239 Economics, Management, and Financial Markets .docx

239
Economics, Management, and Financial Markets
Volume 9(4), 2014, pp. 239–246, ISSN 1842-3191
WORK MOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
LAURENŢIU HAUSER
[email protected]
Bucharest University of Economic Studies
ABSTRACT. In today’s society and economy employees are
well educated and
relatively well off. This fact strongly influences the mechanisms
of motivation.
Therefore, today’s managers have to use a large variety of
motivational instruments.
This text presents the most important mechanisms of motivation
and their role at the
modern workplace.
JEL codes: J28
Keywords: motivation; employee satisfaction; employee
performance
1. Introduction

“Human Capital goes where it’s welcome and stays where it’s
well treated.”
Walter B. Wriston) (Walter 1919-2005, former CEO of
Citybank/Citicorp)
The market economy of a country is constantly moving and is
subject to
ongoing processes of change. The organizations, in turn, are
forced to
keep pace with these changes in order to remain competitive.
At the same time, the increasing life standard largely influences
human
behavior, and underlies all processes conducted in major
organizations.
Globalization, declining birth rates in developed countries and
other factors
force managers to focus on the actual process of motivating
their employees,
which has become indispensable in achieving management
performance.
Motivation leads to self-realization of employees as a way of
his or her
optimal development and personal fulfillment.
In early 2009, the Gallup Institute published a study on the
motivation of
German companies. This study is the result of a survey on a
total of 1,900
employees. The survey was conducted in the months November
and
December 2008.
These are the results of the Gallup Study: Approximately 90%
of

employees surveyed do not consider themselves as owing
anything to their
240
employer and the work at their workplace is strictly limited to
following and
performing the tasks defined by the management. Only 13% of
workers do
their duty diligently and identify with the company, 67% of
staff are strictly
limited to performing their necessary duties and avoid further
efforts and
voluntary activities.
5% of all employees were found to be completely demotivated.
Worrying
is the fact that up to date these results have remained stable,
with a negative
impact on business. The main cause of employee motivation is
desolate
situation of their management, explained by the lack of
professional
competence of employees in positions of responsibility. This
lack of
qualification leads to inappropriate use of the work potential of
employees
and promoting their professional skills, a situation that leads to
a clear result:
DEMOTIVATION OF EMPLOYEES.
Given that the success of an organization depends largely on
human
capital and its motivating factors, there is a need for an actual

analysis on
both motivating factors applied in most developed countries,
and on the
possibility of taking them into the motivation system of
employees in
Romania while taking into account the cultural specificities of
the country.
2. Definitions and Basic Theories
In the Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language (DEX
1998: 656)
these “keywords” are described as follows:
Table 1. Motivating & Motivation & Motive
Motivating is the “action of motivation and its outcome”
Motivation is “all grounds or reasons (conscious or not) that
cause
someone to perform a particular action or to tend to achieve
certain
goals”
Motive is defined as “cause, reason for an action; impulse that
causes or
determines an action”
The increasing higher level of education of employees requires
a behavior
and training of managers to match it. Therefore, they must be
able to manage
and motivate employees, make them meet the requirements in
terms of
qualification and professional experience, attitude towards work
and

particularly high socio-cultural skills. But managers have not
only the task of
motivating employees in order to achieve the objectives set by
the
organization, but also of motivating employees in achieving
their personal
goals.
Therefore, in the future career and income will play a major
role. It is
important for the employee to understand the meaning of the
work activity,
241
to identify itself with it, to perform their activity with passion,
this being the
guarantee for success. Passion can be defined as the founding
element of
commitment and performance.
An important role is the symbiosis of three processes:
recruitment,
training and employees’ keeping processes. Motivation of
employees plays a
key role in all these processes.
“Motivation is what energizes, directs and sustains a behavior”
(Steers
and Porter, 1991: 116); it is “a set of decisions and actions that
determine the
organization’s stakeholders to contribute directly and indirectly
to achieve
higher overall functionality and performance, based on the

correlation of
their interests in the approach and the achievement of the
objectives of the
organization and its subsystems” (Nicolescu and Verboncu,
2008: 291).
Motivation is also targeting the energy and enthusiasm of
people on a
specific objective. It has not only the role of determining people
to work, but
has also the property to determine them to perform their work as
well, which
requires optimum exploitation of physical and intellectual
resources of
employees.
Motivation can be seen as a source of positive energy
influencing
people’s lives, whether at their workplace or in their private
life.
Craig C. Pinder defines work motivation as being “a set of
energetic
forces that originate both within as well as beyond an
individual’s being, to
initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form
direction intensity
and duration.” (Pinder, 2008: 11)
This definition is one of the most widely accepted definitions.
3. Human Motivation and Motivation at Work
Between these terms there is a general acceptance of their
synonymy:

Human Motivation = Motivation at work
Motivation is characterized by three factors:
• necessities – as an impulse, energizing the employees’
activities;
• current objectives and situations defined by the organization’s
goals;
• trends - emotional relationships and attitudes formed by
various aspects
of the environment and by the person him/herself.
4. Types of Motivation
Nicolescu and Verboncu (2008) have divided the types of
motivation in their
analysis into four pairs thereby showing the contrast between
them:
242
Table 2 Types of Motivations
TYPES OF MOTIVATION:
POSITIVE - NEGATIVE
INTRINSIC - EXTRINSIC
COGNITIVE - AFFECTIVE
ECONOMIC - MORAL SPIRITUAL
4.1 Positive and negative motivation

4.1.1 Positive motivation aims to increase efforts and direct
contribution
of employees in order to achieve the organization’s objectives,
aiming to
amplify their satisfaction; positive results mean:
• increase of employees’ income;
• increase of morale and status of employees according to their
expectations;
• individual development of employees;
• creating an organizational environment proper to work
performance.
4.1.2 Negative motivation aims to increase the efforts and
contributions
of employees for achieving the objectives. Its tools are
elimination,
reduction or threatening with reduction of satisfaction in the
process of
their work, in the event of failure to achieve tasks and
objectives. These
instruments of motivation frequently generate decreases of
income,
morale, status etc. of employees in relation to their
expectations.
4.2 Intrinsic motivation (internal, direct, and individual) and
extrinsic
motivation (external or indirect)
In a study of the determinants of job satisfaction in 1959, the
researchers
Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman have defined two types of
work
motivation:

Table 3. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
4.2.1 Intrinsic motivation (internal, direct, and individual) and
extrinsic
motivation (external, indirect, and organizational)
Intrinsic motivation (internal, direct, and individual) is the
motivation in
which the person pursues a strictly cognitive activity (or even
more) actions
taken being of personal type. Examples of intrinsic motivators:
• ambition, pleasure, desire for power, etc.
Intrinsic motivation internal direct individual
Extrinsic motivation external indirect organizational
243
4.2.2 Extrinsic motivation (external, indirect, and
organizational) consists
in determining the employee to make efforts in order to obtain
results
generating formal and informal, economic and moral-spiritual
reactions of
the organization, which will produce satisfaction to the
employee. This form
causes the employee to work under the influence of external
factors.
Examples of extrinsic motivators:
• prestige, notoriety, fame, remuneration, status, etc.
In turn, extrinsic motivators (or rewards) can be divided into

artificial
motivators with direct costs and or natural motivators (without
direct costs):
Table 4 Extrinsic motivators: artificial and natural
Extrinsic motivators
artificial (with direct costs): natural (without direct costs)
Music
Salary increases based on merit
Refreshments
Pleasantly furnished offices
Sharing of profit
Cash bonuses
Etc.
Feedback
Questions about own opinions
Compliments
Congratulations
Special tasks
Recognition
Smiles
Etc.
4.3 Cognitive and affective motivation
4.3.1 Cognitive motivation is focused on meeting the needs of
individual
intellectual environment of employees, a tool that gives them
the possibility
to control that environment with means such as knowledge,
learning,
innovation, activity performed, etc.

4.3.2 Affective motivation is focused on meeting personal
sentimental
needs of employees within the organization and is aimed at the
emotional,
strictly human side of the employee.
4.4 Economic and moral-spiritual motivation
4.4.1 Economic motivation is based on economic motivational
factors that
influence directly the economic expectations and aspirations of
employees.
4.4.2 Moral-spiritual motivation is based on motivational
factors of moral
and spiritual nature, primarily aimed at the behavior, attitudes,
and system of
values of the employees.
244
5. Relationship between Motivation, Satisfaction and
Performance in
Work
5.1 Relationship between motivation and satisfaction
One of the common definitions in the literature is that of Locke
(1976):

“Job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state
resulting
from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences.” (Fischer,
2006, p.13)
Analyzing this definition, we find an emotional component of
attitudes
regarding work or job.
Mielu Zlate (2009) claimed in his Basics of Psychology the
following:
• state of job satisfaction / dissatisfaction is an indicator of
motivation
(state of satisfaction being in this case an equivalent with
motivation
achievement, by fulfillment of the proposed activity, and
dissatisfaction
representing the failure of motivation);
• from the pair motivation and satisfaction results the
phenomenon of dual
causality: cause and effect (motivation representing the cause
and
satisfaction, the result or the final condition);
• motivation and satisfaction are related to job performance,
their activity
having an influence, either positive or negative.
5.2 Relationship between motivation and job performance
Job performance can be defined as a state of competitiveness,
which has
reached a level of efficiency and optimal productivity.
Performance is based on the following markers:
• economic markers - represented by the factors of profitability
and

competitiveness;
• legal markers - represented by factors related to legal
compliance and
solvency;
• organizational markers - focused on competence and
efficiency factors;
on consistency;
• social markers - which are based on involvement, staff
satisfaction,
potential development, quality of life or work, etc.
Concerning the relationship between motivation and job
performance, we
know that the two phenomena, of sub-motivation and of supra-
motivation,
can be derived depending on employee motivation; motivation
can be
excessive and intensive, or, on the contrary, very low or even
nonexistent.
6. Main Theories and Practices of Motivation
Psychologists widely studied human motivation, the result being
a variety of
numerous theories about what motivates people. Almost all
these theories
245
and practices originate from psychological approaches in the
nineteenth and
twentieth centuries.
These theories and practices are very useful to managers,

helping them
to understand motivation in conceptual terms. At the same time
it helps them
to apply the instruments of motivation, combining them
according to the
needs of the organization and the needs of employees. Using
tools of
motivation is essential for the satisfaction of the employees’
needs and for
the efficient and successful achievement of tasks at their
workplace.
Thus, in the process of motivating employees, managers need to
focus on
issues such as satisfaction, setting objectives, expectations,
performance,
feedback, fairness, commitment.
Here is a scheme of the main theories of motivation:
Figure 1. Theories of Motivations
Source: Author
246
7. Conclusion
Motivating employees is a process of great importance.
Unfortunately not all
managers really understand (or do not consider this issue
important to be

properly concerned with) the concepts, the principles and the
mechanisms of
employees’ motivation. Managers can improve their own rate of
success on
the job offering extrinsic rewards (external, indirect, and
organizational) that
lead to intrinsic motivation (internal, direct, and individual) of
employees
and thus to achievement of desired performance and objectives.
“Motivation is the art of getting people to do what you want
them to do
because they want to do it.” Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969,
former
president of United States of America)
REFERENCES
Fischer, L. (2006), Arbeitszufriedenheit, Emotion und
Identifikation. Goettingen:
Hogrefe: 13.
Nicolescu, O., and I. Verboncu (2008), Managementul
resurselor umane
(Management of Human Resources), Bucharest: University
Publishing House:
291.
Nicolescu, O., and I. Verboncu (2008), Fundamentele
managementului organizației
(Basics of Organization Management). Bucharest: University.
Pinder, C. C. (2008), Work Motivation in Organizational
Behavior. New York:

Psychology Press: 11.
Steers, R. M., and L. W. Porter (1991), Motivation and Work
Behaviour
(Management). McGraw-Hill Inc.: 116.
Zlate, M. (2009), Basics of Psychology. Bucharest: Polirom:
128.
*** DEX (1998), Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române
(Explanatory Dictionary
of the Romanian Language). Bucharest (second edition): 656.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without
permission.
European Online Journal of Natural and Social
Sciences 2015;
www.european-science.com
Vol.4, No.1 Special Issue on New Dimensions in
Economics, Accounting and Management
ISSN 1805-3602

The Study of the Relationship between Employees’
Empowerment and
Organizational Agility: A Case Study in Azarab Industrial
Company
Alireza Horabadi Farahani, Freidoon Salimi*
Department of Management, Malayer branch, Islamic Azad
University, Malayer, Iran
*E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
With the advent of a new era of business which brings about
changes as a need and main
character, agile manufacturing system as an advanced
production systems or production Paradigm
guarantees the success and continuity of production systems. On
the other hand, empowering
employees makes the organizations show faster and more
convenient responses in the competitive
environment. This study was done with the aim to investigate
the relationship between employees’
empowerment and organizational agility in Azarab Industries
Company. This study is functional in
terms of its objective and it is descriptive – analytical in terms
of its method. The managers,
professionals and industry personnel of Azarab were the
statistical population of the study and 329
persons were chosen as the samples by using simple random
sampling method. In order to measure
organizational agility Espaydezer standard questionnaire (2007)
in the book "Improving
performance measurement" was used, and to measure the
empowerment capacity, standard

questionnaire of the empowerment based on four-factor model
(Melhem, 2004) was based.
Descriptive statistics (frequency distribution tables, frequency
percentage) and inferential statistics
(the Kolmogorov - Smirnov test to study the normality of the
variables, Pearson correlation
coefficient, and multiple regression analysis tests) were used to
analyze data. The results indicated
that the organization was relatively agile but, the empowerment
of employees of AzarAb Industries
Company was lower than the average. Pearson correlation test
results showed there was a significant
relationship between employees’ empowerment of AzarAb
Industries Company and organizational
agility. And the results of regression analysis test confirmed
that the components of "knowledge",
"trust", "motivation", and "communication" had in order the
greatest impact on organizational
agility.
Keywords: employees’ empowerment, organizational agility,
Performance Improvement,
AzarAb Industries Company.
Introduction
Since human resources are the most valuable factor of
production and most important asset
and a major source of competitive advantage and create the
fundamental capacity of any
organizations, are considered as one of the most efficient ways
to achieve the organizations’
competitive advantages. Today’s business world is extremely
dynamic, growing and changing and
competitors are applying new ways to improve the efficiency of
their production and sale every day.

If an organization fails to coordinate itself with the turbulent
environment will be disappeared. One
of the new tools to compete in today’s business world is to
make organization agile to respond the
changes in the environment quickly. In this context, it seems
that the organization has helped to
empower employees to be agile.
Statement of the problem
Nowadays, the organizations, in the form of dynamic
environment processes, run into
changes and have had to be compatible with the environmental
factors. Technology has changed the
work and organizations. With a look at the social trends in
recent decades, it can be concluded that
Openly accessible at http://www.european-science.com
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http://www.european-science.com/
Special Issue on New Dimensions in Economics, Accounting
and Management
organizations must be compatible with the changes that may
happen in the future. If an organization
wants to be active and wants to guarantee its survival, it needs
to be compatible with the changes
that occur in the future (Lacan, 2007). Today’s business
environment is changing dramatically. Two

major pressures straining the organizations include: the
products importation speed to the markets
and competitors’ imitation of the products. The Organizations
that refuse to join the competition will
be omitted from the markets (Malakzadeh, 2009). With
increasing the changes in the business
environment and its competitive environment getting more
complicated, organizations need the
production system to respond all customers’ needs. Customers
always want products that more
applications and variety and would like to obtain them as fast as
possible (Carlson & Yau, 2008).
Today’s organizations are working in an environment whose
rapid changes make them adopt
adaptation strategies. In fact, the problem of how organizations
can succeed in a dynamic and
unpredictable environment is a subject known to be a major
challenge in today’s world. Although
various solutions such as on time production, reengineering,
virtual organizations and networks have
been introduced, but the most popular solution is organizational
agility. In such an environment,
agility has become an important with more influences on the
organization performance
(Ravichandran, 2007). Agile manufacturing guarantees
organizations’ survival and progress in a
competitive environment characterized by changes and
uncertainty which reacts quickly and
effectively to the markets being changed according to customer
requirements. Since human
resources are the most important assets of the organizations, the
more quality the assets have leads
to the greater possibility of success, survival and promotion.
Thus, it should be tried to improve the
quality of human resources, because that would benefit the
organization and its staff. Skilled and

strong workforces are one of the main indices of the superiority
of one organization over the other
ones. One of the most effective ways to achieve a competitive
advantage in the current situation is to
make organization’s staff more efficient. Integration in human
resources development programs
requires the development of employee empowerment in which
the human resources management
plays a key role in integrating and combining these programs to
provide a suitable model for
empowering employees. The need to foster employees with self-
management ability leads to
empowering the human resources as a new paradigm which
attracted the management experts’ point
of view. Cobourg believed that both managers and employees
will benefit from the advantages of
empowerment. Empowerment by fostering a sense of self-
sufficiency and autonomy provides
employees the opportunity to improve their skills and abilities
and leads to the effectiveness of the
organization (Cobourg, 1999). Empowering human resources is
an effective tool based on the
attitude of changing management, so that with its application,
organizations can take long and rapid
steps towards development and growth. Since human resources
are the center of organizational
development, to achieve an acceptable level of organization the
promotion of human resources
levels should be considered and it can be done through some
strategies such as: promoting
meritocracy system, career development system, job enrichment
system, sharing system,
rehabilitation staffing system, system of rationality behavior
and creating a philosophical mentality.
Involving the employees and strengthening them are new
techniques to liberate the talents and

capabilities of the staff in organizations. Todays, the advantages
organizations have over each others
are not in applying new technologies but lies in employees’
high esteem and their commitment to
organizational goals. Organizations must adapt themselves to
different situations and learn new
ways to pass through various stages. In this case, they need to
identify the cases in making effective
and tough working environments. In new organizations, staffs
are responsible not only for the task,
but also to improve the performance of the organizations. They
actively work together to increase
the organization productivity performance.
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Alireza Horabadi Farahani, Freidoon Salimi
Conceptual Model

Figure 1: Conceptual Model of employees’ empowerment
(Sourse: Melhem, 2004)
Operational model of the study
Figure 2: Operational model of the study (source: (Author))
Research purposes
The main purpose: to investigate the relationship between
employees’ empowerment and
organizational agility in AzarAb Industries Company.
Secondary purposes: to study the relationship between each
component of the employees’
empowerment (knowledge and skills, communication, trust and
motivation) with organizational
agility in AzarAb Industries Company.
Hypothesis
Main hypothesis:
• There is a significant relationship between the employees’

empowerment and
Secondary hypotheses:
1. There is a significant relationship between the employees’
knowledge and skills and
communication and
motivation and organizational
agility in AzarAb Industries Company.
trust and organizational agility in
AzarAb Industries Company.
Knowledge and Skills
Communications
Motivation
Trust
Employees’ empowerment
Knowledge and Skills
Communications
Motivation

Trust
Employees’ empowerment Organizational agility
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and Management
Empowerment and its components
First definitions of empowerment were presented by Conger and
Kanugo in 1988. They
believed the origins of the concept of empowerment, control and
power, should be taken into
consideration and analyzed in order to consider the concept of
empowerment in management
contexts. From their perspective, as the power and control are
used in different contexts in two
ways, empowerment should be studied as a motivation and
communication factor (Bowen &
Lawler, 1992).
Knowledge and skills: new era of knowledge as a necessary
component of economy have
caused great changes in the business environment. According to
Lank (1997) knowledge and its

effects on the individuals’ skills is the organization’s greatest
asset to create values. Since the
business environment is not limited to national boundaries, most
companies, whether large or small,
do some important parts of their activities outside of their
native country (Eslayk, 1999).
Communication: the existence of organizations depends on
communication and each director
usually spends most of their time for communication. In order
to create harmony between material
elements and human resources of organization as an effective
and efficient network, good
communication is necessary, because without communication,
the activities of the organizations will
be stopped. In fact, the effective management depends on
effective communication
(Www.ghadeer.org).
Trust: Formation of trust in organizations is considered as the
requirements of success in
today’s business environment. The role of HR managers in
shaping the culture and behavior based
on mutual trust is effective and important. So, knowing how
human resource management practices
and policies influence the development of mutual trust culture
in the organization is very important
(Doaei, et al, 2008).
Motivation: employees’ motivation is supposed to be a means
for achieving the objectives of
any virtual organizations about which managers, senior
managers and executives think. Directors’
Continuous activities are to obtain the organizations objectives
which is possible through staffs’
motivation (Mohammadi, 2009).

Organizational agility
Agility is the ability to successfully manufacture and sell a wide
range of products with low
cost, high quality, short time delay and a variety of categories
which creates values for specific and
multiple customers through mass production based on customer
demands (Lau and Wong, 2001).
Agility is the ability to respond effectively to events that are
rapidly changing and unexpected (Subb
& Nohm, 2001). Sometimes, agility improves the organizations’
abilities to supply high quality
products and services therefore changes into an important factor
for the organizations’ effectiveness.
Of course, it possibly seems to be integrating the processes,
organization members, and also features
with advanced technologies (Shahabi, 2006).
The importance of the need to empower employees in the
organizations
Human resources constitute the real wealth of an organization.
There is a direct relationship
between human capital and productivity in organizations. One
of the main concerns of successful
businesses in the world is educated and skilled human capital
which is able to change the
organization to which they belong. A successful organization
composed of people with the
organizational culture, common ideas and goals give their
experiences and knowledge to the
management of the organization with the love through the
flexible system of teamwork, to increase
the organization progress. So everyone in the organization feels
ownership towards the job they do.

Using the potential of human resources is a major advantage for
any organizations. In the individual
productivity, organizations apply the individual’s talents and
potential abilities to develop the
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organizations. Therefore, effective management of these
valuable resources is necessary to achieve
the purpose of the organization. In this context, growth,
progress, prosperity, and promoting
employees’ empowerment have been taken into the
considerations of the scholars and experts in
human resources management in recent years.
Review of literature
The only study done in this field was to investigate the
relationship between IT acceptance
and organizational agility from the executives’ perspective in
manufacturing organizations in
Malaysia in 2004. The results indicated that there was a positive
relationship between the adoption
of information technology and the ability of companies to
become an agile competitor. Dimitryad
Zokoeed (2004) conducted extensive research to recognize the

amount of efficacy of empowering
employees’ structures in Greece. The effects of knowledge
features (gender, age and job
experience), personal characteristics (control center),
occupational factors (the management),
organizational characteristics (size) and underlying variables
for psychological empowerment, from
a sample of 156 employees were analyzed to take the data
needed to study. Their findings in the
field of the empowerment factors are divided into the four
factors identified as follows:
• Personal factors include personal characteristics;
• Their psychological variables;
• Business factors or roles;
• Underlying factors.
Ebrahimian (2011) investigated the organizational agility and
found traditional organizations
cannot meet their customers’ needs and quickly respond the
environmental changes so that their
survival is impossible. Also, studies on various sources have
shown that learning organizations and
virtual organizations are among the organizations that due to
having the characteristics of agile
organizations can adapt themselves to their environment better
and faster so they can remain
competitive in this way.
Heydari (2013) studied the multiple relationships between
organizational learning,
organizational agility features, organizational excellent
empowerment based on the views of faculty
members of Isfahan public universities. The findings indicated
that there was a positive and
significant relationship between organizational learning,

organizational agility features, and
organizational excellent empowerment (p=0.05). There was also
a positive and significant
relationship between organizational agility features, and
organizational excellent empowerment
(p=0.05). The results of the regression analysis confirmed that
there were multiple relationships
between organizational learning aspects, organizational agility
features, and organizational excellent
empowerment.
Methodology
This study is functional in terms of its objective (type of
research) and it is descriptive –
correlation in terms of its method. This study was done in 2014
to investigate the relationship
between the employees’ empowerment and organizational
agility in AzarAb Industries Company of
Arak. The statistical population of the current study consisted
of 2200 individuals including Senior
and middle executive, experts and the employees of AzarAb
Industries Company chosen randomly
as the sample. The table of Morgan was used to determine the
sample size. With the sample more
than or equal to 327 the reliability level is 0.99. Therefore, to
be able to obtain data for this sample
size, this questionnaire was distributed more than its number
and finally 329 completed
questionnaires were returned to the researcher.
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and Management
The variables
In the present study empowering employees was the
independent variable whose components
are: knowledge and skills, communication, motivation, trust
while organizational agility was
dependent variable.
Research tools
• employee empowerment questionnaire
• organizational agility questionnaire
In order to study the relationship between organizational agility
and employees’
empowerment a pack of standard questionnaire was used; in
order to measure the empowerment
capacity, standard questionnaire of the empowerment based on
four-factor model (Melhem, 2004)
was used and Likert attitude range with 5 degrees too low, low ,
medium , high and very high were
used.
Table 1: Employee empowerment questionnaire with separation
of variables
component Question No. Number of Questions
Knowledge and Skills 1-7 7
Communications 8-13 6

Motivation 14-18 5
Trust 19-24 6
In order to measure the organizational agility according to the
nature of the research, it
seemed to apply 30-item questionnaire method as an appropriate
research methodology. In order to
achieve the research goals, "Improving performance
measurement" questionnaire published for the
first time in America in 2007 by Espaydezer, the founder of
Managers Association of America. In
order to measure organizational agility standard questionnaire
based on Likert attitude range with 5
degrees too low, low, medium, high and very high were used.
Table 2: Organizational agility questionnaire
component Question No. Number of Questions
organizational agility 1-30 30
Results and conclusion
The main hypothesis testing
H0: There is not a significant relationship between the
organizational agility in AzarAb Industries Company. Pearson
correlation test results (Table 3)
suggests that there is a significant relationship between the
organizational agility in AzarAb Industries Company around
7%0 (sig= 0.000, r= 0.696) indicating
high and direct correlation. In other words, the significance
level is less than 0.01, so the null
hypothesis is rejected and the opposite hypothesis is confirmed.
In the first hypothesis, it was said
there is a significant relationship between the employees’
empowerment and organizational agility

in AzarAb Industries Company. Pearson correlation test was
used to test the hypothesis. According
to the results, in confidence level of %99 the null hypothesis of
non- correlation between employee
empowerment and organizational agility is rejected and
hypothesis one that shows a direct and
significant relationship between the two variables is confirmed.
In other words, the higher the level
of employees’ empowerment is the greater organizational agility
will be. The results of analyzing
the data of this study were identified and analyzed based on
indices and factors enabling
organizations to achieve agility in the food and dairy industry
by Jvanmardi (1389).
1072
Table 3: the results of Pearson correlation test of employees’
empowerment on organizational
agility in AzarAb Industries Company
The first secondary hypothesis testing
H0: There is not a significant relationship between knowledge
and skills and organizational
agility in AzarAb Industries Company. Correlation test results

(Table 4) suggests that there is a
significant relationship between knowledge and skills and
organizational agility in AzarAb
Industries Company around %68 (sig= 0.000, r= 0.682)
indicating high and direct correlation. In
other words, the significance level is less than 0.01, so the null
hypothesis is rejected and the
opposite hypothesis is confirmed. In the first hypothesis, it was
said there is a significant
relationship between knowledge and skills and organizational
agility in AzarAb Industries
Company. Pearson correlation test was used to test the
hypothesis. According to table 4, the
significance level of Pearson correlation test is more than %1 so
in confidence level of %99 the null
hypothesis of non- correlation between knowledge and skills
and organizational agility is rejected
and the opposite hypothesis that shows a direct and significant
relationship between the two
variables is confirmed.
Table 4: the results of Pearson correlation test of knowledge
and skills on organizational
agility in AzarAb Industries Company
The second secondary hypothesis testing
H0: There is not a significant relationship between
communications and organizational
agility in AzarAb Industries Company. Correlation test results
(Table 5) suggests that there is a
significant relationship between communications and
organizational agility in AzarAb Industries
Company around %55 (sig= 0.000, r= 0.546) indicating a pretty
high correlation. In other words, the
significance level is less than 0.01, so the null hypothesis is

rejected and the opposite hypothesis is
confirmed. In the second hypothesis, it was said there is a
significant relationship between
communications and organizational agility in AzarAb Industries
Company. Pearson correlation test
was used to test the hypothesis. According to table 5, the
significance level of Pearson correlation
test is more than %1 so in confidence level of %99 the null
hypothesis of non-correlation between
communications and organizational agility is rejected and the
opposite hypothesis that shows a
direct and significant relationship between the two variables is
confirmed.
Table 5: the results of Pearson correlation test of
communications on organizational agility in
AzarAb Industries Company
The third secondary hypothesis testing
H0: There is not a significant relationship between motivation
and organizational agility in
AzarAb Industries Company. Correlation test results (Table 6)
suggests that there is a significant
relationship between motivation and organizational agility in
AzarAb Industries Company around
Table explanation organizational agility
Employees’ empowerment The correlation coefficient 0.696
Significant level. 0.000
knowledge and skills The correlation coefficient 0.682

communications The correlation coefficient 0.546
1073
and Management
%59 (sig= 0.000, r= 0.595) indicating a direct and high
correlation. In other words, the significance
level is less than 0.01, so the null hypothesis is rejected and the
opposite hypothesis is confirmed. In
the third hypothesis, it was said there is a significant
relationship between motivation and
organizational agility in AzarAb Industries Company. Pearson
correlation test was used to test the
hypothesis. According to table 6, the significance level of
Pearson correlation test is more than %1
so in confidence level of %99 the null hypothesis of non-
correlation between motivation and
organizational agility is rejected and the opposite hypothesis
that shows a direct and significant
relationship between the two variables is confirmed.
Table 6: the results of Pearson correlation test of motivation on

organizational agility in
AzarAb Industries Company
The fourth secondary hypothesis testing
H0: There is not a significant relationship between trust and
Industries Company. Correlation test results (Table 7) suggests
that there is a significant relationship
between trust and organizational agility in AzarAb Industries
Company around %58 (sig= 0.000, r=
0.587) indicating a direct and high correlation. In other words,
the significance level is less than
0.01, so the null hypothesis is rejected and the opposite
hypothesis is confirmed. In the fourth
hypothesis, it was said there is a significant relationship
between trust and organizational agility in
AzarAb Industries Company. Pearson correlation test was used
to test the hypothesis. According to
table 7, the significance level of Pearson correlation test is
more than %1 so in confidence level of
%99 the null hypothesis of non-correlation between trust and
organizational agility is rejected and
the opposite hypothesis that shows a direct and significant
relationship between the two variables is
confirmed.
Table 7: the results of Pearson correlation test of trust on
Industries Company
Suggestions derived from the hypotheses, other applications
suggestions and research
suggestions for future investigators were offered in this section.
Empowerment is a collection of
personal beliefs and perceptions of job and organizational

environment. Managers need to
understand or consider the staffs’ beliefs and perceptions from
the organizational environment and
the image they have from the organization and provide the
necessary conditions for the four
dimensions of employees’ empowerment. According to the
results, the variable knowledge and
skills has the largest and most powerful relationship with
organizational agility so due to its high
importance the managers need to regard the promotion of
knowledge indices in developing
strategies and programs and consider the following actions:
The more knowledge in the field of jobs and responsibility leads
to better control over issues
surrounding the employees and resulting in doing tasks
seriously and his and his accountability to
the problems and completing tasks will be improved. It is
recommended to take the following
measures in order to raise the level of knowledge and skills:
Organizations are dependent on the communications and each
director usually spends most
of their time on communications. Good communication skills
are essential to establish harmony
Motivation The correlation coefficient 0.595
Trust The correlation coefficient 0.587

1074
between human and material elements of organizations such as a
network of efficient and effective
work because, without establishing communications, activities
get stopped. Since motivation is the
primary and most basic needs to do activities, managers should
try to have the most motivated staff.
It is recommended that supervisors and administrators
encourage employees to express their
opinions. If they introduce new designs at work, they should be
encouraged. Particular atmosphere
should be created so that employees can express their
creativities.
References
Blanchard, K. H., Carlos, J. P., & Randloph, A. (2003)
Empowerment take more than one minute.
San Francisco: Barret-Koehler.
Bowen, D. E., & Lawler III, Edward E. (1992) The
empowerment of service workers: What, why,
how, and when. Sloan Management Review, 33(3), 31-39..
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www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10118526

Carlson, J., Yao, A. (2008) Simulating an agile, synchronized
manufacturing system-Int. J.
Production Economics, 112, 714–722.
Conger,J.A & Kanungo,R.N. (1985) The empowerment process:
Integrating theory and practice.
Academy of management Review, 13 (3), 471- 482.
Doaei, H., Farahi, M., Homayunirad, M., (2009). The role of
employees’ powerment in enhancing
mutual trust between employees and managers. Journal of
Change Management, pp. 9-30.
Ebrahimian, Y., & Jelodar, M., (2011). Organizational agility,
speed of accountability, and
flexibility. Journal of Police Human Development, 39, 13- 34.
Heydari, M., (2013). Investigating the multiple relationships
between organizational learning,
organizational agility features, organizational excellent
empowerment based on the views of
faculty members of Isfahan public universities. Isfahan
University, Faculty of Psychology
and Educational Sciences, PhD thesis.
Javanmardi, M. Zanjirchi, S.M., Karbasian, M., Khabushani, A.
(2011). Identifying effective factors
on improving passive defense. Journal of Sciences and RBF and
increasing the agility of
organizations with neural network approach, passive defense
technology, 2 (2), 71-82.
Koberg, C., Boss, R., Senjem, J., & Goodman, E. (1999)
Antecedents and outcomes of
empowerment: Empirical evidence from the health care

industry. Group & Organization
management, pp 71-91.
Laukkanen, P., Sainio, L.-M., & Jauhiainen, T. (2007)
Appropriability regime for radical and
incremental innovations. R&D .
Melhem, Y. (2004) The Antecedents of Customer Contact
Employment Empowerm .Employee
Relation, 26(1), pp 72-93
Mohammadi, H. (2009). The role of empowering human
resources in Administrative system of Iran.
Third Conference on Human Resources Empowerment.
Ravichandran T. (2007) IT Competencies, Innovation Capacity
and Organizational Agility:
Performance Impact and the Moderating Effects of
Environmenta l Characteristics- Lally
School of to CIST, INFORMS.
Shahabi, B., (2006). Human aspect of organizational agility.
Journal of Tadbir, 175.
1075

Age-Related Work Motivation Declines: Myth or Reality?
Thomas J. Calo
Salisbury University
Meredith M. Patterson
Wayne H. Decker
Actual and widely assumed age-related work motivation
changes are differentiated. Self-rated extrinsic
motivation (compensation and recognition) of university alumni
decreased as respondent age increased,
while intrinsic motivation (challenge and task enjoyment) did
not vary with age. As respondent age
increased, ratings of older workers' intrinsic motivation
increased, but older workers' perceived
extrinsic motivation did not vary. Younger respondents (under
50) consistently rated themselves higher
than older workers, while older respondents did so only on
challenge and recognition motivation.
Interventions to reduce age stereotypes should be directed at
workers of all ages.
INTRODUCTION
Various trends have contributed to an increased presence of
older workers in the work force. Among

the most significant of the contributing factors are the aging of
the large cohort of baby boomers,
increasing life expectancy, and difficult economic times
(Feldman & Turnley, 1995; Loi & Shultz, 2007;
Pienta & Hayward, 2002; Purcell, 2009). As workers grow
older, changes occur biologically and
psychosocially that pose unforeseen and unique challenges for
organizations. Traditional assumptions of
work and workers often fail to incorporate an understanding of
age-related changes on older workers and
on the organizational policies and practices that affect them.
While some research studies have focused
on the reasons older workers continue to hold a job (e.g.,
Dendinger, Adams, & Jacobson, 2005; Higgs,
Ferrie, Hyde, & Nazroo, 2003; Lord, 2002), this study
investigated workers’ motives as a function of
age, as well as perceptions held of older workers (cf., Kanfer &
Ackerman, 2004; Lang & Carstensen,
2002; Paynter, 2004).
Older Worker Stereotypes
With the growing number and percentage of older workers in
the work force a fundamental issue for
both organizations and older workers is the prevalence of
negative stereotypes concerning older worker
job performance and work-related motives (Posthuma &
Campion, 2009). Cuddy and Fiske (2002, p. 4)
defined stereotypes as “cognitive structures that store our
beliefs and expectations about the
characteristics of members of social groups”, and stereotyping
as “the process of applying stereotypic
96 Journal of Organizational Psychology vol. 14(1) 2014

information”. Stereotypes of older workers are reflective of the
widespread societal stereotypes of older
persons. According to Lawrence (1988), members of a social
system develop age norms, which are
widely shared judgments as to the expected ages of individuals
holding each role or status. Whether
accurate or not, they influence how information guides our
behavior in situations such as judging an
employee’s suitability for a promotion. Ageism is not limited to
bias against older persons. For example,
bias against Millennials (born between 1979 and 1994) has been
found in the workplace (Myers &
Sadaghiani, 2010). Nonetheless, negative stereotypes of older
persons appear to be especially prevalent.
Although there are some positive stereotypes of older persons,
including as being perceived as
having better interpersonal skills (Rosen & Jerdee, 1977), as
being more reliable (Metcalf & Thompson,
1990; McGregor & Gray, 2002), and as being more experienced
(Finkelstein, Higgins, & Clancy, 2000)
than younger workers, negative perceptions seem to be more
pervasive. Common negative beliefs about
older workers relate to their ability and desire to learn and
develop at work, as well as their overall
motivation. Rosen and Jerdee’s (1976b) respondents believed a
60-year-old had less development
potential than 30-year-old. Similarly, older adults were
perceived as inferior in processing information
and accepting new technology (Rosen & Jerdee, 1976a), as well
as in creativity and flexibility (Metcalf
& Thompson, 1990; Vrugt & Schabracq, 1996; Wood,
Wilkinson, & Harcourt, 2008). Also, older
workers were viewed as less alert and less productive than other

workers (Wood et al., 2008).
Furthermore, older workers were seen as more accident prone,
less intelligent, and less decisive than
younger ones (Brosi & Kleiner, 1999).
Despite the continuing existence of negative stereotypes of
older workers’ motivation and
performance, such stereotypes are largely unfounded. From an
extensive meta-analysis of 96
independent studies on age-performance correlations, McEvoy
and Cascio (1989) concluded that age and
job performance were generally unrelated, regardless of the type
of job or type of performance
measured. Similarly, Wood et al. (2008) determined that older
workers usually perform at least as well
as younger workers. Furthermore, in reviewing more than 185
research studies on age-related differences
in various categories of work attributes and behavior, Rhodes
(1983) found strong evidence that age is
typically positively associated with work satisfaction and
motivation. In addition, older workers typically
have been found to have more favorable attitudes toward their
jobs, including higher levels of
organizational commitment than younger workers (Brosi &
Kleiner, 1999; Kalleberg & Loscocco, 1983;
Ng & Feldman, 2010; Rhodes, 1983). Kanfer and Ackerman
(2004) suggested that, while aging is often
perceived as associated with decline, particularly in cognitive
and intellectual capabilities, research has
demonstrated such assumptions to be simplistic and misleading.
Yet, Cuddy, Norton, and Fiske (2005)
concluded prejudice against older persons continues to go
unchallenged by mainstream society.
The current study sought to determine the prevalence of
negative age stereotypes concerning older

workers’ motivation and to assess the degree to which those
perceptions vary with respondent age.
Although negative age stereotyping is common among adults of
all ages (Posthuma & Campion, 2009),
older adults generally have more positive views of older persons
than do younger ones (Calo, Patterson,
& Decker, 2013; Kite, Deaux, & Miele, 1991; Kite, Stockdale,
Whitley, & Johnson, 2005; Kluge &
Krings, 2008; Lyon & Pollard, 1997; Wentura & Brändstadter,
2003). These findings are consistent with
the Social Identity Theory proposition that people tend to
maintain a positive self-image as a result of
evaluating their in-groups positively (Kite et al., 2005). On the
other hand, a somewhat reverse process
may be occurring. The phenomenon may be reflective of
externalization, i.e., respondents’ favorable
views of themselves impacting their stereotypes of similar-aged
persons positively (Rothermund &
Brandtstädter, 2003).
Older Worker Motivation
Age stereotypes found in the workplace reflect not only
negative attitudes toward older workers’
abilities, but also their motivations (Maurer, Barbeite, Weiss, &
Lippstreu, 2008; Posthuma & Campion,
2009). After an extensive literature review, Kanfer and
Ackerman (2004) concluded that as workers age
extrinsic rewards such as compensation become less attractive
and intrinsic factors such as feelings of
accomplishment become more important in determining job
satisfaction. The findings support the Life
Journal of Organizational Psychology vol. 14(1) 2014 97

Span Theory of Control which includes the notion that older
persons shift their focus to situations they
have high control over (i.e., intrinsic rewards) and away from
those over which they have less control
(i.e., extrinsic rewards) (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995).
However, results have not been consistent across
intrinsic motives. Kooij, de Lange, Jansen, and Dikkers (2008)
concluded from their review that while
some intrinsic motives, such as desire to maintain a positive
self-concept and to mentor others, increase
with age, achievement motivation and the desire to learn new
things decrease with age. An extensive
meta-analysis has supported these assumptions (Kooij, de
Lange, Jansen, Kanfer, & Dikkers, 2011).
Also, Linz (2004) found older workers in Russia to place a
higher value on extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay
and friendliness of co-workers) than did younger workers.
Furthermore, Paynter (2004) found older
teachers to exceed younger teachers in both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation.
Apparently, neither all extrinsic nor all intrinsic motives change
at the same points in one’s life. For
example, among intrinsic motives, the desire to learn new tasks
may have declined for older workers
who, at the same time, may be experiencing an increased desire
to mentor others, i.e., generativity (Kooij
et al., 2008; McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992). Such
motivational changes are consistent with
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory which posits that persons
sensing that their time is running out focus
increasingly on near-term goals (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, &
Charles, 1999; Lang & Carstensen, 2002).

Two extrinsic and two intrinsic motives have been measured
with the Work Preference Inventory
(WPI) (Amabile, Hill, Hennessey, & Tighe, 1994). This
instrument consists of a series of rating scales in
which extrinsic motivation is subdivided into an “Outward
Scale” (recognition) and a “Compensation
Scale” and intrinsic motivation is subdivided into an
“Enjoyment Scale” and a “Challenge Scale.” Using
an adaptation of the WPI designed to apply to sales jobs, Miao,
Lund, and Evans (2009) found decreases
in one intrinsic motive (challenge motivation) and one extrinsic
motive (compensation motivation)
across career stages (not age per se). It would seem to be in the
interest of organizations to determine
whether managers and co-workers of older workers understand
age-related changes in work motivation
or if these persons tend to hold negative age stereotypes that are
contrary to reality.
Comparisons of self-rated motives with ratings of older workers
in general could potentially yield
additional insight into the extent of age stereotypes. While, as
noted above, some studies have found that
older persons generally view themselves more positively than
they view “typical” older persons, there is
also evidence that older persons’ self-perceptions are influenced
in the direction of negative age
stereotypes (Bennett & Gaines, 2010; Pinquart, 2002;
Rothermund & Brandtstädter, 2003). Some
persons may internalize stereotypes such that they come to
believe that because they are old, they must
fit the stereotype (Bennett & Gaines, 2010). Personality
differences may determine the direction in
which and the extent to which an older person’s self-perception
is influenced by negative age stereotypes
(Rothermund & Brandtstädter, 2003). In a longitudinal study of

persons 54 and older, respondents had
more positive views of themselves than the “typical old person”
(Rothermund & Brandtstädter, 2003).
While they held strong negative age stereotypes, as they got
older most evaluated the typical old person
less negatively. The authors interpreted this to be reflective of
externalization, i.e., respondents’
favorable views of themselves positively impacted their
stereotypes of similar-aged persons. In another
study respondents’ (age 60 and older) self-perceptions improved
after receipt of negative information
about competence in old age. This was interpreted as supporting
Resilience (Comparison) Theory, the
notion that one’s self-concept improves when one encounters
evidence that he/she is superior to
somewhat similar persons (Pinquart, 2002). In other words, the
assumption is that we evaluate ourselves
relative to what we consider normal for our age group. If our
perception of normal becomes more
negative, we will then look better to ourselves.
This study assesses the prevalence of negative age stereotypes
regarding four specific work-related
motives (two intrinsic and two extrinsic motives) and endeavors
to ascertain perceptions of older
workers’ motives as a function of respondent age. Respondents’
self-ratings and perceptions of older
workers’ motives will be compared across a broad range of
respondent ages. The inclusion of self-
perception measures will facilitate the distinction of any true
age-related motivational changes from
those that are only assumed.

Hypotheses
Since the majority of studies reviewed, including one using the
WPI, have found motivation for
compensation to decline with age (e.g., Kanfer & Ackerman,
2004; Miao et al., 2009), we expected to
obtain the same result.
Hypothesis 1. It was predicted that the compensation motive
would be negatively related
to respondent age.
Since the majority of studies reviewed, including one using the
WPI, have found motivation for
challenging work to decline with age (e.g., Kooij et al., 2008;
Miao et al., 2009), we expected to obtain
the same result.
Hypothesis 2. It was predicted that the challenge motive would
be negatively related to
respondent age.
Based on past research discussed above which found older
persons viewed “the typical older person”
more positively with respect to a wide variety of attributes than
did younger persons, we expected to find
perceptions of older workers’ work-motivation levels would be

positively related to respondent age.
Hypothesis 3. It was predicted that older respondents would
have more favorable views
of older workers’ challenge, task enjoyment, recognition, and
compensation motives
than younger respondents would have of them.
We expected that age stereotypes would be pervasive among all
age groups. Therefore, we expected
that employed persons of all ages would have a self-concept
such that they would consider themselves as
more motivated than the typical older worker. However, it was
expected that the difference would be
greater for younger workers than for older ones.
Hypothesis 4. It was predicted that respondents of all ages
would perceive themselves as
superior to older workers with respect to all extrinsic and
intrinsic motives measured.
Hypothesis 5. It was predicted that respondent age would
moderate the relationship
between self-ratings and older worker ratings such that the
magnitude of the difference
would be negatively associated with respondent age.
Overall, the hypotheses reflect the expectation that age
stereotypes for recognition and task
enjoyment motivation are more likely than for compensation

and challenge motivation. This is the case
since the former two motives are not expected to actually
decrease with age, but respondents are
expected to perceive all motives as doing so. It was also
expected that younger respondents would
exhibit stereotypes to a greater extent than would older
respondents.
METHOD
Respondents
Surveys were mailed to 1050 business school alumni of
Salisbury University. The addressees
included thirty randomly selected graduates from each of the
years 1975 through 2009. Thirty-nine
surveys were returned as undeliverable. 241 completed surveys
were returned, yielding a return rate of
23.8% of those surveys assumed to have been delivered. 239
surveys were usable. This sample included
142 males, 96 females, and one transgendered/transsexual
respondent. Among the 236 respondents
answering the birth-date item, the range of ages was 24 through
70 years, the median respondent age was
42.5 years.
Materials and Procedure
Thirteen demographic questions were followed by a survey
consisting of 52 items. The items
relevant to this report were 24 items comprising two different

shortened versions (12 items each) of the
WPI adapted from Miao and Evans (2007) and modified to
apply to all jobs, not just sales jobs. The two
versions each consisted of four 3-item scales measuring
perceived challenge, task enjoyment,
compensation, and recognition motivation. One version elicited
self-ratings, while the other set prompted
respondents to rate older workers with respect to the same
characteristics. Items were modified, for each
rating task, such that each item in the first set contained the
word “I” (e.g., “I am strongly motivated by
the money I can earn through my job” and “I enjoy trying to
solve complex problems”), while the phrase
“older workers” appeared in the corresponding positions of the
second set (e.g., “Older workers are
strongly motivated by the money they can earn through their
job” and “Older workers enjoy trying to
solve complex problems”).
Participants were asked to rate the degree to which they agreed
or disagreed with each statement on
a 7-point Likert scale (strongly agree to strongly disagree).
Although order effects are generally small in
research comparing self- and group- ratings, self-ratings always
preceded the ratings of older workers in
order to prevent any possible stereotype effects on self-ratings
that might occur if the self-ratings were
done following the older worker ratings (Rothermund &
Brandtstädter, 2003).
RESULTS
Scale Reliabilities
All 8 scales used (4 rating one’s self and 4 rating older workers)
yielded reliability coefficients

(Cronbach’s alpha) exceeding the commonly accepted standard
of .70 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, &
Black, 1998). The Cronbach alphas, means, standard deviations,
and bivariate correlations of the self-
rating scales and the older worker scales are presented in Table
1.
TABLE 1
SCALE RELIABILITIES, MEANS, STANDARD
DEVIATIONS, AND BIVARIATE
CORRELATIONS: SELF-RATINGS, OLDER WORKER
RATINGS,
AND DEMOGRAPHICS
Correlations
Cronbach’s
Variable α M SD 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11
1. Gendera 1.60 .50
2. Formal education 6.31 .49 .00
3. Positionb .54 .50 .14* -.03
4. Age 42.43 11.18 .09 .02 .23‡
5. Challenge-Sc .91 5.72 1.15 .12 .05 .08 -.10
6. Task enjoyment-S .82 5.34 1.22 -.21† .01 -.10 -.01 .28‡
7. Compensation-S .79 5.17 1.24 .13* .03 .03 -.27‡ .30‡
.24‡
8. Recognition-S .81 4.78 1.39 -.08 -.07 -.07 -.16* .16*
.31‡ .51‡
9. Challenge-OWd .92 4.25 1.30 .05 .06 .06 .31‡ .24‡
.16* .07 -.09

10. Task enjoyment-OW .82 4.93 1.21 -.11 -.05 .03 .26‡
.15* .47‡ .16* .15* .39‡
11. Compensation-OW .81 4.50 1.19 -.11 -.04 -.02 -.08 .11
.19† .36‡ .24‡ .27‡ .27‡
12. Recognition-OW .87 4.25 1.27 -.04 -.13* .02 .06 .03
.19† .22‡ .45‡ .21† .39‡ .54‡
_____________________________________________________
_______________________________________
aFemale = 1, Male = 2
bManager = 1, Non-manager = 0
cSelf
dOlder Workers
*p < .05, †p < .01, ‡p < .001
n = 239
Self-Ratings
Regression analyses included three variables for control
purposes. One control variable was gender.
Several studies have found small differences in the direction of
males holding slightly stronger age
stereotypes than females (e.g., Bodner, Bergman, & Cohen-
Fridel, 2012; Chiu, Chan, Snape, & Redman,
2001; Kalavar, 2001; Rupp, Vodanovich, & Credé, 2005),
although under some conditions gender and
ageism have been found to be unrelated (Lin, Bryant, &
Boldero, 2011). Formal education level was also
controlled since it is likely that age and formal education are

significantly related due either to
differences in time available for educational achievements or to
societal changes over time. Position
(manager or non-manager) was controlled because some studies
have shown this variable to be
associated with the likelihood of age stereotyping (e.g., Chiu et
al., 2001; Kirchner & Dunnette, 1954).
Age, the independent variable and only continuous variable
included in the regression analyses, was
centered in order to reduce the likelihood of multicollinearity.
Both types of self-rated extrinsic motivation decreased as
respondent age increased. Neither type of
intrinsic motivation varied with respondent age. Therefore,
Hypothesis 1, which predicted that
compensation motivation would be negatively related to
respondent age, was supported and Hypothesis
2, that challenge motivation would be negatively related to
respondent age, was not. The regression
results for self-rated intrinsic and extrinsic motivation appear in
Table 2.
TABLE 2
REGRESSION ANALYSES WITH STANDARDIZED BETA
COEFFICIENTS AND
VARIANCE ACCOUNTED FOR (R2): SELF-REPORTED
MOTIVES
Dependent variable
Challenge
orientation

Task
enjoyment
Compensation
orientation
Recognition
orientation
Gendera .11 -.19† .14* -.06
Formal education .04 .00 .03 -.08
Positionb .09 -.10 .07 -.02
Age -.12 .03 -.30‡ -.15*
R2 .03 .05 .10 .04
*p < .05, †p < .01, ‡p < .001; n = 234
Perceptions of Older Workers
On all measures, older respondents rated older workers as high
as or higher than did younger
respondents. As the age of the respondent increased, both types
of intrinsic motivation were perceived as
higher for older workers. Perceived older worker extrinsic
motivation did not vary with respondent age.
Therefore, Hypothesis 3, that older respondents would have
more favorable views of older workers’
motivation than would younger ones, was partially supported.
The regression results for perceived older-
worker motivation are in Table 3.

Self-Ratings vs. Perceptions of Older Workers
For each of the four motive types the general linear model
(GLM) technique (Norusis, 2012) was
used to compare the respondents’ self-ratings to their
perceptions of older workers and to determine
whether respondent age moderated the relationships. Self-rated
challenge motivation (M = 5.71, SD =
1.15) exceeded older worker challenge motivation ratings (M =
4.25, SD = 1.30, f[1, 234] = 246.58, p <
.001). The interaction of rating type and respondent age was
significant (f[1, 234] = 29.74, p < .001). As
shown in Table 1, self-rated challenge motivation did not
correlate with respondent age, but the
perceived challenge motivation of older workers increased with
respondent age. Therefore, the
difference between self-ratings and older worker ratings was
negatively related to respondent age.
TABLE 3
REGRESSION ANALYSES WITH STANDARDIZED BETA
COEFFICIENTS AND
VARIANCE ACCOUNTED FOR (R2): RESPONDENTS’
PERCEPTIONS OF
OLDER WORKERS’ MOTIVES

Dependent variable
Challenge
orientation
Task
enjoyment
Compensation
orientation
Recognition
orientation
Gendera .00 -.13* -.12 -.08
Formal education .04 -.06 -.06 -.15*
Positionb .00 -.04 .02 .02
Age .31‡ .28‡ -.07 .07
R2 .10 .09 .02 .03
*p < .05, †p < .01, ‡p < .001; n = 234
Self-rated task enjoyment motivation (M = 5.33, SD = 1.22)
exceeded older worker task enjoyment
motivation ratings (M = 4.92, SD = 1.20, f[1, 234] = 26.80, p <
.001). The interaction of rating type and
respondent age was significant (f[1, 234] = 16.99, p < .001).
Self-rated task enjoyment motivation did
not correlate with respondent age, but perceived older worker
task enjoyment motivation increased with
respondent age (see Table 1). Therefore, the difference between
self-ratings and older worker ratings
was negatively related to respondent age.

Self-rated compensation motivation (M = 5.17, SD = 1.23)
exceeded older worker compensation
motivation ratings (M = 4.51, SD = 1.18, f[1, 234] = 56.02, p <
.001). The interaction of rating type and
respondent age was significant (f[1, 234] = 7.17, p < .01). As
shown in Table 1, self-rated compensation
motivation was negatively related to respondent age, but the
perceived compensation motivation of older
workers did not correlate with respondent age. Therefore, the
difference between self-ratings and older
worker ratings was negatively related to respondent age.
Self-rated recognition motivation (M = 4.79, SD = 1.38)
exceeded perceived older worker
recognition motivation (M = 4.25, SD = 1.28, f[1, 234] = 37.16,
p < .001). The interaction of rating type
and respondent age was significant (f[1, 234] = 11.37, p <
.001). As shown in Table 1, self-rated
recognition motivation was negatively related to respondent
age, but perceived older worker recognition
motivation and respondent age were not correlated. Therefore,
the difference between self-ratings and
older worker ratings was negatively related to respondent age.
The significant main effects of the rating type variable upon all
four motivational variables provide
some support for Hypothesis 4, that respondents would perceive
themselves as superior to older workers.
Hypothesis 5, that the magnitude of the difference would be
negatively associated with respondent age,
was also supported, as indicated by the nature of the four
interactions of rating type with respondent age.
Paired t-tests compared the younger (under 50 years of age) and
older respondents’ self-ratings to

their perceptions of older workers. Kooij et al. (2008) noted that
in studies of labor market participation,
ages 50 or 55 are typically considered the boundary between
younger and older workers. In the present
study, 50 was chosen since it yielded twice the older respondent
sample size that 55 did. (The results
were virtually the same regardless of which age cut-off used.)
As shown in Table 4, younger respondents
rated themselves higher on all four dimensions than they rated
older workers. On the other hand, while
older respondents rated themselves higher than they rated older
workers on the challenge and
compensation motivation dimensions, the differences with
respect to task enjoyment motivation and
recognition orientation were not significant. Therefore,
Hypothesis 4, that respondents of all ages would
perceive themselves as superior to older workers, was only
partially supported.
TABLE 4
PAIRED t-TESTS: RESPONDENTS’ SELF-RATINGS
VERSUS PERCEPTIONS OF OLDER WORKERS
_____________________________________________________
______________________
Age group Self-ratings Older
worker ratings
Dimension Mean SD Mean SD

df t
_____________________________________________________
______________________
Younger (under 50) respondents
Challenge orientation 5.77 1.14
4.02 1.26 161 13.92‡
Task enjoyment 5.31 1.21 4.76
1.18 161 5.18‡
Compensation orientation 5.33 1.17
4.57 1.17 161 6.76‡
Recognition orientation 4.93 1.33
4.18 1.24 161 6.51‡
Older (50 and over) respondents
Challenge orientation 5.58 1.15
4.73 1.26 73 6.55‡
Task enjoyment 5.35 1.27 5.26
1.17 73 .85
Compensation orientation 4.81 1.29
4.39 1.21 73 3.12†
Recognition orientation 4.49 1.46
4.41 1.34 73 .64
_____________________________________________________
______________________
*p < .05, †p < .01, ‡p < .001
DISCUSSION
Theoretical Implications
This study is consistent with others in that the attractiveness of
the extrinsic rewards investigated
was negatively related to age (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004).

These findings support the Life Span Theory
of Control assumption that aging is accompanied by a decrease
in desire to seek rewards that are
externally controlled (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) and also, the
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
view that older persons shift their orientations away from
rewards involving delayed gratification
(Carstensen et al., 1999; Lang & Carstensen, 2002). However,
the predicted increased emphasis upon
internally controlled and immediately available rewards among
older workers was not observed, as
intrinsic motivation did not vary with age.
The study demonstrates that some negative age stereotypes
continue to persist among workers of all
ages. We found that younger respondents generally held more
negative views of older workers than did
older respondents, as on all measures the younger respondents
rated older workers as low as or lower
than did older respondents. These findings are consistent with
both Social Identity Theory, which
contends that people evaluate their in-groups positively in order
to maintain positive self-images (Kite et
al., 2005) and the concept of externalization, i.e., respondents’
favorable views of themselves impact
their stereotypes of similar-aged persons positively
(Rothermund & Brandtstädter, 2003). Nonetheless,
older respondents also appeared to exhibit some negative age
stereotyping. Overall, the respondents
appeared to have particularly strong negative age stereotypes
regarding older workers’ motivation for
challenging work, at least relative to the other motives studied.
Both the younger and older respondent
groups perceived themselves as being more challenge oriented
than “typical” older workers. This
occurred despite the fact that self-reported challenge orientation

did not decline significantly with age.
The discrepancy between the current study and those that found
a decline in challenge motivation with
age (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004) may be due to our sample being
highly educated (college graduates),
and therefore, possibly higher than average in achievement
motivation. Younger, but not older,
respondents also exhibited age stereotypes with respect to task
enjoyment motivation by rating older
workers lower than they rated themselves.
As expected, the compensation motive was negatively related to
respondent age. Therefore, the
perception by the younger respondents that older workers’
compensation motivation is lower than their
own has a basis in fact. Interpretation of the older respondents’
views would seem to depend on whether
the older respondents perceived themselves to be older workers.
If they perceived themselves to be
younger than older workers, the older respondents also would be
justified in rating themselves higher.
However, if they perceived themselves to be old, they exhibited
a stereotypical view of their own
contemporaries’ compensation motivation.
As was the case with compensation motivation, younger
respondents seem justified in perceiving
their own recognition motivation as greater than that of older
workers, since self-reported recognition
motivation also was negatively related to age. Older

respondents, however, did not perceive their own
recognition motivation to differ from that of older workers. If
they viewed themselves as old, older
respondents were correct in this assessment. If they perceived
themselves as younger than older workers,
they actually judged older workers more favorably with respect
to motivation for recognition, relative to
themselves, than they should have.
As noted above, older respondents generally viewed older
workers less negatively than did younger
respondents. However, older respondents certainly did not see
themselves as identical in motivation to
the “typical” older worker. As purported by Resilience Theory
(Pinquart, 2002), they may have seen
themselves as superior to their contemporaries in some ways,
perhaps as a result of past comparisons of
themselves with others. On the other hand, they may not feel
they are as old as the “typical” older
worker. Alternatively, older workers may believe they are
exceptional relative to their contemporaries in
some ways, but not in others.
Implications for Practice
The negative stereotypes of older workers were striking,
especially with regard to challenge
motivation. This poses potential concerns for organizations and
older persons who work in them.
Stereotypes can influence the way managers and younger
workers treat their older colleagues (Hassell &
Perrewe, 1993; Mauer et al., 2008). Managerial attitudes toward
older workers will inevitably affect
work-related practices such as hiring, promotion, and training
opportunities. Rosen and Jerdee (1976a)
suggested that older workers may lose work motivation due to

perceiving managerial bias. Stereotypes,
therefore, can be seen as resulting in self-fulfilling prophesies
(Livingston, 1969) or the internalization of
stereotypes (Bennett & Gaines, 2010). Also, people’s fear of
being judged on the basis of a negative
stereotype (stereotype threat) can lead to anxiety, which may
affect performance (Steele & Aronson,
1995).
We suggest that organizational policies and practices must meet
the challenges associated with an
aging workforce. Allport’s (1954) Contact Hypothesis proposed
that increased exposure to stereotyped
persons would lessen stereotyping. Although some studies have
obtained supporting evidence (e.g.,
Stoker, Van der Velde, & Lammers, 2012), findings are
generally not encouraging with respect to the
likelihood that age stereotypes will change through normal daily
encounters with older individuals (Chiu
et al., 2001; Henkens, 2005; Hewstone & Brown, 1986). It
should not be surprising that beliefs do not
always change even when evidence seems to warrant it (Weber
& Crocker, 1983). Research
demonstrates that people can easily justify the belief that
evidence against a negative stereotype does not
disconfirm it (Kunda & Oleson, 1995). Furthermore, Loretto,
Duncan, and White (2000) concluded that
even though enlightened attitudes regarding age and
employment issues were found among business
students, the attitudes will likely become more negative if they
later work in discriminating
organizational cultures. Our findings, along with previous
research, suggest two distinct but interrelated
steps must be taken by organizations to adapt successfully to
the realities of an aging workforce.

Dispel Negative Age Stereotypes
Negative age stereotypes are deeply embedded within the
cultures of most organizations. We expect
that these stereotypes will inevitably result in discriminatory
treatment of older workers in a wide range
of organizational domains, including hiring, promotion, work
assignments, and developmental
opportunities. As Taylor and Walker’s (1998) findings suggest,
in order for disadvantageous
employment practices to be changed, negative age stereotypes
held by managers need to first be
overcome. Sterns and Miklos (1995) concluded that sensitizing
managers to aging and work issues is as
important as changing organizational systems.
Although our study confirmed the widespread belief that some
motives of older workers decline with
age, intrinsic motivation did not change. Therefore, we argue
that older workers are differently motivated
rather than less motivated. Appropriate treatment of older
workers is likely to be enhanced through
organizational strategies that incorporate an understanding of
the patterns of adult development. Adults
experience stages of life dominated by differing life tasks and
priorities (Erikson, 1950). For example, in
midlife and beyond, generativity (concern for sustaining and
guiding the present and succeeding

generations) becomes a more powerful motivator (Erikson,
1950, 1964). Understanding the differences
in motivation between older and younger employees will better
prepare organizations to accommodate
their workforce through effective policies and practices.
Consequently, we suggest that organizations
develop a required managerial training process on psychosocial
development, with a particular focus on
the impact on workers as they age.
Various methods may be effective in dispelling negative age
stereotypes. For example, sensitivity to
the needs of older workers may be further enhanced if training
programs include role playing (Tausch &
Hewstone, 2010). Redesigning job responsibilities, for example
by providing opportunities for serving as
mentors, could be beneficial both to organizations as well as to
older workers. Job responsibilities that
include mentoring will likely not only increase motivation, but
also provide opportunities for older
workers to transfer their knowledge and skills to younger
persons. Mentoring can also serve to expose
younger workers to older workers and, perhaps, reduce
stereotyping. Although increased contact with
older workers does not eliminate all stereotypes (Chiu et al.,
2001; Henkens, 2005), it may result in
younger workers having more positive attitudes regarding older
workers’ productivity (Henkens, 2005).
Create a Supportive Climate for Older Workers
Changing embedded attitudes is a necessary step toward
effectively employing older workers, but
this step alone is insufficient to ultimately change behavior
toward older workers. Also required is a
systematic review and adaptation of organizational policies and

practices to incorporate consideration of
the age-specific needs of workers. While many of the policies
and practices of organizations regarding
older workers are designed to avoid age discrimination lawsuits,
policies must be designed to proactively
provide for the needs of an aging workforce. Strategies already
being effectively utilized to
accommodate working mothers and others may also be viable
for an aging workforce. Such policies
include flexible schedules, compressed workweeks, and job
sharing. Older workers who may want to
continue working, but on a more restricted basis, may benefit
from a phased retirement strategy with
which retirement is a gradual transition rather than an abrupt
end to one’s job. Most of these concepts are
not new, but need to be utilized in a focused strategy for
accommodating the unique needs of older
workers.
Maurer et al. (2002) suggested that a continuous development
orientation on the part of older
workers is enhanced when supervisors and co-workers provide a
supportive learning environment. There
is empirical evidence that the perceived support from managers
and co-workers positively influences
employee participation in development activities (Maurer &
Tarulli, 1994). To strengthen the
development motives of older workers, Kooij et al. (2008)
advocated that managers should ensure that
older workers have jobs in which they can achieve a sense of
accomplishment. We believe our suggested
actions will reduce the risk of loss of older workers, while at
the same time maximizing older worker
productivity while they continue to work. In short, we suggest
that by addressing the physical and

psychosocial needs of aging workers, organizations can more
effectively retain, motivate, and utilize
them.
Limitations
One limitation of the current study is that no attempt was made
to define “older worker.” Rather,
respondents responded to their own perception of what
constitutes an older worker. While our approach
has the advantage that all respondents expressed their attitudes
toward hypothetical workers that they
actually consider old, future research might consider assessing
respondents’ stereotypes of various given
ages. Such research may help to determine the ages at which
respondents perceive age to become a
performance-related factor.
An additional limitation is that the sample was taken only of
alumni from one university business
school. Also, while the respondents work in a wide range of
organizations and job categories, they are
above average in educational achievement and are concentrated
primarily in professional positions. It
may be that highly educated professional workers have different
expectations of performance for older
workers than do workers with different educational backgrounds
or workers in non-professional
occupations.
Additional types of extrinsic and intrinsic motives should be

studied. Although neither intrinsic
motive included in the present study varied with respondent age
and both were subject to some age
stereotyping, others such as the motive for generativity have
been previously been found to increase with
age (Lang & Carstensen, 2002; McAdams, de St. Aubin, &
Logan, 1993) and may elicit positive age
stereotypes. It would be of interest to determine the extent to
which younger workers recognize
generativity motivation in older workers. One reason is that the
success of older persons as leaders is
affected by their level of generativity (Zacher, Rosing, Henning,
& Frese, 2011). It seems likely that
younger persons recognizing generativity motivation in leaders
influences leader success.
Finally, future studies may focus on employees in specific
organizations and compare different types
of organizations. Organizational culture has a powerful
influence on employee perceptions and
behaviors. The study of employees in a single organization may
more clearly assess organizational
culture’s impact on older workers. Also, researchers and human
resource professionals should
collaborate to study the impact of specific organizational
policies and practices on older worker
motivation, job performance, and retention.
Conclusion
Given the aging of the workforce, organizational leaders and
researchers need to be concerned about
the impact of aging on work-related factors such as motivation
and job performance. Organizations may
be reluctant to utilize and develop older workers if they believe
such persons are unmotivated, resistant

to accepting challenges, and lacking in up-to-date skills. It is
not that older workers are typically
unmotivated, but rather, extrinsic rewards become less effective
as workers age. Therefore, organizations
must rely more on intrinsic rewards to bring out the best in
older workers. Negative age stereotypes are
likely to lead to discriminatory practices and dysfunctional
relationships among co-workers resulting in
the underutilization of older workers’ skills and experience.
Intervention attempts to reduce age
stereotypes must be directed at workers of all ages, not just
younger ones.
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