO4
acting as a catalyst. Aqueous NaCl electrolysis, however, produces
mainly oxygen and hydrogen gases with only traces of chlorine gas or sodium metal unless the
NaCl is concentrated.
Water electrolysis electrode potentials with pH
The structural and thermodynamic properties for water surfaces in the vicinity of the electric field
exerted by the metal electrodes have been simulated [3829]. Generally, the water adjacent to the
electrodes c will change pH due to the ions produced or consumed. If a suitable porous membrane
separates the electrode compartments, then the concentration of H3
O+ next to the anode (anolyte)
and OH− next to the cathode (catholyte) are both expected to increase more than if there is free
mixing between the electrodes. There will also be an increase in their respective conductivities.
Without such a membrane, most of these ions will neutralize each other. Small but expected
differences in the anolyte and catholyte pHs cause only a slight change to the overall potential
difference required (1.229 V). Increasing the anolyte acid content due to the H3
O+ produced will
increase its electrode potential (for example: at pH 4, E = +0.992 V), and increasing the catholyte
alkaline content due to the OH− produced will make its electrode potential more negative (for
example: at pH 10, E = −0.592 V). If the anode reaction is forced to run at pH 14 and the cathode
reaction is run at pH 0.0, then the electrode potentials are +0.401 V and 0 V, respectively (see
above right). d
(a) Anode pH 0 2 H2
O O2
+ 4 H+ + 4 e− E° = +1.229 V
(b) Anode pH 14 4 OH− O2
+H2
O + 4 e− E° = +0.401 V
(c) Cathode pH 0 4 H+ + 4 e− 2 H2
E° = 0.0 V
(d) Cathode pH 14 4 H2
O + 4 e− 2 H2
+ 4 OH− E° = −0.828 V
Although electrolysis can be achieved with a (minimum) voltage of +0.403 V (see equations b and
c, above) [2515], it does not break the thermodynamic requirement of 1.229 V as further energy is
required to keep the electrode compartments at the required solute concentrations and pHs.
The layer next to the surface of the electrode determines the rate of the reaction [3831]. If it is
stagnant, molecules and ions have to diffuse to and from the electrode, restricting the rate of
reaction (mass transfer limitation) that is reported for current densities below 1.3 kA ˣ m−2 in chlor-
alkali electrolysis. e The mobility of the hydration layer nearest to the electrode (~5 Å) decreases
upon positive potentials while increasing upon negative potentials [3863]. This is because, at
positive potentials, the hydrogen bonding network gets ice-like structured parallel to the electrode,
while at negative interfaces, it is disrupted due to the hydrogen atoms pointing at the surface.
Additionally, there may be a high accumulation of hydroxide ions at positive electrodes that
significantly lower the oxygen solubility. Above 3.9 kA ˣ m−2, there is rapid convectional transport
and no mass transport limitations.

10. The current flowing indicates the rate of electrolysis. The amount of product formed can be
calculated directly from the duration and current flowing, as 96,485 coulombs (i.e., one faraday)
delivers one mole of electrons, with one faraday ideally producing 0.5 moles of H2
plus 0.25 moles
of O2
. Thus, one amp flowing for one second (one coulomb) produces 5.18 µmol H2
(10.455 µg,
0.1177 mL at STP) and 2.59 µmol O2
(82.888 µg, 0.0588 mL at STD; 4.9 kW h/m3 H2
at 60%
efficiency), if there are no side reactions at the electrodes;
that is
Number of moles = Coulombs/(unsigned numeric charge on the ion ˣ faraday)
Number of moles = (Current in amperes ˣ time in seconds)/(unsigned numeric charge on the ion ˣ
faraday)
The gases produced at the electrodes may dissolve, with their equilibrium solubility proportional to
their partial pressure as gases in the atmosphere above the electrolytic surface. Oxygen gas is
poorly soluble (≈ 44 mg ˣ kg−1, ≈ 1.4 mM at 0.1 MPa and 20 °C, but only ≈ 0.29 mM against its
normal atmospheric partial pressure). Hydrogen gas is less soluble (≈ 1.6 mg ˣ kg−1, ≈ 0.80 mM at
0.1 MPa and 20 °C but only ≈ 0.44 nM against its very low normal atmospheric partial pressure). It
may take a considerable time for the solubilities to drop from their initially-super-saturated state to
their equilibrium values after the electrolysis.
Although theoretically, as described above, the current passing should determine the amounts of
hydrogen and oxygen formed, several factors ensure that somewhat lower amounts of gas are
actually found;
(i) some electrons (and products) are used up in side-reactions,
(ii) some of the products are catalytically reconverted to water at the electrodes, particularly
if there is no membrane dividing the electrolysis compartments,
(iii) some hydrogen may absorb into the cathode (particularly if palladium is used),
(iv) some oxygen oxidizes the anode,
(v) some gas remains held up in the nanobubbles for a considerable time, and
(vi) some gas may escape measurement.
Current versus voltage in water electrolysis
The above description hides much important science and grossly over-simplifies the system. The
potential required at any position within the electrolytic cell is determined by the localized
concentration of the reactants and products, including the local pH of the solution, instantaneous
gas partial pressure, and effective electrode surface area loss due to attached gas bubbles.

11. The variation in potential across the cell is not uniform, and there is evidence of the formation of
somewhat kinetically stable large-scale charge zones [3557]. In addition, a greater potential
difference (called overpotential [3141]) is required at both electrodes to overcome the activation
energy barriers and insulating bubble coverage, and then to deliver a significant reaction rate.
Typically at suitable electrodes, such as those made of platinum, the overpotential adds about half
a volt to the potential difference between the electrodes. The use of different catalysts to reduce
the overpotential has been discussed [4213]. In addition, a further potential difference is required
to drive the current through the electrical resistance of the electrolytic cell and circuit. For a
(typical) one-ohm cell circuit resistance, a each amp current flow would require a further one volt
and waste one watt of power. This power (and consequent energy) loss (≈ 20%, [1978]) causes the
electrolyte to warm up during electrolysis.
To clarify:
The minimum necessary cell voltage to start water electrolysis is the potential 1.229 V.
The potential necessary to start water electrolysis without withdrawing heat from the surroundings
is
−ΔH°'/nF = 1.481 V
This results in at least a 21% unavoidable loss of efficiency. Usually, further heat is generated, and
efficiency lost, from the overpotentials applied. Additionally, energy is wasted due to the
evaporation of water from within the wet gases evolved.
The efficiency of electrolysis [1876] increases with the temperature as the hydrogen-bonding
reduces. However, due to the endergonic process, the heat demand increases as the electrical
demand decreases, mostly balancing overall energy demand. If the pressure over the electrolysis is
increased, then more current passes for the same applied voltage. However, the output of gas per
coulomb and the heating effect are both decreased. This is due to the increased solubility of the
gases and smaller bubbles, reducing cell resistance and increasing recombination reactions.
Although reducing the distance between electrodes reduces the resistance of the electrolysis
medium, the process may suffer if the closeness allows a build-up of gas between these electrodes
[1876]. Low to higher pulsed potential increases the reaction (current) and accelerates both the
movement of bubbles from the electrode surface and the mass transfer rate in the electrolyte,
which lowers the electrochemical polarization in the diffusion layer and further increases hydrogen
production efficiency [2075]. The rate of change of the current density (and hence efficiency) can
be increased using a magnetic field [2075, 3041] with or without optical enhancement. [2941]. The
investment costs of electrolysis have been reviewed [3255].
Pure water conducts an electric current very poorly and, for this reason, is difficult (slow) to
electrolyze, except if using deep-sub-Debye-length nanogap electrochemical cells [4304]. Usually,

12. however, some salts will be added or present in tap and ground waters which will be sufficient to
allow electrolysis to proceed significantly. The gases produced may be due to secondary reactions
(see above) [4167]. Such salts, and particularly chloride ions, may then undergo redox reactions at
an electrode. These side reactions both reduce the efficiency of the electrolysis reactions (above)
and produce new solutes. Other electrolytic reactions may occur at the electrodes so producing
further solutes and gases. In addition, these solutes may react together to produce other materials.
Together the side reactions are complex, and this complexity increases somewhat when the
voltage applied to the cell is greater than that required by the above reactions and processes. The
likely reactions within the electrode compartments are described below. Some of these may only
occur to a minimal extent, and other reactions may also be occurring that are not included.
Standard electrode potentials are shown below.
Electrode compartment contents in water (NaCl) electrolysis
Electrolysis compartments.
The effects of current, salt concentration, and time on the pH and alkalinity of the electrolytic
solutions has been investigated [4039]. A representation of the compartments in the electrolytic
cell is shown right, with some of their constituent molecules, ions, and radicals. Other materials
may be present, and some of the materials given may be at very low concentrations or have short
half-lives.
Ozone, O3
Noteworthy amongst the side products is ozone (O3
, see left). The relative amount of O3
produced
(relative to molecular oxygen) depends on the overpotential, pH, radicals present, and anode
material. O3
evolution is much lower than that for O2
due to the higher potential required. Very
little O3
may be produced at low overpotentials, but at high current densities and overpotential, up
to a sixth (or more) of the oxidized molecules may be O3
. As O3
is more soluble than O2
, there may
be twice the dissolved O3
than O2
, but the bubble gas will contain about 20 times the O2
than O3
[
2358]. Tin oxide anodes have proved helpful for the production of O3
, particularly if doped with Sb
and Ni, as they bind both oxygen molecules and hydroxyl radicals to facilitate the O3
production [
2359]. Ozone decomposes in water in a few minutes. Decomposition of ozone (particularly in
alkaline solution) gives rise to several strong oxidants, including hydroxyl radicals (·OH), that form
a powerful oxidizing agent capable of killing viruses, amoebae, algae, and dangerous bacteria,
such as MRSA and Legionella.
2 O3
3 O2
O3
+ OH− HO2
− + O2
O3
+ HO2
− ·OH + O2
·− + O2
Although charged ions are attracted into the compartments under the applied potential, oppositely
charged ions are created in both compartments due to the electrolytic reactions. Thus, for

13. example, Na+ ions enter the catholyte from the anode compartment, but excess OH− is produced
simultaneously at the cathode. The concentration of the OH− ions will be generally expected to be
greater than the increase in cations in the catholyte, and the concentration of the H3
O+ ions will be
generally expected to be greater than any increase in anions in the anolyte. Often a conductive but
semi-permeable membrane (for example, Nafion, a highly hydrated sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene
based copolymer [1880]) is used to separate the two compartments and reduce the movement of
the products between the electrode compartments; a process that improves the yield by reducing
back and side reactions [1978]. Due to the easier electrolysis of water containing 1H rather than 2H
(D) or 3H (T), electrolysis can produce water with reduced or enriched isotopic composition.
Local inhomogeneities of surface tension in the produced gas bubbles may be caused by
temperature or altered material concentration gradients at the interface. The resulting solute
currents enhance the mass transfer and bubble growth [3264].
When electrolysis uses short voltage pulses of alternating polarity at above 100 kHz, the
nanobubbles produced contain both H2
and O2
gases that can spontaneously react (combust) to
form water while producing pressure jumps [2900].
Proposed mechanism for electrolysis on platinum
What is less well understood?
Although much time has been spent on investigating and modeling the electrolytic system [1877],
it is still not entirely clear how water is arranged on the surface of the electrodes. Alignment of the
water dipoles with the field is expected, together with the consequential breakage of a proportion
of the water molecules’ hydrogen bonds. Whether the water at the electrode surface is “free” or
coordinated to strong electrolytes (such as Li+ and Na +) affects the ease of electrolysis, with
coordinating water more reactive than “free” water [3516].
When the electrode processes occur, singly-linked hydrogen atoms and singly-linked oxygen atoms
are bound to the platinum atoms at the cathode and anode. The binding energies of these
hydrophilic intermediates are strongly influenced by hydrogen-bonding (HB) to surface water
molecules and the electrode composition [3082]. These bound atoms can diffuse around in two
dimensions on the surface of their respective electrodes until they take part in their further
reaction. Peroxide (···O-O-H) may also be bound to the electrode as part of the O2
dissociation
process [3913]. Other atoms and polyatomic groups may also bind similarly to the electrode
surfaces and subsequently undergo reactions [2899]. Molecules such as O2
and H2
produced at the
surfaces may enter nanoscopic cavities in the liquid water (nanobubbles) as gases, or become
solvated by the water.
Gas-containing cavities in liquid solution (often called bubbles) grow or shrink by diffusion
according to whether the solution is over-saturated or under-saturated with the dissolved gas.
Given suitable electrodes, the size of the cathodic hydrogen bubbles depends on the overvoltage,

14. with nanobubbles being formed at low overvoltages and larger bubbles being formed at higher
overvoltages [2068]. Larger micron-plus sized bubbles have sufficient buoyancy to rise through the
solution and release contained gas at the surface before all the gas dissolves. With smaller bubbles
a pressure is exerted by the surface tension in inverse proportion to their diameter, and bubbles
may be expected to collapse. However, as the nanobubble gas/liquid interface is charged, an
opposing force to the surface tension is introduced, slowing or preventing their dissipation.
Electrolytic solutions have been proven to contain vast numbers of gaseous nanobubbles [974].
The ‘natural’ state of such interfaces appears to be negative [1266]. Other ions with low surface
charge density (such as Cl−, ClO−, HO2
− and O2
·−) will also favor the gas/liquid interfaces [928a]
as probably do hydrated electrons [1841, 1874]. Aqueous radicals also prefer to reside at such
interfaces [939]. From this known information, it seems clear that the nanobubbles present in the
catholyte will be negatively charged. However, those in the anolyte [1881] will probably possess
little charge (with the produced excess positive H3
O+ ions canceling out the natural negative
charge). Therefore, catholyte nanobubbles are not likely to lose their charge on mixing with the
anolyte stream and are otherwise known to be stable for many minutes [974]. Additionally, gas
molecules may become charged within the nanobubbles (such as the superoxide radical ion, O2
·−),
due to the decay of ozone present. Also, the excess potential on the cathode increasies the overall
charge of the nanobubbles and the stability of that charge. The raised temperature at the electrode
surface, due to the excess power loss over that required for the electrolysis, may also increase
nanobubble formation by reducing local gas solubility. Raising the pressure on solutions containing
nanobubbles will also slow down their dissipation if this pressure increases the dissolved gas
content.
Sunlight, as an external electric field in water electrolysis, has proven to increase hydrogen
production. This increase has been associated with an effect on the surface tension [3291].
Oxygen may be reduced (hydrogenated) in acid solution at the cathode. On platinum, Pt(111),
there are two possibilities for the reduction route, that shift with the electrode potential [4092],
O2 (adsorbed)
2 O(adsorbed)
O(adsorbed)
+ H+ + e− OH(adsorbed)
possibly followed by,
OH(adsorbed)
+ H+ + e− H2
O(adsorbed)
or,
O2 (adsorbed)
+ H+ + e− OOH(adsorbed)
possibly followed by,

15. OOH (adsorbed)
+ H+ + e− O(adsorbed)
+ H2
O(adsorbed)
[Back to Top ]
Commercial systems
Commercial systems are more complex relative to the above descriptions. They must be safe,
efficient, and cheap to run. The electrodes must reduce the overpotentials required while keeping
their capital costs low. The electrolytes must be clear of impurities that may poison the electrode
surfaces and usually consist of concentrated alkali or acid. As the efficiency of an electrolyzer
improves with the increased temperature, industrial electrolyzers run warm to hot. The best
electrolyzers operate at 70-80% electricity-to-hydrogen efficiency and produce high-purity (about
99.9%) hydrogen at about one MPa pressure while providing intrinsically safe operation at all times
[3367]. A close collaboration between chemists and engineers is required to develop industrially
relevant catalysts for the hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions [4314]. There are 2021 reviews
of hydrogen production from solar powered water electrolysis [4350] and from seawater [4360].
Although electrolysis of seawater to make hydrogen gas might seem attractive, it has many
drawbacks. Impurities, such as ions, bacteria, plastics and small particulates, limit the membrane
lifetime, and pH changes cause precipitation and electrode degradation [4437]. Because of these
drawbacks, seawater must be somewhat purified by reverse osmosis before electrolysis, with the
extra cost of this stage being marginal compared with the cost of electrolysis [4438].
[Back to Top ]
Footnotes
a The approximate resistivities of pure water, tap water, and seawater are 18 MΩ ˣ cm, 5 kΩ ˣ cm,
and 20 Ω ˣ cm, respectively. Thus the electrolysis rate is speeded up by factors of about 1000 ˣ or
1,000,000 ˣ using tap water or seawater respectively, rather than pure water. The overpotential is
increased in deuterated water (up to about twice ) and is affected by the ion species present and
electrolyte concentrations [3840]. [Back]
b Traditionally, such equations are written with the electrons on the left-hand side and (however
written) the redox potential refers to so directed equations. Here it is written reversed to show how
the cell reaction is balanced, as this is how the reaction occurs.
O2
(g) + 4 H3
O+(aq) + 4 e− 6 H2
O(l) E° = +1.229 V, pH 0
[Back]

16. c The electrodes should preferably be made from a material with high conductivity, resistance to
corrosion and erosion during the electrolysis, and catalyzing the electrode reactions. Also, for
industrial use, they should be relatively inexpensive. Platinum is an excellent but expensive
electrode material. Industrial cathodes may be made from steel or nickel, and those used as
anodes are metals such as titanium coated with the oxides and mixed oxides of metals such as
nickel and cobalt. Water next to the surface will organize dependent on the surface material [2521]
and considerably reduce their refractive index; the Pockels electro-optical effect [2874]. [Back]
d At the anode, E° = +1.229 − 0.059 pH V. At the cathode E° = −0.059 pH V. The value '0.059' is
derived from the Nernst constant = Loge
(10) ˣ RT/F = 0.059 V (25 °C). [Back]
e Chlor-alkali electrolyzers convert oxygen to hydroxide ions.
O2
(g) + 2H2
O(aq) + 4e− 4OH−
The industrial operating conditions have NaOH concentrations exceeding 10 M, temperatures in the
range of 80°C to 90°C, and current densities of 4 - 6 kA ˣ m−2. [Back]
f Electrolysis was first discovered by Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) with his invention of the battery
in 1799 (The Voltaic pile). A. Volta, On the electricity excited by the mere contact of conducting
substances of different kinds, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 90 (1800) 403-431.[
Back]
g 'Electrolysis' is the process of being decomposed by the direct action of electricity. [Back]
h Many high-school textbooks give the reactions,
Cathode 2 H+ + 2 e− → H2
Anode 4 OH− − 4e−→ 2 H2
O + O2
to simplify the progressive learning of this complex subject [4167]. [Back]
i The anode is negatively charged for galvanic cells (part of batteries generating voltages) but
positive for electrolytic cells (where the potential is applied to the electrodes). [Back]
Home | Site Index | Electrical and magnetic effects on water | Driving cars using water | LSBU | Top
This page was established in 2012 and last updated by Martin Chaplin on 26 February, 2022
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution
-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 2.0 UK: England & Wales License

18. There seems to be a BIG PROBLEM with the assumptions being made about the dimensions of the
tube sets and everyone needs to understand this because the absolutely critical gap between
cathode and anode is different in each of the following 3 information sources. The Patents are not
consistent, as one Patent states the INSIDE diameter of the cathode and the other states the
OUTSIDE diameter of the cathode. Also, one Patent has a solid rod anode and the other a tubular
anode. A solid rod anode inside a cathode tube may have different performance characteristics
from an anode tube inside a cathode tube.
The following dimensions are all in INCHES.
1.Don Gable’s sketches for a solid rod anode and tubular cathode:-
a) Cathode outer tube OUTSIDE diameter MEASURED as 0.75,
b) Cathode outer tube wall thickness MEASURED as 0.03,
c) Cathode outer tube INSIDE diameter BY CALCULATION = 0.69 (i.e. 0.75 – (2 x 0.03))
d) Anode SOLID ROD diameter MEASURED as 0.5,
e) Gap between INSIDE surface of cathode tube and the surface of the
SOLID anode rod BY CALCULATION = 0.095 (i.e. (0.69 – 0.5)/2)
2. World Patent WO92/07861 dated 14 May 1992 for a solid rod anode and tubular cathode:-
a) Cathode outer tube OUTSIDE diameter NOT STATED,
b) Cathode outer tube wall thickness NOT STATED and CANNOT BE CALCULATED,
c) Cathode outer tube INSIDE diameter STATED in Patent as 0.75
d) Anode SOLID ROD diameter STATED in Patent as 0.5,
e) Gap between INSIDE surface of cathode tube and the surface of the
SOLID anode rod NOT STATED in Patent but BY CALCULATION = 0.125 (i.e. (0.75 – 0.5) / 2)
3. US Patent US4936961 dated 26 June 1990 for a TUBULAR anode and a tubular cathode:-
a) Cathode outer tube OUTSIDE diameter STATED in Patent as 0.75,
b) Cathode outer tube wall thickness NOT STATED but CALCULATED
Different tube set
configurations, thicknesses
and gaps between the anode
and cathode tubes found in
Stan Meyer's literature

19. as 0.0625 i.e. ((outside diameter of 0.75 – (2 x 0.0625 gap stated in Patent) – 0.5 anode outside
diameter)) / 2 = 0.0625 thickness of cathode tube wall,
c) Cathode outer tube INSIDE diameter NOT STATED but CALCULATED as (0.5 anode diameter +
(2x 0.0625 gap) = 0.625,
d) Anode TUBE outside diameter STATED in Patent as 0.5,
e) Gap between INSIDE surface of cathode tube and the OUTER surface of the
Anode TUBE STATED in Patent as 0.0625
f) Anode TUBE thickness not STATED and cannot be CALCULATED
g) Anode TUBE inside diameter not STATED and cannot be CALCULATED
So we have three different gaps between the electrodes:
Don Gable = 0.095,
World Patent = 0.125 and
US Patent = 0.0625
The World Patent was nearly 2 years after the US Patent.
Obviously the capacitance of these cathode/anode combinations is very different.
Which combination was actually used with the 10 VIC Circuits and the 10 bobbin/5 coil packs that
pulsed the tube sets inside the resonant cavity chamber that provided the HHO for Stan Meyer’s
Dune Buggy engine?
Why did Don Gable measure different dimensions from the World Patent ?
Which combination gives the highest HHO yield at a given voltage with minimum amps?

20. ESP32 microcontroller
programming principles for
operation of steam resonator

25. ESP32 microcontroller
programming principles for
pulse train to VIC