1. iii
A CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE STUDY ON TEACHER MORALE BETWEEN K-
12 SCHOOL AND RESIDENTIAL TREATMENT FACILITY TEACHERS
by
Zakia Y. Gates
ADAIR WHITE-JOHNSON, PhD, Faculty Mentor, and Chair
MARK LARSON, PhD, Committee Member
CINDY SKARUPPA, EdD, Committee Member
Amy Smith, Ph.D. Dean, School of Education
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
November 2016

2. iv
© Zakia Gates, 2016

3. v
Abstract
An issue facing education in organizations such as schools and other local education
agencies is teacher morale. The issue of teacher morale has become a concept in
education that was rarely discussed or never discussed among school-level
administrators, local education agency administrators, or educational practitioners. The
basis of this study suggested that organizational factors influenced different levels of
morale among teachers from a diverse group of educational institutions such as K-12
schools and other alternative education settings. The purpose of this study was to
determine how and to what extent levels of morale differ statistically and significantly
between K-12 Catholic school teachers and residential treatment facility teachers. The
Purdue Teacher Opinionaire, a survey developed by Ralph Bentley and Averno Rempel,
was used to determine different levels of morale. The survey was administered to 17 K-
12 Catholic school teachers and 34 residential treatment facility teachers selected from a
Northeast state. Research questions and the null hypothesis were answered and analyzed
through Mean, Standard Deviation, t-test, two-tailed t-test, Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA), and Pearson’s Correlations. Findings of the study revealed that a relationship
existed between organizational factors and its influence on different levels of teacher
morale.

4. vi
Dedication
First, giving all honor and praise to the Higher Deity and His Son for making all
of this possible. Thank you for using me as a channel to contribute to a larger body of
research and knowledge in education. Secondly, I dedicate this research study to my
wonderful daughter, Ayanna (The Beautiful Flower), who motivated me throughout this
educational journey. Your understanding, love and support is much appreciated. Also, I
dedicate this research study to my loving parents, William and Gilda Gates, my sister,
Nwenna Kai, and my niece, Aziza. Thank you all for your on-going support throughout
this project.
To my ancestors who fought, bled, and died to ensure that I had a quality
education to teach and motivate future generations of different ethnicities. From the
infamous words of Dr. Maya Angelou, “I am the hope and the dream of the slave and so I
rise, I rise, I rise”. Finally, I dedicate this project to my loved ones who have passed on.
To my grandmother, the late Mrs. Lucille Louise Peele, for the private conversations
telling me how proud you were of me and my accomplishments. Sleep with the angels.
To my aunt, the late Dr. Edna Rodgers O’Connor, who inspired me to return to school, to
stay focus, and to pursue my doctorate during my freshman year in college. You were a
true inspiration now rest with the ancestors and the angels. To my best friend, the late
Mr. Frederick Douglass Taylor, who talked to me every night up until the day you went
onto Christ. I hear you saying “keep your head up”. You all are my true heroes!

5. vii
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge the people who helped and supported me with this
project. First, I would like to thank and acknowledge the school districts for granting me
approval of using K-12 Catholic schools. Secondly, I would like to acknowledge the
teachers of the school districts for taking the time out of their busy schedules to complete
the survey for the study. Also, I would like to acknowledge the principals of the K-12
Catholic schools and the administrators of the residential treatment facilities for allowing
me to use the sites to conduct the study. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge the
51 teachers who took the survey and returned the survey to me in a timely fashion for the
study. A special acknowledgements to the Purdue Research Foundation of Purdue
University for granting permission to use the Purdue Teacher Opinionaire and to the
administration of the residential treatment facilities who granted me permission to
administer the Purdue Teacher Opinionare to the residential teachers.
In addition, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to my dissertation chair
and mentor Dr. Adair White-Johnson and my committee members, Dr. Mark Larson and
Dr. Cindy Skaruppa for their persistence, dedication, and all around support. Also, thank
you for challenging me to strive to complete the best work. Lastly, thanks to the authors
of SPSS for Dummies. It helped tremendously.

6. viii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments vii
List of Tables xii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
Introduction to the Problem 1
Background 15
Context 15
Theoretical Framework 16
Statement of the Problem 18
Purpose of the Study 20
Research Questions 21
Rationale of the Study 21
Relevance of the Study 22
Significance of the Study 22
Nature of the Study 23
Definition of Terms 25
Assumptions 26
Limitations 26
Delimitations 27
Organization of the Remainder of the Study 28

7. ix
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction to the Literature Review 29
Theoretical Framework 42
Methodological Issues 47
Synthesis of Research 49
Critique of previous Research 51
Review of the Research Literature 52
Chapter 2 Summary 64
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
Introduction to Chapter 3 66
Statement of the Problem 67
Research Questions and Hypothesis 68
Research Methodology 69
Research Design 72
Target Population 76
Sampling Method 79
Sampling Size 79
Setting 80
Recruitment 82
Instrumentation 83
Level of measurement 88
Data Collection 91

8. x
Operationalization of Variables 93
Data Analysis Procedures 94
Data Analyses for Research Questions and Hypothesis 96
Internal Validity 100
External Validity 102
Expected Findings 102
Ethical Issues 103
Researcher’s Position Statement 104
Chapter 3 Summary 104
CHAPTER 4. DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
Introduction 105
Description of the Sample 106
Summary of the Results 108
Detailed Analysis 108
Chapter 4 Summary 126
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
Introduction 128
Summary of the Results 129
Summary of Conclusions 130
Discussion of the Results 131
Limitations 134
Implication of the Results for Practice 137
Recommendations for Further Research 139

9. xi
Conclusion 144
REFERENCES 146
APPENDIX A. STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL WORK 154

10. xii
List of Tables
Table 1. Purdue Teacher Factors and Herzberg’s Factors 43
Table 2. Residential Treatment Facility Data 81
Table 3. K-12 Catholic School Data 81
Table 4. Purdue Teacher Opinionaire Items 90
Table 5. Age of Teachers 107
Table 6. Level of Education 107
Table 7. PTO Weighted Items 109
Table 8. Teacher Morale Scale 111
Table 9. Mean Scores (K-12 participants) 112
Table 10. Mean Scores (RTF participants) 113
Table 11. Teacher Morale Rating 120

11. xiii
Table 12. Descriptive Statistics (RTF Participants) 122
Table 13. Descriptive Statistics (K-12 participants) 125
Table 14. Statistical Tests 126

12. xiv

13. 1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem
The teacher has been described as a “divine creature” who was “a maker of man and
history” (Devi & Mann, 2010, p. 1). American pragmatic philosopher Sidney Hook said,
“The teacher is the heart of the educational system” (Hook, n.d). Both statements supported
the notion that the teacher, compared to the human heart, was the center and the most
important feature of the educational system. Just as the human heart as noted by Hook, the
teacher must be nurtured, appreciated, and valued in order to keep other systems working
consistently and efficiently for the betterment of educational improvement (Gumus, Bulut, &
Bellibas, 2013; Guadelupe, 2010; Hook, n.d. Devi & Mani, 2010). However, if there was a
negative impact or damage to the focal point of the system, just as the teacher, the systems
that surrounded the focal point collapsed. One of the primary inquiries to the collapse of the
system was what caused the impact or the damage.
From past philosophies to current theories, society viewed teachers as the primary
source of the classroom, education, and society who shaped humanity and transferred
pertinent knowledge to individuals around the world. For this reason, teachers were the focal
points of schools and other education agencies where methods of instruction influence
student learning and other activities (Gumus et al., 2013). Guadelupe (2010) recognized that
teachers were viewed as the “most important agents” who shaped and organized the learning
process and what students experienced in and beyond the classroom (p. 1).
Govindarajan (2012) added that a teacher’s moral obligation to education
encompassed a positive work ethic that reflects in their attitudes, behaviors, and feelings.
However, these feelings could be hindered by the many hats, roles, responsibilities, and

14. 2
levels of accountability teachers experienced in the education system. According to Devi and
Mann (2010), teachers’ morale levels, attitudes, and feelings were conflicted between the
“inner self” to become teachers compared with the mere passing of time in the profession (p.
1). As a result, Devi and Mann (2010) pointed out society’s concern in developing the
“whole personality” of a teacher rather than a collective effort (p. 1). For this reason, Devi
and Mann (2010) question, “How can we leave our children in the hands of these half-
hearted teachers”? (p. 1). The research study addressed three things. The research study
addressed teacher morale between two groups of teachers and certain organizational factors
perceived to influence teacher morale between teachers identified as K-12 teachers who are a
part of the K-12 school system compared to residential treatment facility teachers who are
not a part of the K-12 school system. Residential treatment facility teachers serve at-risk
youth between the ages of 13 to 18 in residential treatment facilities (Houchins, Shippen,
McKeand, Viel-Ruma, Jolivette, & Guarino, 2010).
Education, Society, Classroom, and Teacher Accountability
The competency of teachers’ pedagogical skills in schools and other education
settings helped teachers to become successful in their professions (Gumus et al., 2013).
A teacher’s role in the 21st
century was considered to be a “multifaceted profession” where
levels of competencies were assessed through pedagogical skills (Lanier, 1997, p. 1). These
pedagogical skills defined the roles teachers played in the classroom. One of the dual roles
of a classroom teacher was the role of an artist and a scientist. The artist of the teacher used
various abstract and creative ways of acquiring knowledge used to motivate students to learn
the content. The science component of teaching used systematic methods of instruction to
maintain students’ attentiveness of the content (Szucs, 2009).

15. 3
The social responsibility of a teacher placed many duties that consumed teachers’
emotional, physical, and intellectual levels (Sachs, 2003). Teachers’ roles in education and
society as a whole experienced various changes where systems were put in place to increase
the demand for teaching, but deviated from the supply of teachers (Mackenzie, 2007).
Cemaloglu (2009) emphasized that teachers in “training organizations” such as schools
encountered high teaching demands that became burdensome to teachers in the school milieu
(p. 495). As a result of higher demands in the profession, 33% of teachers experienced
fatigue and tension according to Cemaloglu (2009).
Teachers’ roles and responsibilities in education and society included variations in
accountability. The teacher was accountable and cognizant of meeting the expectations of
federal mandates while balancing internal demands and responsibilities of the classroom.
Other roles and responsibilities included accountability for addressing different learning
styles simultaneously, managing classroom behaviors, extensive workloads, gaining parental
and community support, and other assigned duties outside of the teaching paradigm
(Guadelupe, 2010). In summary, teachers were provided with increased accountability, a
multitude of responsibilities, and role playing compared to other professions.
Another role played in the education system included teachers who acted as soldiers
on the forefront of past and present education wars. Anrig (2015) and Goldstein (2014)
emphasized that “education wars” such as education reform, and “teachers’ unions” were
covered more extensively than research on teacher and administrative collaboration to
produce stronger student outcomes (p. 1). Goldstein (2014) argued that conflicts between
teachers’ and other responsibilities aside from the classroom such as fights with union

16. 4
leaders tended to deal more with union leaders rather than included what teachers
experienced in their roles in education, the classroom, and in society.
Teacher Morale
Smargonisky (2014) described morale among teachers as “dropping like a heavy-
hearted stone in the era of accountability” (p. 167). Mackenzie (2007) found a significant
decline in morale among teachers based on the demands of the profession. Mackenzie
(2007) noted participants of a study who echoed how teacher morale declined over a period
of 30 years and the drastic change in the 21st
century. A comparative study used to examine
the impact and effects of teaching excellence awards between novice teachers and
experienced teachers where an organizational paradigm, a sociological model, and
Mackenzie’s teaching experience served as the context of the study. A triangulated approach
used to determine how the status of teaching, the present status of teacher morale, and awards
influenced teacher morale. Data was collected through questionnaires, one on one
interviews, and observation using a sample of 101 teachers. Teachers of the study agreed
that student achievement increased due to high teacher morale. The results of the study
supported other literature on efficiency in the workplace. It was found that “worker
efficiency” correlated to higher levels of morale compared to 66% of teachers who express
teacher morale as low in the 21st
century (Mackenzie, 2007, p. 94). A comparative analysis
showed that participants with 20 years of experience or more described levels of morale as
lower currently compared to their first years of teaching, yet other participants of the study
with 10 years or less described teacher morale as consistently low.
Another finding of the study Mackenzie claimed that a factor that contributed to the
decline in teacher morale was society’s outlook on education. Community perception of the

17. 5
teaching profession was found to be a key and strong factor behind low teacher morale.
Mackenzie (2007) stated that the lack of personal knowledge from the community regarding
the teaching profession contrasted with the idea of individuals’ personal experience in
schools contributed to low teacher morale. Lack of personal knowledge about the teaching
profession correlated with personal experiences was not a strong indicator behind
understanding the teaching profession or the responsibilities of the profession. Additionally,
the lack of personal knowledge of the teaching profession leads communities to formulate
personal perspectives and opinions. These personal beliefs created biases and assumptions
about schools and teachers’ responsibilities. Public perceptions and attitudes towards
education complement to a “drop in morale” because of the community’s assumptions that
education “is not fulfilling its potential” (Mackenzie, 2007, p. 89). Therefore, outside
perceptions, perspectives, and feelings towards the education of the 21st
century can lead to
an increase in teacher morale or cause teacher morale to decline.
Mackenzie (2007) compared the overall rate of teacher morale from the past to the
present. The comparison pointed out that teacher morale was higher 30 years ago than in the
21st
century. High teacher morale was experienced more through individual schools rather
than whole school communities (Mackenzie, 2007). In summary, Mackenzie’s study
revealed that teachers experienced higher morale in individual schools based on specific
organizational factors that influenced morale in the school milieu. Hart, Wearing, Conn,
Carter and Dingle (2000) implied that organizational factors were “more important” than
individual classroom experiences and issues (p. 211). In general, organizational factors
perceived to influence teacher morale were viewed as the larger context. This larger context

18. 6
caused a domino effect of feelings of high or low morale in individual classrooms. In
summary, factors in the larger context may influence a larger group of teachers collectively
rather than individually.
By contrast, Espeland (2000) stated that teacher morale was a hypothetical notion
perceived as an illusion based upon others’ perceptions or examinations of school settings
and other education agencies. Therefore, the literature supported that teacher morale was
perceived as an individual experience rather than a group phenomenon (Mackenzie, 2007;
Espeland, 2000). The notion of teacher morale as an individual experience rather than a
group phenomenon was supported by the internal locus of control concept according to
Cherry (2010).
To clarify further, Mackenzie (2007) noted leadership and workload as other
organizational factors that influenced teacher morale. The literature suggested that teachers’
workloads have increased due to changing education conditions over the past 10 years
(Mackenzie, 2007). One of the issues with the teachers’ workload and its link to teacher
morale was the curriculum. Teachers were not held accountable for the development of new
curricula; instead teachers were responsible for the use of the curriculum as a guide aligned
with classroom instructional objectives. Issues with the curriculum provided by federal and
state mandates included lack of resources to support the objectives and other activities. As a
result, teachers were left to purchase resources to support the content and instructional
objectives. However, Espeland (2000) stated that teachers had an individual responsibility to
bring life to the curriculum and other activities. Espeland (2000) emphasized that teachers’
use of creativity in the curriculum to enhance instruction. As a result, teachers can increase
individual morale levels by using teacher autonomy. For instance, a participant from

19. 7
Mackenzie’s qualitative study stated that “Morale is at an all-time low – but not with those
teachers who want to be involved…I firmly believe you get out of teaching what you are
prepared to put in” (Mackenzie, 2007, p. 95). This statement was supported by the literature
of Cherry (2010) who suggested that individuals with an internal locus of control were
responsible for their morale, feelings, and behaviors towards a profession.
By comparison, Lumsden (1998) stated teachers’ accountability of their morale,
feelings, and behaviors an individual self-awareness concept. The self-awareness concept
was contrasted with the idea that organizations, such as schools and other education settings,
must also bring a balance to support morale, feelings, and behaviors. In summary, Lumsden
(1998) noted that teachers were responsible for their own “internal locus of control” of
morale, but expressed the organization’s accountability to bridge the gap between the
individual’s morale and encouraging support (Cherry, 2010, p. 1). This concept of nurturing
must be felt by the larger community (Lumsden, 1998; Govindarjan, 2012). The
organization’s accountability to bring a balance between encouraging support of the
individual’s level of morale and the individual’s internal locus of control was supported by
the literature by Cherry (2010) that suggested that morale is influenced from the internal
locus of control and from the external locus of control.
A critical analysis of differences between the influence of teacher morale and
measuring teacher morale stemmed from exploratory and confirmatory factors of teacher
morale. The School Organisational Health Questionnaire was used as a base for measuring
teacher morale directly linked to school climate organizational factors (Hart, Wearing, Conn,
Carter, & Dingle, 2000). The results of the questionnaire addressed a series of factors
categorized as “exploratory” and “confirmatory” analyses items of teacher morale (Hart et

20. 8
al., 2000, p. 211). Exploratory factors of teacher morale called for researchers to examine
items as interrelated. These interrelated items were interdependent upon the possibility of
other underlying items or factors. Confirmatory factor analysis addresses the method that is
used to validate and authenticate the factor through a statistical assessment by testing the
study’s hypothesis (Hart et al., 2000; Suhr, n.d.). The confirmatory and exploratory factor
analyses of the questionnaire determined its factor structure of measuring organizational
factors such as school climate to teacher morale (Hart et al., 2000). As part of the “school
organizational climate”, 11 dimensions were established as measurements of teacher morale
that include “appraisal and recognition, curriculum coordination, effective discipline policy,
excessive work demands, goal congruence, participative decision-making, professional
growth, professional interaction, role clarity, student orientation, and supportive leadership”
(Hart et al., 2000, p. 211).
Teacher Morale and School Hope
Liu and Myers (2005) noted that the accountability of schools was to provide a sense
of balance between current conditions of teaching and meeting goals to increase “schools of
hope” (Brentwood High School: A School of Hope, 2010; Ravitch, 2010). To define hope
correlated with morale, Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) suggested that current conditions in
education need to be addressed in order to “craft a defensible notion of hope” that is realistic
for the 21st
century classroom teacher (p. 2). By addressing current education issues, Nolan
and Stitzlein (2011) mentioned that many teachers of the 21st
century education system
experienced low morale and “high anxiety” (p. 2). Low morale combined with “high
anxiety” left teachers in lethargic states of mind where the subject of hope was questionable
(Nolan & Stitzlein, 2011, p. 2).

21. 9
Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) pointed out that current conditions in education described
as “challenging circumstances” include disciplining students, low salaries, lack of
appropriate resources, meeting Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) and meeting federal
mandates and goals (p. 1). “High anxiety” conditions or “challenging circumstances” as
described by Nolan and Stitzlein were conditions that influenced teacher morale and hindered
hope (p. 1). Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) added that teachers have experienced “high anxiety”
conditions yet made a great effort to encourage hope amongst themselves, schools, and
students (p.1). Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) countered the idea of “high anxiety” and
encouraged hope by declaring how teachers remained stagnant while experiencing low
morale under “high anxiety” conditions (p.1).
Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) and O’Brien (2010) reported how teachers were
confronted about morale, but questioned barriers of reaching hope and the need for continual
incentives. Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) implied that the correlation between hope and morale
measured forecasted feelings of optimism that could become a reality. Nolan and Stitzlein
(2011) added how the relationship between hope and morale influenced the context of
education. Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) described hope and morale as correlated concepts
experienced among teachers. These correlated concepts served as driving forces behind the
quality of education improvement.
To further clarify the importance of teachers as the “heart of the educational system”,
Singh and Samiti (n.d.) and Singh and Buddhisagar (2009) believed teachers must be
equipped with precise personality, professional dimensions, and tools to help with the
improvement of the quality of education. As noted, just as the human heart, teachers must
be nurtured, appreciated and valued in order to maintain external and internal systems

22. 10
working effectively, efficiently, and consistently for the betterment of education and society
as a whole (Hook, n.d.; Devi & Mann, 2010). As noted in the literature contributory factors
of teacher morale played a part in the breakdown of the systems. This could contribute to the
success of the systems surrounding the human heart. An underlying assumption behind the
analogy implied that the human heart, like a teacher, will function normally or fail miserably
based on certain factors. This was supported by the literature of Govindarjan (2012) who
suggested that teachers, who felt, nurtured, valued, and appreciated for their efforts and
accomplishments increased levels of morale. Govindarjan (2012) and Mackenzie (2007)
added that high morale contributed to school success such as higher student achievement.
Factors That Affect Teacher Morale
The implication across the literature suggested that teachers were overwhelmed with
many demands, duties, roles, responsibilities, and levels of accountability from society,
education, and the classroom. Many demands, duties/responsibilities of the profession led to
low teacher morale when support was not given or high teacher morale when support was
provided to teachers. With all of the roles, demands, and responsibilities of the teacher, how
does this affect teacher morale in the profession?
According to Mackenzie (2007) and Betts (n.d), morale has a multifaceted definition.
Betts (n.d.) emphasized morale as a term conceptualized by individuals’ perceptions of
themselves in an organization in relation to feelings towards the profession. As a result,
morale, whether high or low, contributed to “feelings of dissatisfaction and frustration” in the
profession according to Govindarjan (2012, p. 58). The term was viewed as an extension to
that individuals in the workplace required organizations to meet their expectations (Betts,
n.d.). Bentley and Rempel (1980) described morale as individual feelings of importance and

23. 11
passion for the profession in order to work towards measurable goals and expectations of an
organization. Additionally, morale was part of a larger “socio-psychological” context where
individuals implied or imagined how the presence of others shaped feelings, behaviors, and
thoughts in the profession (Betts, n.d., p. 1; Allport, 1935).
Low teacher morale contributed to teachers who lost “heart” that left society to
question “How can we leave our children in the hands of these half-hearted teachers”
(Mackenzie, 2007, p. 92; Devi & Mann, 2010, p. 1). For this reason, Mackenzie (2007)
believed that low morale caused teachers to take more sick time to search for alternative
employment opportunities. Mackenzie (2007) and Ellensberg (1972) pointed out that low
morale among teachers could also be a contributory factor behind teachers’ cynicism towards
students. Additionally, Govindarjan (2012) argued that schools, as part of the organizational
structure, played a part in morale. For this reason, Govindarjan (2012) explained that morale
was not only experienced among teachers, but also experienced from the organizational
framework of a school. Govindarjan (2012) recognized this organizational framework as
“morale of an organization”.
Leadership Styles and Teacher Morale
The foundation of “morale of an organization” stemmed from school leadership or
leadership from other education settings (Govindarjan, 2012, p. 58). According to
Govindarjan (2012), the morale of a school or other education agency increased when
“leadership morale” increased (p. 58). Gunbayi (2007) noted specific behaviors and styles
exhibited by elementary school administrators that made a huge impact on “morale of an
organization” (Govindarjan, 2012, p. 58). Gunbayi (2007) noted leadership style variations
among elementary school administrators created more positive atmospheres where teachers’

24. 12
experienced a more open climate rather than a closed climate. Cemaloglu (2009) added and
pointed out that leadership styles and behaviors of school administrators as driving forces
behind teacher morale. Leadership style variations could either increase motivation and
satisfaction of the teaching profession or decrease the motivation and satisfaction of the
teaching profession according to Cemaloglu (2009).
Cemaloglu (2009) noted two approaches developed by James MacGregor Bass (1985)
exhibited by school administrators perceived to influence teacher morale. Cemaloglu (2009)
describes the two models as “transformational leadership” and “transactional leadership”
where collaborative methods and approaches occurred between administrators and teachers
to increase positive changes in an organization (p. 497). The transactional leadership model
involved three dimensions and the transformational leadership model involved four
dimensions. The three dimensions of transactional leadership involved “conditional rewards,
management with exception, and laissez-faire approach” (Cemaloglu, 2009, p. 495).
“Conditional rewards” described by Cemaloglu (2009) as tasks determined and identified by
administrators where teachers recognized rewards earned and given (p. 495).
To clarify “conditional rewards” leadership style to teacher morale, a causal-
comparative study conducted at the Little Rock Arkansas School District compared two
elementary schools using a merit pay program under the Arkansas Achievement Challenge
Pilot Project compared to three elementary schools that did not use the program. The
program served two goals; one to increase student achievement and two granted teacher
bonuses for increasing individual student achievement where measurement of improvement
was based on standardized state assessments (Fuller, Fitzgerald, & Allen, 2008). The
elementary schools shared similar demographic information used as a baseline for the study.

25. 13
The elementary schools’ demographic information consisted of socioeconomic status and
academic performance in “high-poverty schools” (Fuller et al., 2008, p.2). Teachers from the
pilot program were provided “$50.00 to $400.00” per student (Fuller et al., 2008, p. 2).
Within the first year’s evaluation of the merit pay program, the researchers Fuller et al (2008)
found that merit pay for teachers was the driving force behind school improvement and
student performance whereas schools without the merit pay program student achievement
and performance did not improve. Therefore, the administrative decision to provide merit
pay to teachers to help improve schools and student performance and achievement supported
the first dimension of “transactional leadership” (Cemaloglu, 2009, p. 495). The “conditional
rewards” under the “transactional leadership” approach helped teachers to understand tasks
given, with a goal to achieve, and a reward earned (Cemaloglu, 2009, p. 495).
The second dimension under “transactional leadership” was “management with
exception” (Cemaloglu, 2009, p. 495). This particular form of leadership and its link to
teacher morale occurred when school administrators functioned as observers and
authoritarians when problems arose (Cemaloglu, 2009). Mackenzie’s study of teacher
participants on teacher morale viewed leadership as a chief contributor to morale. According
to Mackenzie (2007), 97% of teacher participants noted that administration at the school-
level was the key factor of teacher morale. In addition, 95% of the 97% of teacher
participants recognized leadership at the school level as an important entity of the school
organization. Mackenzie (2007) summarized that administrators at the school-level must be
cognizant of leading schools effectively in order to have a “positive effect on morale”
whereas inadequate school-level leadership equated to “poor morale” (p. 95).

26. 14
Cemaloglu (2009) found a positive relationship and a negative relationship between
leadership styles, behaviors, and approaches to teacher morale. The link between leadership
methods of principals to teacher morale developed two hypotheses from Cemaloglu’s study.
The first hypothesis from Cemalogu’s study determined whether a relationship existed
between leadership styles and teacher morale. The second hypothesis from Cemaloglu’s
study determined whether a relationship existed between organizational climate and teacher
morale. Cemaloglu (2009) emphasized that both models of leadership styles served as
powerful forces behind increasing or decreasing teacher morale in an organization.
A study conducted by the Lodi Unified School District revealed that teacher morale
was low because of “low pay” and “lack of respect” (Reid, 2010; Govindarjan, 2012, p. 58).
The study found that teachers did not feel valued or appreciated at the bargaining table
during salary negotiations with the district (Reid, 2010; Govindarjan, 2012). Teacher
productivity was higher when teachers became a part of the decision- making process of
schools and policies (Miller, 1981). For this reason, Miller (1981) agreed that collaborative
decision making among teachers was a factor that increased teacher morale. Additionally,
Miller (1981) reported other factors that influenced teacher morale as “teacher praise,
instructional leadership, technical leadership, and supporting professional growth” (p. 59).
The National Center for Education Statistics (1997) reported other factors such as
“administrative support and leadership or treatment by administrators, student behavior and
attitudes, positive school atmosphere, teacher autonomy, and parental support” that
contributed to high teacher morale or low teacher morale (p. 1).
To determine levels of teacher morale and for the purposes of the causal-comparative
quantitative study, factors perceived to influence teacher morale were developed by

27. 15
researchers Rempel and Bentley in 1980. Rempel and Bentley (1980) noted factors
perceived to influence teacher morale as 10 subscale factors used as a foundation to measure
levels of teacher morale. Rempel and Bentley (1980) outlined the 10 subscale factors as
“teacher rapport with principal, satisfaction with teaching, rapport among teachers, teacher
salary, teacher load, curriculum issues, teacher status, community support with education,
school facilities and services, and community pressures” (p. 8).
Background of the Problem
Teacher morale has been perceived as an influence of external stimuli from a social
context, such as schools and other education agencies. The background of the research
problem researched at the selected sites for the causal-comparative quantitative study was to
determine whether or not factors in the social context of K-12 schools compared to
residential treatment facilities influenced teacher morale.
This section of the study provided an overview of the research related to the problem
to identify and describe key elements, aspects, and concepts of the research problem. This
section of the study provided the theoretical framework to support and justify the study and
provided an understanding of the context of the research problem. For the background
section of the causal-comparative quantitative study, an interdisciplinary approach was used
to understand what happened in the past to create the problem of teacher morale today.
Context of the Problem
The underpinning frameworks of the research study included two theoretical topics.
Organizational theory and Herzberg’s two-factor paradigm served as the lens and the context
of the research topic and the research problem on teacher morale. The study environment for
the research study was a study environment of K-12 schools where teachers were identified

28. 16
as K-12 teachers as part of a K-12 school system. The second study environment was a study
environment of short and long-term residential treatment facilities of teachers identified as
residential treatment facility teachers who are not a part of a K-12 school system. K-12
schools are characterized as institutions supported by tax payer dollars to supply school age
children from primary grades to the secondary level. K-12 schools had an innovative
education in order to prepare future generations with the essential skills, knowledge, and
abilities for the workforce (WhatIs.com, 2012).
Theoretical Framework
Herzberg (1987) identified the two-factor paradigm as “hygiene and motivator” (p.
445). Both factors of Herzberg’s two-factor theory served as the first lens of the research
study in an attempt to tie the framework into the research problem of teacher morale. For
example, noted hygiene factors were identified as “policy and administration, supervision,
interpersonal relationships, salary, working conditions, personal life, status, and security”
(Herzberg, 1987, p. 445; Ghazi, Khan, & Shahzada, 2013). The hygiene factors tied into
organizational theory because the hygiene factors occurred in the school milieu or other
education agency. Herzberg (1987) identified motivating factors suggested as “internal locus
of control” as “achievement, responsibility, recognition, growth and value of work itself”
(Cherry, 2010, p. 1; p. 445). Factors identified as hygiene factors were viewed as
circumstances that were conducive to sustaining a healthy work environment or an unhealthy
environment (Herzberg, 1987). As a result, Herzberg (1987) noted that organizational
factors determined, whether negative or positive, produced different levels of morale,
emotions, feelings, behaviors. These organizational factors measured or led to feelings of
satisfaction or dissatisfaction in a profession.

29. 17
Herzberg (1987) addressed models used by administrators as suggestive motivational
techniques for employees. Herzberg (1987) argued how the administrators used the
“negative psychological” model to motivate employees (p. 6). Herzberg (1987) explained
the “negative psychological” model as a representation of how the administration, in this
case, school-level administrators and residential treatment facility administrators, managed
their organizations under domination and control.
Herzberg’s theory and organization theory proposed to support the notion that
administrators, who used the “negative psychological” model for the purposes of domination
and control without room for teachers’ assistance in decision making caused low morale.
Cheng and Cheong (2001) emphasized how the Lewinian model of 1943 outlined that “a
school’s organizational factors” were a critical part of an organizational environment” (p.
165). According to the Lewinian model, a teacher who came in contact with organizational
factors influenced their “attributes” and affected behaviors towards the profession (Chen and
Cheong, 2001, p. 166). Herzberg’s “motivation-hygiene” two- factor theories supported a
strong theoretical foundation for the study on teacher morale.
The second theoretical framework that served as the lens of the study was
organization theory. Organization theory was characterized as the study of how individuals
acted or felt within an establishment based on extrinsic factors perceived to influence morale
and other behaviors. The background of organization theory arose during the Industrial
Revolution era of 1776 where individuals formed movements to establish ranks in specific
settings separate from “independent craftsman” that contributed to “mass production”
(Docherty, Donovan, & Surles, n.d., p. 34). Different levels of morale of individuals were
decided by the factors that supported the organizations’ expectations of the group (Singh &

30. 18
Buddhisagar, 2009) As a result of the factors that supported the organizations’ expectations
of the group, in this case, teachers, the level of morale became high or low based upon the
satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the group (Singh & Buddhisagar, 2009).
In summary, the literature supported by Gunbayi, Govindarjan, and Cemaloglu
suggested that specific styles and methods used in the larger context of organizational theory
may have an adverse effect or a positive effect on teacher morale. In closing, the theoretical
frameworks of Herzberg’s “motivation-hygiene” theory and organizational theory supported
the proposed study on teacher morale and provided a theoretical context for the research
problem.
Statement of the Problem
The problem to be addressed in this causal-comparative quantitative study is the trend
of teacher morale among K-12 Catholic school teachers and residential treatment facility
teachers. Although some research findings (Briggs & Richardson, 1992; Mackenzie, 2007)
suggested that teacher morale affects K-12 teachers as part of a K-12 school system, other
studies (Houchins, Shippen, McKeand, Viel-Ruma, Jolivette, & Guarino, 2010) emphasized
that research on teacher morale has not been conducted within residential treatment facilities
among “juvenile justice teachers” (p. 646). Little is known regarding how and to what extent
teacher morale differed significantly and statistically between teachers identified as K-12
Catholic school teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential
treatment facility teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school system.
Based on the literature of Briggs and Richardson, teacher morale has become a
concept in the K-12 school system that was rarely discussed or never discussed among
school-level administrators, local education agency administrators, or educational

31. 19
practitioners. However, Houchins et al. emphasized that “fewer studies focused on the
perceptions of juvenile justice teachers” (p. 645). As a matter of fact, residential treatment
facility teachers were considered the “neglected population” because they were not
acknowledged or included in research on teacher morale compared to their K-12 teacher
counterparts (Houchins et al., 2010, p. 646). Mackenzie (2007) added that the current
conditions of schools and current circumstances of teachers were not represented or
acknowledged through media coverage, yet Briggs and Richardson (1992) contrasted this
idea and pointed out that “the six-month semiannual cumulative volume, January to June
1990, of Current Index to Journals in Education (1990), that indexed more than 8,700
articles, had one journal article listed under this topic: “Teacher Morale” (p. 2). Therefore, it
is implied that research studies on teacher morale have been neglected over a twenty-five-
year gap in education.
The proposed study was worthy of further investigation because teacher morale was
an issue facing education that affected the quality and improvement of education. Secondly,
the proposed study was worthy of further investigation because it gave an acknowledgment
of teacher morale to the “neglected population” of residential treatment facility teachers
(Houchins, et al., 2010, p. 646).
Therefore, the research problem is the need to provide recommendations to
understand teacher morale and to develop and test interventions for low teacher morale.
Recommendations and interventions for high teacher morale to remain consistent can lead to
an increase in student achievement, a positive school climate, and higher teacher retention
rates (Ellanberg (1972); Govindarjan (2012); Mackenzie (2007); & Houchins et al., 2010).
Disregarding the problems that contribute to low teacher morale could lead to “stress related

32. 20
absences”, “half-hearted teachers”, teacher shortages, and higher attrition rates (Devi &
Mann, 2010, p. 1; Evans, 2007, & Houchins et al. 2010).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this causal-comparative study is to determine how and what extent
teacher morale differs between two groups of teachers. The researcher’s teaching experience
in K-12 schools and residential treatment facilities formed the context of the study. The
intent of the study used 10 subscale factors of teacher morale from the Purdue Teacher
Opinionaire to determine whether levels of teacher morale between teachers identified as K-
12 teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential treatment
facility teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school system were statistically and
significantly different. A second purpose of the study was to determine whether
administrative (e.g., school-level and residential treatment facility) decisions and
collaborative decision making influenced teacher morale between K-12 Catholic school
teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential treatment facility
teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school system. A third purpose of the study was to
determine the overall level of teacher morale as measured by the 10 subscale factors of
teacher morale from the Purdue Teacher Opinionaire between teachers identified as K-12
Catholic school teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential
treatment facility teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school system.

33. 21
Research Questions
The following research questions and null hypothesis guided this study.
R1: Is there a significant and statistical difference between levels of morale between teachers
identified as K-12 Catholic school teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system
compared to residential treatment facility teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school
system?
R2: Does administrative (e.g., school-level and residential treatment facility) decision-
making and collaborative decision making influence teacher morale between teachers
identified as K-12 Catholic school teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system and
residential treatment facility teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school system?
R3: What was the overall rate of teacher morale between teachers identified as K-12 Catholic
school teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential treatment
facility teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school system as measured using the 10
subscale factors of teacher morale from the Purdue Teacher Opinionaire?
H0: 10 subscale factors will show a significant and statistical difference between morale
levels for teachers identified as K-12 Catholic school teachers who were a part of the K-12
school system to residential treatment facility teachers who were not a part of the K-12
school system.
Rationale of the Study
This causal-comparative quantitative study is needed because teacher morale is an
issue facing the quality and improvement of education. The importance of the study is
critical to educators in any education system. The need for this particular study was to
explain how the perception of teacher morale was a reflective, yet cataclysmic phenomenon
that played a role in how teachers performed in the profession. What remains to be explored,
however, was how and to what extent morale levels differed between K-12 Catholic school
teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential treatment facility
teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school system. The context of the study emerged
from the researcher’s teaching experience in K-12 schools and residential treatment facilities.

34. 22
The new knowledge of this study extended on the current knowledge on teacher morale by
listing and including factors considered as “contributory” and “exploratory” factors of
teacher morale (Bentley & Rempel, 1980; Evans, 2000, p. 1).
Relevance of the Study
The proposed study was relevant to the specialization of Professional Studies in
Education K-12. The potential value of the findings to practitioners in the area of
specialization of Professional Studies in Education opened a channel of information where
the results were openly shared and discussed. This form of open and shared quantitative
information of the study created more evidence-based models used to increase teacher morale
and to maintain its consistency for the teacher population.
Significance of the Study
The study provided vital importance for education policy makers to create policies for
21st
century education in understanding contributory indicators of high and low levels of
teacher morale. This study provided strategies and guidelines for school-level administrators
and residential treatment facility administrators to improve low teacher morale and provided
strategies to maintain teacher morale where levels were high. The study helped to close a
gap in knowledge regarding teacher morale between teachers identified as K-12 Catholic
school teachers who are a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential treatment
facility teachers who are not a part of the K-12 school system. The new knowledge produced
and advanced other research on teacher morale. The study filled a need to increase the
understanding and the awareness of school-level administrators and education research
practitioners that teacher morale was a primary concern and a direct link to student
achievement, job satisfaction, and job dissatisfaction. The study impelled further research

35. 23
into teacher morale by unlocking the experiences of the “neglected population” of residential
teachers (Houchins, et al., 2010, p. 646).
Nature of the Study
The proposed study contributed to the existing knowledge base by listing factors
perceived to influence teacher morale. What remained to be explored, however, was how
and to what extent levels of teacher morale differed between teachers identified as K-12
Catholic School teachers compared to their residential treatment facility counterparts.
A causal-comparative design and survey type was used for the study on teacher
morale. A survey method was used to collect quantitative data related to the research
problem. The survey used in the causal-comparative quantitative study served as an attempt
to measure and compare teacher morale between teachers identified as K-12 Catholic school
teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential treatment facility
teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school system. The goal of the proposed study
determined whether 10 subscale factors influenced teacher morale (Brewer & Kubn, 2010;
Bentley & Rempel, 1980). In an attempt to determine whether 10 subscale factors influenced
teacher morale, the Purdue Teacher Opinonaire (PTO) questionnaire was used to measure
how teacher morale differed between teachers identified as K-12 Catholic school teachers
who were a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential treatment facility teachers
who were not a part of the K-12 school system.
To justify the selected methodology and strategy, the existing knowledge base was
used to support the advantages of using quantitative methods to measure teacher morale. A
causal-comparative design was used because a causal-comparative design provided
clarification of participants’ differentiation of experiences through examination even though

36. 24
the design was considered to be non-experimental (Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2010).
Therefore, the study addressed the different experiences and opinions through a non-
experimental method. Just as an experimental method, the non-experimental method
addressed the results of the independent variables of the 10 subscale factors along with the
dependent variable of teacher morale (Lodico et al., 2010; Rempel & Averno, 1980).
To address the research problem and measure teacher morale, a quantitative approach
provided an enhanced understanding of specific factors that “influence an outcome”
(Creswell, 2009, p. 99). A quantitative approach was used to answer the research questions
because quantitative approaches “provides a numeric description of trends, attitudes, or
opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population” (Creswell, 2009).
Furthermore, a quantitative approach attempted to produce an objective analysis with
numbers in order to explain how and how often (AIU, 2012). The use of a quantitative
approach gathered information such as data from surveys, in this case, the Purdue Teacher
Opinionaire (PTO), or questionnaires resulted in presenting findings statistically and visually
to support its objectivity (AIU, 2012).
As noted, the first purpose of the causal-comparative research design used 10
subscale factors of teacher morale to determine whether the levels of morale were
statistically and significantly different between teachers identified as K-12 Catholic school
teachers who were a part of the K-12 school system compared to residential treatment facility
teachers who were not a part of the K-12 school system. A second purpose of the causal-
comparative study used 10 subscale factors of teacher morale to determine whether
administrative decisions and collaborative decision making influenced teacher morale
between teachers identified as K-12 Catholic school teachers compared to residential

37. 25
treatment facility teachers. A final purpose of the causal-comparative study used 10 subscale
factors of teacher morale to determine the overall rate of teacher morale between both groups
of teachers.
Definition of Terms
There were a number of terms important to this study. As such, the following terms were
conceptually defined.
Community pressures. External issues from the community that places heavy
demands on schools and teachers (Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
Community support of education. The community’s appreciation and support of
teachers, schools, and other education agencies (Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
Curriculum issues. Teachers’ replies to the goals and objectives of curricula to
determine whether or not learners’ academic needs are being met (Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
Morale. Characterized by a state of mind by that a person or individuals disciplined to
express their emotions or loyalty to an organization or a cause through psychological
conditions of confidence, enthusiasm, respect, or lack thereof (Govindarajan, 2012).
Rapport among teachers. The professional working relationship among teachers
(Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
Residential treatment facility. A setting that houses court ordered at-risk youth.
Satisfaction with teaching. The rate and/or level of how teachers feel about the
teaching profession (Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
School facilities and services. Equipment and other resources necessary for the daily
operations to maintain the stability and condition of schools and other education agencies
(Bentley & Rempel, 1980).

38. 26
Teacher load. Tasks, duties, and responsibilities given to teachers that include but not
limited to grading assignments, test preparation, after school tutoring, administrative
demands, and professional development (Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
Teacher rapport with principal. The professional working relationship between
teacher and principal of an education setting (Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
Teacher salary. Compensation based on experience, level of education, and
certification requirements (Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
Teacher status. Teachers’ level of prestige in the education community (Bentley &
Rempel, 1980).
Assumptions of the Study
The following assumptions presented in this study:
1. An assumption underlying the study includes whether personal perspectives and
personal perceptions will interfere with responses to the survey.
2. The Purdue Teacher Opinionaire (PTO) is appropriate for the methodology and the
purpose of the study.
3. Another underlying assumption presented in this study is the belief that teacher
morale only affects K-12 Catholics school teachers. However, the research for the
proposed study supports the notion that teacher morale, whether high or low, affects
“juvenile justice teachers” as well (Houchins et al., 2010, p 634).
4. The statistical tests for analyzing data were suitable for the methodology.
Limitations of the Study
1. Survey instrument, the Purdue Teacher Opinionaire (PTO), consisted of items that
were based upon an individual assessment of teacher morale and group assessment of

39. 27
teacher morale. All surveys were taken on an individual basis. Therefore, it was hard
to determine how one participant could answer truthfully and honestly regarding
group assessments of teacher morale.
2. Limited sample size of K-12 Catholic school teachers.
Delimitations of the Study
1. The research was limited to 2 K-12 Catholic school schools and six residential
treatment facilities in the south eastern section of Pennsylvania.
2. Due to the distance, the residential treatment facility teachers were given the Purdue
Teacher Opinionaire as a PDF attachment and sent back to the researcher via mail.
Additionally, permission was granted to the investigator to copy the Purdue Teacher
Opinionaire into Survey Monkey. Website link for the survey was sent to other
participants.
3. The research was limited to teachers in the south eastern region of Pennsylvania.
4. Data collected occurred during the fall and winter semesters of the K-12 schools.
5. Data collected occurred over a period of months for the residential facilities.
6. The data collection instrument only captured a quantitative analysis of responses. K-
12 Catholic school teachers and residential treatment facility teachers were not able to
elaborate on responses from the Purdue Teacher Opinionaire.
7. Difficult to determine whether participants’ responses were based on professional
perspectives or personal opinions.

40. 28
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
The causal-comparative quantitative study consists of five chapters. Chapter one
consist of the introduction of the research problem along with the background of the study,
statement of the problem, theoretical framework, research questions, and null hypothesis.
Chapter two includes the literature review of the study that is divided into 4 categories (a)
definition of morale, (b) improving teacher morale, (c) school privatization and teacher
morale, and (d) Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Chapter 3 of the study introduces the
methodology along with the methods and procedures on how data was collected. Chapter 4
will present the findings of the quantitative study on teacher morale along with detailed
analyses and summaries of the findings. Chapter 5, the last chapter of the study, will provide
a summary of the results and recommendations for further research.

41. 29
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction to the Literature Review
The purpose of this study is to explain how and to what extent teacher morale levels
differ statistically and significantly between teachers identified as K-12 Catholic school
teachers compared to residential treatment facility teachers as it relates to two different
education settings. Teaching experience of the investigator forms the context of this study on
teacher morale that formulates two other goals for the study. The second purpose of the
study determined whether administrative decisions and collaborative decision making
influenced teacher morale between K-12 Catholic school teachers who were a part of the K-
12 school system compared to residential treatment facility teachers who were not a part of
the K-12 school system. Lastly, the purpose of this study was to determine the overall rate of
teacher morale between K-12 Catholic school teachers and residential treatment facility
teachers. Chapter 2 presents a review and an analysis of the literature as it relates to teacher
morale between K-12 Catholic school teachers and residential treatment facility teachers.
Articles accessed through Capella University’s library database included keywords such as
teacher morale, satisfaction, and K-12 teacher morale. The database included numerous
articles on issues in education, but only a small few included of small sections on teacher
morale. Each abstract was reviewed to ensure the criteria aligned with the causal-
comparative study.
Chapter 2 is divided into several themes as it relates to teacher morale between two
independent samples of teachers. The themes of chapter 2 are as follows: (a) definition of
morale, (b) improving teacher morale, (c) school privatization (d) teacher morale and job
satisfaction (e) Herzberg’s two-factor theory.

42. 30
A definition of morale is listed as the first theme of chapter 2 to explain analytical
perspective on how morale is defined, yet provides a multidimensional and multifaceted
definition of the term. The second theme of chapter 2, improving teacher morale, is provided
to describe strategies for schools and other education agencies along with explaining the
relationship between contributory factors of morale and its effect on job satisfaction, student
achievement, and teachers who leave the profession. The third theme, school privatization
and teacher morale, is listed to explain how corporate take-overs can negatively and
positively influence teacher morale in a broader context. The next theme is the theoretical
framework of the study. Herzberg’s two-factor theory, emphasized that motivating factors
will cause an employee to work harder to fulfill job satisfaction or will revert back to not
working hard when motivating factors are not present leading to job dissatisfaction
(Herzberg, 1987; Riley, 2015). Mayhew and Media (2015) noted that “general malaise and
job dissatisfaction are also common signs in a workplace where employees have low morale”
(p. 1). This literature of Herzberg, Riley, Mayhew, and Media support the notion that the
relationship between job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction with morale shows a positive
correlation.
Morale
Govindarajan (2012) notes that morale is characterized by a state of mind by that a
person/group of people are disciplined to express their emotions or loyalty to an organization
or a cause through psychological conditions of confidence, enthusiasm, respect or lack
thereof. Chandra and Singaravel (2013) add that morale is “the state of the spirit of a person
or group as exhibited by confidence, cheerfulness, discipline, and willingness to perform the
assigned task” (p. 183). Devi and Mani (2010) contextualize morale as a combination of

43. 31
different mind sets of feelings and thoughts. The combination of different feelings and
thoughts plays a part in “feelings of satisfaction” that is a “contagious” entity categorized by
its definition, its effects, its purpose, its place, and whom it affects (Devi & Mann, 2010, p.
1). Furthermore, morale is an external force of energy viewed as a “group phenomenon”
(Milton, Entrekin, & Sterling, 1984; Smith, 1976), yet has not been confirmed. Doherty
(1988), Evans (1992) and Smith (1976) contrast this idea and note that morale is an
independent psychological entity that should be assessed further because the term is avoided
as an elimination of issues that defines it.
Bentley and Rempel (1980) believe that morale is perceived as an extension to how
teachers feel about the profession. Bentley and Rempel (1980) describes morale as a
“continuous variable” that is used as a psychological entity of measurement where levels
from low to moderately high are determined by the individuals’ level of satisfaction (p. 1).
Bentley and Rempel (1980) add that this level of satisfaction is determined by whether
individuals’ professional needs are met. Levels of high teacher morale are apparent when
teachers show an interest in the profession and levels of low teacher morale are evident when
teachers show opposing feelings, behaviors, and attitudes (Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
Bentley and Rempel (1980) declare morale as a term experienced by an individual rather than
factors that are perceived to exist in an organization by others that influence morale.
Furthermore, Bentley and Rempel (1980) claim morale as a conceptual term that is “related
to the successful interaction among individual needs” (p. 2). Additionally, morale is
associated with “incentives” and “organizational goals” that support the conceptual
framework of teacher morale according to Bentley and Rempel (1980).

44. 32
The implication across the literature suggests that teacher morale is a concept that is
neither heavily discussed, nor understood because the term has multifaceted meanings
(Briggs & Richardson, 1992; Mackenzie, 2007). Singh and Buddhisagar (2009) note teacher
morale and morale as two terms created for specific professions. Singh and Buddhisgar
(2009) add that the term morale is a word that is part of other elements, personally and
professionally, for teachers. Singh and Buddhisgar (2009) conclude that personal and
professional elements of morale of teachers result in satisfaction and dissatisfaction in the
field. One of the personal elements of morale for teachers includes an ethical responsibility
to the profession. Govindarajan (2012) describes a teacher’s ethical responsibility to
education as a powerful inspirational force to sustain students’ educational needs to help
them succeed.
Morale has several different constructs that are characterized as a state of mind by
that people are disciplined to express how they feel and act within an organization
(Govindarjan, 2012). As stated, teacher morale is a topic of that is rarely discussed or
acknowledged. The topic is rarely discussed or highlighted heavily in education journals due
to its multilevel tiers in education. In other words, the term morale has been a difficult word
to derive a single definition. Singh and Buddhisagar (2009) stated that the term alone is a
concept that is characterized by an “effect related to the successful interaction among
individual needs and organizational goals” (p. 65). Teacher morale also is a psychological
term that exhibits a sense of essence with a certain mind set that results in how one feels
towards his or her profession (Singh & Buddhisagar, 2009). Therefore, it is implied that
teacher morale is not only an education issue but also has personality dimensions that show a
cause and effect paradigm to satisfaction and dissatisfaction towards the profession.

45. 33
Teacher morale is also viewed from a perspective of intrinsic value towards the
profession. Morale is separated into separate entities, “spirit” and “attitude” (Singh &
Buddhisagar, 2009, p. 66). Singh and Buddhisagar (2009) note that morale is the “spirit and
attitude of the teacher towards his work” (p. 66). In other words, if teachers feel a sense of
being valued, supported, and nurtured in schools or other education agencies, it increases
their level of intrinsic satisfaction towards the profession and how they perform. One
quantitative study by Lumsden shows that 40% of teacher respondents would not select
teaching as a profession. Another 57% of teachers will leave the profession of teaching, or
abandon the profession when another career offer is made, or teachers were not sure about
staying in the profession (Lumsden, 1998). Lumsden (1998) points out the issues with
teacher morale but supports the notion that morale is caused by external factors. The
influence of factors within an organizational structure is an underlying cause of teacher
retention or teacher attrition.
Extrinsic factors inhibit personality dimensions of teacher morale. These factors
create cataclysmic emotional rollercoaster leading teachers down the path to leave the
profession. Buchanan (2012) describes the absence of teachers in the field as a pool of water.
Buchanan (2012) states “the teacher pool is losing water because no one is paying attention
to the leak.” (p. 19). Therefore, more research is needed to discuss the factors that attribute
to the leak in the teacher pool as stated by Buchanan. These extrinsic factors were perceived
to contribute to emotions, feelings, and attitudes to fluctuate, change, or to remain stagnate.
In other words, most individuals lose their sense of value and importance in an organization
from factors that reflect in their work ethic and employee morale.

46. 34
Improving Teacher Morale
Govindarjan (2012) adds that teacher morale is a psychological paradigm perceived
to be caused by “constant stress” of attempting to meet the goals and expectations of schools
(p. 57). Govindarajan (2012) believe that teacher morale is a concept that can be improved.
For this reason, ideas that are put in place to improve teacher morale will help to retain
teachers, help teachers to keep a well-balanced attitude towards the profession, and teachers
will yield countless advantages in the profession (Govindarjan, 2012).
Batte (2014) points out the involvement of politicians and accountability of school
board candidates to improve teacher morale. Batte (2014) acknowledge that school board
candidates are cognizant of the demands of teaching and understand the reason behind
different levels of morale among educators. Batte (2014) adds that school board candidates
are sensitive to the issues of overcrowded schools, classrooms, and salaries of teachers who
are mandated to add more onto current teacher loads to meet the needs of students. Batte
(2014) finds that school board candidates advocated for a sales tax within their local district.
Batte (2014) emphasizes that the sales tax advocated by the school board candidates would
“increase salaries of teachers” (p. 2). As a result, Batte (2014) note that increases in salaries
from school board candidates would “mean a lot for morale” (Batte, 2014 as quoted by
Bordelon, 2014, p. 2). Govindarjan (2012) emphasizes that a teacher who lacks a positive
work ethic lacks motivation within the profession. Govindarjan (2012) notes that lack of
motivation and support leads to a psychological demise that result in a lack of productivity.
According to other research, teacher morale is low because teachers feel “undervalued,
frustrated, unappreciated and demoralized” (Smyth, as cited in Mackenzie, 2007, p. 89).

47. 35
As noted in chapter one, Briggs and Richardson (1992) implies that academic
journals disregarded the topic of teacher morale. As a matter of fact, the twenty-five- year
gap between research by Mackenzie (2007) for the topic on teacher morale failed to look at it
as a vital component to education. Therefore, the topic is viewed as a tertiary topic rather
than a primary subject of discussion or further research. As a result, Mackenzie (2007)
conducts a qualitative study to examine teacher morale from more than twenty years ago to
the current state of education. Mackenzie (2007) presents a theoretical framework for the
qualitative study that consists of other research findings related to teacher morale.
Mackenzie’s develops the framework as an attempt to explore other factors of teacher morale
as confirmatory factors and how teacher morale is influenced by the “impact of extrinsic
teaching excellence awards” (Mackenzie, 2007, p. 93). Participants of Mackenzie’s study
state how teacher morale levels differ now than years ago due to society’s outlook on
education. Mackenzie (2007) emphasizes how teacher morale was lower years ago than
now, yet other participants of Mackenzie’s study state that teacher morale is higher in their
individual schools. For instance, individuals who were given a perception that an education
system is not working would result in individuals who believe that teachers should be held
accountable instead of looking at the issues in education from a federal, state, and local
government level. Mackenzie (2007) note that teacher morale is a difficult concept than
“previously understood” because it consists of multifaceted meanings that result in three
levels of teacher morale (p. 89).
Authors of teacher morale emphasize a few concepts regarding the term. First,
teacher morale is a hypothetical notion perceived as an illusion based upon others’
assessments of a school setting and other education settings (Espeland, 2000). Other authors

48. 36
find morale to be an idea that can be measured to determine high and/or levels of teacher
morale by using factors from the organizational structure of schools as measurable constructs
(Bentley & Rempel, 1980; Briggs & Richardson, 1992). However, the implication of this
measurement of teacher morale leaves a wide lens of inquisition regarding whether the
factors in the organization of schools influence teacher morale.
Devi and Mani (2010) find that the schools’ resources and teachers’ methods of
instruction are vital to the quality of education. The literature includes factors perceived to
influence high and low teacher morale, but deviate from the accountability of teachers’
creativity to “give life and meaning to the curriculum”, by making the resources significant
and relevant for classroom instruction, and to use different methods of teaching to enhance
learning (Devi & Mani, 2010, p. 2). As a result, the implication of teacher morale is the
perception of an illusion (Espeland, 2000); yet other studies highlight that morale levels can
be measured to determine high or low levels of morale yields a universal overall rate of
morale (Bentley & Rempel, 1980).
School Privatization and Teacher Morale
Other than studies on school climate and student achievement or student achievement
and teacher morale, few studies cover teacher morale (Hodges, Kramer, & Watson, 2013;
Briggs & Richardson, 1992). Additionally, there was not enough research on different levels
of teacher morale between K-12 Catholic school teachers and residential treatment facility
teachers.
Not only does the literature cover teacher morale between schools districts, leadership
styles of principals, and content areas, but also implies other contributory factors to teacher
morale between different settings (Rowland, 2008; Cemaloglu, 2009). Molnar and Garcia

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(2007) note that privatization of K-12 schools can impact the daily lives of teachers.
However, the impact of privatization of K-12 schools can be a positive impact or a negative
impact on teachers’ lives and their levels of morale. Molnar and Garcia (2007) discuss that
the impact of privatization stems from operational changes and policy changes to education
from a federal, state, and local level. Molnar and Garcia (2007) believe that changes to
policies, operations, and procedures change the daily activities in education. According to
Molnar and Garcia (2007), K-12 teachers need to “understand the nature, extent, and
implications of private sector involvement in public education” (p. 16).
To understand the “nature, extent, and implications” of privatization in K-12
education as noted by Molnar and Garcia (2007, p. 16). Pinus (1996) notes the following
study. Pinus (1996) reports the use of an Education Alternative Incorporate privatization in
the city of Baltimore as one example. Due to the failing schools in the city of Baltimore, the
Education Alternative Incorporated authorized to commit to a five-year contract with the
school district under the direction of CEO John T. Golle (Pinus, 1996). In its attempts to sell
the product of privatization, the Education Alternative Incorporated persuaded teachers to use
the “personal education plan” as a means of increasing academics than managing behaviors
of students (Pinus, 1996, p. 49). The expectations of the “personal education plan” initially
placed a heavy emphasis on behaviors rather than academics, but the expectations of the plan
fell short (Pinus, 1996, p. 49).
As a result of privatizing, the UMBC used an evaluative technique to determine
whether privatization of K-12 schools in the city of Baltimore influence teacher morale
(Pinus, 1996). To determine whether teacher morale is influenced by privatizing of K-12
schools, a causal-comparative research design is used between the Tesseract schools and the

50. 38
Comparison schools in the city of Baltimore, Maryland (Pinus, 1996). The outcome of using
the UMBC evaluation as a measurement between teacher morale and privatization produced
mixed results between morale and working conditions under the Education Alternative
Incorporation (Pinus, 1996). Prior to the Education Alternative Incorporation, Pinus (1996)
report that 51% of teachers had a short average tenure compared to the 49% who continue to
stay at the Tesseract schools. The underlying assumption implies that privatization can either
have a negative or a positive influence on teacher morale according to the study (Pinus,
1996).
A change in duties and responsibilities under privatization is perceived to influence
teacher morale in any education setting. Most of the duties involve more administrative
duties than teaching. To understand this further, an underlying link is found between
privatization of schools and teacher morale. Duong (2014) claims that classifying and
modifying education to be privatized for the gain of profit only increases the chances of low
teacher morale due to certain factors. Duong (2014) adds that teachers report that
“administrative duties” exceeds teaching duties (p. 1). As a result, Duong (2014) believes
“administrative duties” that exceed teaching duties causes an increase in stress, teachers
feeling dissatisfied in the profession, and causes teachers to leave the profession (p.1).
Duong (2014) recognizes that business models implemented in the privatization of K-12
schools cause more harm than good to teacher morale. Duong (2014) argues that the
“expansion of market principles” in the education profession is another contributor cause to
low teacher morale among K-12 teachers (p. 1). Duong (2014) adds that the “expansion of
market principles” negatively affects teachers’ teacher load, salaries, and social status in the
communities (p.1). The literature supported by Duong (2014) suggests that “marketing

51. 39
principles” brought into education can negatively influence teacher morale by incorporating
business models, perspectives, and outcomes for “training organizations” known as schools
and other education agencies (Cemaloglu, 2009, p. 495, Duong, 2014, p. 1).
Evans (2007) notes teacher morale as great concern and consideration in the United
Kingdom. Evans (2007) argues how “underlying causes” of teacher morale is prevalent in
the field of education (p. 174). Evans (2007) reveals that “underlying causes” are perceived
to be the reasons behind why teacher morale is low in the United Kingdom (p. 174). Evans
(2007) agrees that teacher morale is the main focus of attention in the United Kingdom due to
the 1988 change in the Education Reform Act (ERA).
According to Evans (2007), The Education Reform Act of 1988 “threatened
deprofessionalism” (p. 174). This is an assumption that could lead to how teachers perform
and what teachers contribute to the profession. The effect of the change in reform results in
increases in class size and issues with pension plans (Evans, 2007). Evans (2007) refers to
these changes as common problems in education reform. These common problems, along
with other “underlying causes” of teacher morale, leads to stress in the profession, shortages,
and issues with staffing teachers in schools (Evans, 2007, p. 174). Evans (2007) identifies
this common problem of “underlying causes” as collective “symptoms of demoralization” (p.
174). Like Smagorinsky (2014), the results of the survey used by Evans conclude that
teacher morale in the United Kingdom “is dropping like a heavy-hearted stone” (p. 167) and
“has hit rock bottom” (p. 174). Some factors identified as contributory factors of teacher
morale in the United Kingdom share similar contributory factors to teacher morale in the
United States such as salary and teacher status (Smagorinsky, 2014; Evans, 2007; Bentley &
Rempel, 1980; Briggs & Richardson, 1992).

52. 40
Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) imply that changes in education policies and education
reform were “underlying causes” or contributory factors to teacher morale. For this reason,
Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) point out U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan’s “Courage in
the Classroom” slogan as a means encouraging teachers to be brave when returning to
classrooms in the fall. Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) agree that the message called for a positive
change to education with “fitting in today’s school climate”, but argued that Duncan’s slogan
of “Courage in the Classroom” does not include nor highlight the importance of teacher
morale under “high anxiety” conditions (p. 2). As noted, “high anxiety” conditions as
described by Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) is an increase in student misconduct and school
violence. Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) add that Duncan’s message of bravery for teachers
provides little to no sustainability to teachers who currently experience “low morale” under
“high anxiety” conditions (p. 2).
Furthermore, Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) mention that Duncan’s positive message
calls for more changes in education policies. Nolan and Stizlein (2011) recognize the
contributory factor or “underlying causes” of education policy or education reform as
described by Evans (2000) of teacher morale. Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) point out how the
change in education policy as outlined and implemented by Duncan only magnifies more
responsibilities for teachers. Nolan and Stitzlein (2011) argue that Duncan places more
emphasis on increasing teacher accountability as a basis to finger point where teachers “often
experience blame” (p. 2).
Anderson (2010) notes that teachers, schools, districts and state agency relationships
could suffer because of increased teacher accountability. Increased teacher accountability,
where teachers “often experience blame” or experience finger pointing causes teachers,

53. 41
school districts, and state agencies to become opposing forces while the political system can
“secure school funding” or distribute “pay increases” (Anderson, as cited in Nolan &
Stitzlein, 2011, p. 2).
Just as Bentley and Rempel (1980), Briggs and Richardson (1992) discover
differences in morale levels that stem from external factors from an organization that results
in teachers’ intrinsic emotions, feelings, and reactions to the profession. To illustrate this,
teacher morale is divided into 10 subscale factors identified as “teacher rapport with
principal, satisfaction with teaching, rapport among teachers, teacher salary, teacher load,
curriculum issues, teacher status, community pressures, community support, and school
facilities and services” (Bentley & Rempel, 1980, p. 1). Briggs and Richardson (1992)
present similar factors perceived to influence levels of morale identified as lack of
recognition, extensive workload, ignored, lack of communication, class size, dictatorial
administration, “inspectional supervision”, negative criticism, and lack of praise (Briggs &
Richardson, 1992, p. 3).
The literature by Briggs and Richardson (1992), Mackenzie (2007), and Houchins et
al., (2010) suggests that teacher morale between K-12 Catholic school teachers and
residential treatment facility teachers is overlooked by researchers and other practitioners in
education, yet the subject of teacher morale is considered to be a main focus of discussion
among parts of the world whereas other parts of the world the subject is not as important to
quality improvement in education. Moreover, the subject of teacher morale is perceived to
be an unimportant topic in the teaching profession (Briggs & Richardson, 1992). It is
important for governments, education associations and other organizations, school-level, and
residential treatment facility administrators to understand that teacher morale is not only an

54. 42
issue for schools but an issue affecting the quality and improvement of the education process
in the United States. Therefore, in order to deal with teacher morale among K-12 Catholic
school teachers and residential treatment facility teachers, more school district administrators
and other education agency administrators need to understand the different levels of morale
and why the levels differ.
Theoretical Framework
Theoretical frameworks of the study include seminal research on two theories. The
first theoretical framework, that serves as the lens of the study is the seminal research of
Herzberg’s two-factor theory known as the “motivation-hygiene” theory (Herzberg, 1987, p.
8). American Clinical Psychologist Frederick Herzberg developed the Herzberg
“motivation-hygiene” theory in 1959 in his book The Motivation to Work. Seminal research
of Herzberg discussed influences of psychological paradigms with individuals in the
workplace, that included teachers (Herzberg, 1987). Herzberg (1987) just as Bentley and
Rempel (1980) finds 10 factors that influence feelings and morale levels that lead to
satisfaction and dissatisfaction in the workplace (Herzberg, 1987).
Factors that characterize feelings and emotions (e.g., morale levels) are (a) company
policy and administration, (b) supervision, (c) relationship with supervisor, (d) work
conditions, (e) salary, (f) relationship with peers, (g) personal life, (h) relationship with
subordinates, (i) status, and (j) security (Herzberg, 1987, p. 8). Herzberg’s theory shapes
how satisfaction and dissatisfaction were the results of feelings from morale among
individuals’ and their attitudes towards professions. Herzberg (1987) addresses outside
stimuli in organizations as an influence on morale in the workplace. The constructs of the
study are the proposed attributes that cannot be directly measured. Therefore, for the

55. 43
purposes of this study, the Purdue Teacher Opinionaire (PTO) is used as an instrument to
indicate the measurement or level of teacher morale. Variables of the Purdue Teacher
Opinionaire (PTO) are similar to the constructs from Herzberg’s two- factor theory as shown
in Table 1 below. Additionally, some of the factors from the Herzberg’s two-factor theory
overlapped into other factors from the Purdue Teacher Opinionaire (PTO). As shown in
Table 1, Herzberg’s factors and factors from the Purdue Teacher Opinionaire are similar.
Table 1
PTO and Herzberg’s Factors
PTO Herzberg’s Factors
Teacher Rapport with Principal Relationship with supervisor
Satisfaction with Teaching Security
Rapport Among Teachers Relationship with peers
Teacher Salary Salary
Teacher Load Work conditions
Curriculum Issues Work conditions
Teacher Status Status
Community support of education Status
School facilities and services Company policy and administration
Community Pressures Status
Herzberg’s research roots itself in the study on teacher morale by implicating how the
10 factors found by Herzberg and the 10 subscale variables/factors developed by Bentley and
Rempel are similar to how morale, attitudes, behaviors are measured and assessed in the
workplace. Based on seminal research of Herzberg, teacher morale is rooted in the work of

56. 44
the two-factor theory of “motivation-hygiene”. Herzberg’s (1987) research and two-factor
theory study is used across business industries and the academic setting with teachers.
Organizational theory serves as the second framework of the study. Organizational
theory establishes a foundation of why organizations, in this case, schools and other
education agencies are managed and organized in specific ways. Additionally,
organizational theory suggests a direct link between high and low morale and other behaviors
within an organization (Walonick, 1993). Organizational theory is the larger context of other
specific theories that help to explain how and why organizations are managed in specific
ways. Walonick (1993) notes this specificity from the larger context of a “scientific
management theory” known as “Taylorism” (Taylor, 1917, p. 1, as quoted by Walonick,
1993). Taylor’s (1917) “scientific management theory” consists of four standards for
organizations as (a) “find the one best way to perform each task” (b) “carefully match each
worker to each task” (c) “closely supervise workers, and use reward and punishment as
motivators” (d) “the task of management is planning and control” (p. 1). For this reason,
Walonick (1993) finds that the four standards established by Taylor (1917) lead to a decline
in employee productivity and employees whose level of morale and satisfaction towards
professions declines. Theoretical frameworks of this study provide the lens for the research
problem and research questions because both address how extrinsic factors develop from an
organization are perceived to influence individuals’ morale levels.
Methods outlined in Herzberg’s theory along with organizational theory provide a
notion that administrators use more effective strategies to help with levels of morale for
individuals. Herzberg (1987) discusses the results of administrators using a “negative
psychological KITA” model within an organization (p. 6). Herzberg (1987) explains the

57. 45
“negative psychological KITA” model as a representation of how the administration, in this
case, school-level administrators and residential treatment facility administrators, manage
their organizations under domination and control. Therefore, Herzberg’s theory and
organization theory proposes to support the notion that administrators, who use the “negative
psychological KITA” (Kick in the *&^) model to implement domination and control without
room for teachers’ assistance in decision making may or may not influence morale and/or
will either support or reject the hypothesis of the research study. Equally important, the
Purdue Teacher Opinionaire (PTO) includes 20 items that focus around administrators. Out
of the 20 items from the survey, 2 items focus around how educational administrators
manage organizations.
In summary, Herzberg’s “motivation-hygiene” theory and organization theory not
only serves as the lens for the study but serves as the foundation of the research problem and
research questions. The research questions address the overall level of teacher morale,
administrative (e.g., school-level and residential treatment facility) decision making and its
influence on morale levels, and the significant and statistical differences between morale
levels of teachers identified as K-12 teachers to residential treatment facility teachers in the
workplace or organization. Herzberg (1987) lists 10 factors in the workplace that are
perceived to influence feelings and emotions. For this reason, the basis of this serves as the
foundation of Herzberg’s two-factor theory of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. If the
expectation is not met, but the duties and the responsibilities remain the same, authors of the
research stated how this could lead to low morale or high morale depending on the outcome
of the expectation.

58. 46
Teacher Morale and Job Satisfaction
Evans (2007) defines “job satisfaction” as a measurement between the condition of
the mind and the perception of the individual’s needs being met from their jobs. Therefore,
Evans (2007) and other authors of the research note that this also is a direct link on how
satisfied teachers are in the teaching profession (Evans, 2007). Young (2000) adds to the
research of Evans stating that schools and other organizations worked toward creating a
suitable work environment in a “physical sense,” yet deviate from morale among teachers (p.
161).
According to the literature, factors that may influence these expectations being met
are the 10 subscale factors of teacher morale, 10 factors from the workplace outlined by
Herzberg, and the study conducted by the Hawaii State Teachers’ Association (Bentley &
Rempel, 1980; Herzberg, 1987; Hawaii State Teachers’ Association). For example, using the
first subscale factor and/or variable “teacher rapport with principal”, Bentley and Rempel
(1980) When teachers are aware that things are improving in an education agency, such as
the variables that may influence their morale, then teachers may experience higher levels of
morale (Evans, 2007).
Evans (2007) adds that morale is a perception by an individual that may or may not
change the individual’s “work situation” (p. 832). In other words, when expectations are
met, teachers’ morale levels are higher than teachers whose expectations are not met within
an organization. Some of the expectations to be met include higher pay, having and keeping
professional rapports with supervisors, support from administrators, inclusion in decision
making, and so forth (Herzberg, 1987; Bentley and Rempel, 1980). For example, the more
duties and responsibilities a position requires (e.g., teacher), the more an individual is

59. 47
expected to earn (e.g., teacher salary). Equally important administrators’ found that morale
is a way in that a group acts or performs that adds to the existence of the organization (Singh
& Buddhisagar, 2009). In other words, teachers are placed as a disposition in an organization
to relate to the organizations’ expectations that include the expectations of their school level
and/or other education agencies’ administrative teams.
Review of Research Regarding Teacher Morale
Methodological Issues
Methodological issues in the review of the literature stem from the study conducted
by Hart, Wearing, Conn, Carter, and Dingle. Hart et al. (2000) conducted three studies with
an aim to develop a “psychometrically sound questionnaire” in an attempt to evaluate teacher
morale along with a number of sub-divisions of the organizational climate (p. 211). The
research designed used in the study was a correlational design to identify relationships
morale and school climate. A quantitative approach to the correlational design was used
where data was collected using three studies. The three studies were conducted using the
Victorian (Australia) Department of Education over a period of time. Therefore, the studies
were consistently conducted in similar ways, yet each study and items from questionnaires
were divided among specific dimensions between morale and school climate.
Responses from the “pre-test survey” were used to assess morale with school climate
to 615 teachers from the Victorian (Australia) Department of Education. Data from the
initial study of the “pre-test survey” showed that 55 items were assumed to correlate morale
with school climate from 9 dimensions of organizational climate (a) Appraisal and
Recognition, (b) Goal Congruence (c) Ministry Demands (d) Participative Decision-Making,
(e) Professional Growth (f) Professional Interaction (g) Role Clarity (h) Social Cohesion and

60. 48
(h) Supportive Leadership. Items from the school climate dimensions were combined
together and spread throughout the survey.
Authors of this correlational study provided instructions for the School
Organisational Health Questionnaire, in which participants were given a 5-point scale that
ranged from strongly disagree to strongly agree. To increase the level of validity of the
questionnaire, Hart et al. (2000) assumed that by eliminating labels of “the three middle
response options” would “polarize the response anchors and allow teachers to use numbers to
define the increments in the scale” (p. 215).
Hart et al. used 1,520 participants from 18 elementary schools and 26 middle schools
and high schools. Teachers of the study were given a “self-report questionnaire” (Hart et al.,
2000, p. 211). The “self-report questionnaire” is used to assess the school work environment
in order to determine whether factors in the school organization influence teacher morale
(Hart et al., 2000, p. 211). One of the advantages of the self-reporting questionnaire is that it
could be used to collect data without the help or assistance of the person conducting the
investigation or the experiment. A disadvantage to self-reporting is that self-reporting
creates bias opinions or experiences from its participants that could lead to errors in results.
A second methodological issue of the studies in the literature review is the lack of a null
hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis to the study. In order to understand and analyze
teacher morale, a hypothesis is needed because post data collection and testing will answer,
refute, prove, or reject a hypothesis or an inference into the subject.
A causal-comparative design for the research study on teacher morale is used to
explain why K-12 teachers who are a part of the K-12 school system and residential
treatment facility teachers who are not a part of the K-12 school system have high, low,

61. 49
moderately low, or moderately high morale levels between the two education settings. This
allowed for research inquiry into the contributory factors behind teacher morale and
conducting the statistical comparison between both levels of morale. This causal-
comparative research design included 10 subscale factors of teacher morale as independent
variables, (a) Teacher Rapport with Principal (b) Satisfaction with Teaching (c) Rapport with
Teachers, (d) Teacher Salary (e) Teacher Load (f) Curriculum Issues (g) Teacher Status (h)
Community Support of Education (i) School Facilities and Services (j) Community
Pressures, used against the dependent variable of teacher morale.
A causal-comparative design supports the research problem and research purpose in
an attempt to prove that 10 subscale factors of teacher morale influence high to moderately
low levels of morale. Using a causal-comparative design for the study opens up the
possibility establishing relationships between 10 subscale factors of teacher morale to teacher
morale. However, due to this possibility of a relationship, a causal-comparative design
allows for further research to determine if extraneous or confounding variables in the
education milieu determine high to moderately low levels of morale.
Synthesis of Research
One of the findings of the literature review shows teacher morale as a subject that is
not heavily discussed or acknowledged (Briggs & Richardson, 1992), however, the term
itself has multileveled tiers, multitude of meanings, and two-fold concept between
personality, professionalism, and job satisfaction (Mackenzie, 2007; Briggs & Richardson,
1992; Singh & Buddhisagar, 2009; Herzberg, 1987; Chandra & Singaravel, 2013). The
consensus across the literature is that morale is defined by a state of mind to that an
individual or group of individuals are disciplined to express their emotions and feelings or